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    TR55 Design Guidance For Strengthening Concrete Structures Using FRP

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    Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials Report of a Concrete Society Committee Structural Strengthening Using Fibre Composite Materials Balvac - Your Partners for Best Value Balvac continue to be at the forefont of developing new technologies for innovative strengthening systems, We can offer design and instalation services in a range of carbon and Kevlar® based composite systems, with an impressive portfolio of completad projects. n 1990 Balvac eh Wit Mae were the first company ever to camry out strengthening of aaa 8 cast ion bridge using bonded plates and subsequently in ‘oon 1999 were the first in the world to use pre-stressed carbon ae fioe plate bonding techniques to strengthen the deck of a ora se00 cast iron bridge, This project won the British Construction eee Matinee couk LRSM industry Award for Small Project ofthe Year. evita onuk you can’t beat know-how and practical experience! Concrete Repairs Ltd began installing CFRP systems in 1994 and has since completed ‘over 100 commercial contracts both in the UK, Europe and the Middle East. ‘The Company, also specialists in wet lay wrap systems, has installed more than 30 kilometres of unstressed and prestressed plates to strengthen all types and sizes of concrete, stec! and cast iron structures including buildings, bridges and power stations. Concrete Repairs Ltd is an Approved Contractor for a variety of fibre composites and in addition to installation provides a comprehensive design service, often incorporating custom-made fibre composites to meet unique strengthening requirements. Ais explained nour ‘Concept Realty brche. Request our copy ne (ax) CONCRETE L REPAIRS LIMITED Email: mail@conerete-repatrs.co.wk Website: wicw.concrete-repatrs.co.dk exehem externally bonded reinforcement systems TIX a _Carhofibe ‘Superior Strength Compared to Composite Fibre “Traditional Repair Methods + Cost Effective _* Quick Installation and Return to Service _ © Uni-Directional Fabrics “© Available as Pultruded Plates & Wrapping Systems * Advanced Epoxy Resin Technology For Free Technical Advice or _* Corrosion Resistant & Durable Information Pack, Call i = Steve Richards on: Typical Applications Bridges © Industrial Properties * CarParks A Consituction ~ d division of exchem plc. PO Box 7, Venture Crescent, Alfreton, Derbyshire DES TRE 773 607638. e-mail sleve.rchards@exchem.com: ‘website: wnrw.exchem.com the healthy option — eres le ee cctee) rir ees sue seu) Carbon, Glass and Aramid Fibre Technology Peru Mehra oot Seer) Oe cet ecncuc site uci Ceara Concrete reinforcement with composite strengthening systems from MBT MBI Feb is the sole supplier of DuPont's Kevlar® Aramtd Fibre Structural Reinforcement Systems in the UK and Ireland. Based on the Kevlar® aramid fibre used in the ballistics and motor sports industries, these bigh strength, bigh modulus, unidirectional sheet reinforcements are impact resistant and non-conductive, making them suitable for strengthening concrete and steel motorway columns and bridges (as recently used by the Highways Agency at Coopersale Lane Bridge, M11). Other properties include damage tolerance, chemical resistance, ease of handling and good drapability around the structure. swell athe confinement ea and BA serene ge es a ‘Eb koa om He uc Reinforcement system canbe used on ‘columns, water towers, ios and other ‘concrete or stel structures, Kevar® also ‘offers structural and bast strengthen for ‘masonry walls in industrial and. secure CCoolag towers are pasticualy swscepubie to damage caused. by deformation through wind loading, and Texas Uiliies asked engineers Allot! & Lomax to ‘monitor the condition of ts cooling towers at of West furton Power Sttion, near Retford. Tower Cl had been previously reinforced ia the mid1970s Dy strengthening its foundations with a ring of prestressing cables and then Consirucing. 430mm thick reinforced concrete guaive mantle on Is outer fice, However the shape and crack surveys Initiated by Allow & Lomax revealed that, the tower Was coatinuing to enick and Allo and Lomax’s solution involved two ‘Stage strengthening works which will extend the operating le of the tower by at least another 30 years, Firstly, reinforced conctece ving beams Hed to the boulside of the tower are designed t0 change the structunl behaviour of the tower, with the shell now spanning ventcally between sings that provide circuanferentialstifsess, minimising. the extra dead weight applied to the tower oundations. secondly, asthe reinforced conerete rings are tied into the existing shel and gunite a shell can develop high tensile stresses when the tower 4s under Wind fondling ‘To prevent cracking of the shell in these locations, Kevlar™ Aramid Thre was applied. Chosen for its high strength stifiness ight weight and robustness, the Kevlar™ Aramid Fibre was applied fom cradles, critically 4H durable enough (0 rise possible mechanical damage from Tutu cradle acess, The we of Kevin? at West Burin i ts frst application to 4 cooking tower in the world and sis fire major use on ssructure in Burope. MBraco® Carbon Fibre Composite Strengthening Systems MBI Feb ako offers Mace? Carbon Fibre Composite Strengthening systems, lesigned t0 provide low weight, high tensile strength, noneorrosive sructura reinforcement while adding minimal thikness. Unlike rig ystems, Mace can ‘be cut with a pair of scksors, making i fasy to bemdle’ on site Misace® Carbon [ibe System has tensilestengtn 10 times that of steel and can be used to treat excessive defection caused by change in we, construction o¢ design defects, code changes oF seismic ectrotit. For further information, contact: MET Feb, Aliany House, ‘Sinton Nall Road, Swinton, Manchester M27 ADT, Technical Sales Hotline 0161 7947411, ‘wwwanbbfeb.co.uk: _ Internationally renowned designers of CFRP Strengthening. Developing solutions for concrete structures worldwide. 4 inspection and Assessment © Feasibilities "i ‘you have a project to a coma , io Farmer _ composite section ———NaFames © Site supervision & Monitoring OTHER CONCRETE SOCIETY PUBLICATIONS ON REPAIR AND UPGRADING THE USE OF FIBRE COMPOSITES IN CONCRETE BRIDGES ‘Traditionally, concrete structures have been reinforced with stool bars or prestressed with steel wires or tendons. Interest {is growing in replacing stel with advanced composites rade of high modulus fibres embedded ina suitable resin generally known as FRPs (Fibre-Reinforced Plastics or Fibre-Reinforeed Polymers), They are also being used increasingly for repairing and strengthening concrete bridges. This new Technical Guide, writen by Dr John L Clarke, Principal Engineer, The Concrete Society, reviews the use ofthe materials inthe various applications, identifies suitable design approaches where these have been M, . (page 36) Pooling failure. (page 37) Characteristic bond failure foree vs anchorage length. (page 38) Beam and column shear reinforcement configurations. (page 40) Effective width of FRP. (page 41) dealised stress-strain curve for FRP-confined concrete. (page 43) ‘Comparison of stress-strain curves. (page 45) ‘Comparison of stress-strain curves. (page 45) Laps in columns. (page 46) Proposed confined concrete stress block for f, ~ 30 N/mm? based on BS 8110: Part I model. (page 47) Use of pull-out test to determine concrete strength. (page 49) Surface grinding. (page 50) Filling imperfections with quick-setting repair mortar. (page 50) Checking surface witha straightedge. (page 50) Pull-off specimen after removal from concrete surface. (page 51) Mixing adhesive. (page 51) Application of adhesive to concrete surface. (page 52) Application of adhesive layer onto fibre composite plate. (page 52) Ctting fabric. (page 52) Applying resin using roller. (page 52) Impregnation of fabric, (page 52) Installing FRP plates, using a roller to apply pressure. (page 53) ‘Wrapping fabric round an arched member. (page 53) Wrapping fabric round column. (page 53) Rolling fabri to consolidate layers. (page 53) Double lap shear test. (page 54) ‘Spray application of mortar over-coating. (page 55) 10 Concrete Society Technical Report $5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Fibre composites (or fibre-reinforced polymers, generally known as FRPs) have been used successfully for many years in the aerospace and automotive industries. ‘They are used in construction, for example as structural elements and for cladding. This Report does not consider such applications but deals only with a recent development, strengthening conerete structures by bonding fibre composites to the surface, Suitable fibres are made from carbon, aramids or glass. These may be used in the form of: + composite plates, made from fibres and epoxy resins which are fixed with epoxies to the soffits of beams and slabs + sheet materials, which are wrapped round columns and similar members + preformed shells, bonded round columns. Advantages The principal advantages of using composites over steel plates are their high strength and light weight; typical properties are given for commercially available materials. This makes installation simple and quick and eliminates the need for temporary support. The materials can be easily cut to length on site. The avai ability of long lengths and the flexibility of the materials also simplify installation because: + Laps and joints are not required, + ‘The material can take up irregularities in the shape of the concrete surface and can follow a curved profile. + The material can be readily installed behind existing services. * Overlapping, required when strengthening in two directions, is not a problem because the material is thin ‘These various factors in combination lead to a significantly simpler and quicker strengthening process than when using other methods. This is particularly important for bridges because of the high costs of ane closures and possession times on major highways and railway lines. An additional advantage of FRPs over some other types of strengthening is that the weight of the structure and the dimensions of the member are not significantly increased. The latter may be particularly important for bridges, tunnels and other structures with limited clearance. Disadvantages One disadvantage of FRP strengthening is the risk of fire, vandalism or accidental damage. For bridges over roads the risk of soffit reinforcement being hit by over- height vehicles should be considered. In general, some form of protection will be required. Examples of FRP strengthening ‘There are many concrete structures around the world which have been externally strengthened with FRP. The Report concentrates on applications in the UK. The floors of various buildings have been strengthened to carry additional loads and Strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials u FRP has been used in structural alterations. Columns have been strengthened in several multi-storey car-parks by wrapping with carbon fibre sheet. Several major highway bridges and a large number of small bridges have been strengthened using FRPS to increase their load capacity. Most applications have been n soffits but some bridges have had FRP bonded to the upper surface or around the columns. Other strengthening applications in the UK include lighthouses and cooling, towers; elsewhere in the world almost every type of conerete structure, from chimneys, to tunnels, has been strengthened. Design approach Fibre composites have a straight-line stress-strain response to ultimate with no yielding, Thus elastic methods of analysis with no redistribution are appropriate. For members in bending, the traditional design assumptions are still valid. However, further checks are required fo avoid peeling failure at the ends of the laminate and debonding from the concrete. If failure occurs, it will be in the outer layer of the concrete; the proposed, conservative, approach is to limit the longitudinal shear stress in the concrete at ultimate to 0.8 Nimm?. To minimise the tisk of debonding, the strain in the FRP should not exceed 0.8% when the applied load is uniformly distributed and 0.6% if combined high shear forces and bending ‘moments are present. A minimum anchorage length of 500 mm is recommended. FRP strips may be used to strengthen members in shear. The material may be treated as an external stirrup, again using traditional design assumptions but the strain in the FRP should be limited to 0.4%. Wrapping circular columns with FRP increases the axial load capacity as well as the bending and shear capacities. (Only limited increases are possible with square and rectangular columns.) Approachesare given which relate the enhanced ultimate stress and strain in the concrete to the degree of confinement, Workmanship and installation The installation of FRP materials must carried out correetly, to ensure good long- term performance. Detailed guidance is given, including the selection of the appropriate material and adhesive, adequate preparation of the concrete surface, application of the composite and correct curing of the adhesive. It is important that, the work is carried out by a suitably qualified contractor with suitably trained staff. Inspection and maintenance As strengthening with FRP is a relatively new technique, regular inspection and maintenance regimes should be set up. This is particularly important for buildings which, unlike bridges, are not generally subject to any form of routine inspection. Where practical, additional material should be installed, which can be removed at a later stage for testing. Information on the materials used, along with information on the actions to be taken in the event of damage to the FRP, should be included in the Health and Safety File. 2 Concrete Society Technical Report 55 1 INTRODUCTION Fibre composites have been successfully used for many years in the aerospace and automotive industries. They are also used in construction, for example, for structural elements, particularly in aggressive environments such as chemical plants, and for cladding, This Report does not consider such applications but deals only with a recent development, the strengthening of concrete structures with fibre composite materials bonded to the surface There are a number of situations where the load-carrying ‘capacity of a structure in service may need to be increased, such as change of loading or use, or where the structure has been damaged. In the past, strength would be increased cast- additional reinforced concrete or dowelling in additional inforcement. More recently, concrete structures have been strengthened by bonding steel plates to the surface of the tension zone with adhesives and bolts. Even more recently, the use of fibre reinforced polymer plates, generally contain- ing carbon fibres, has been developed using the same basi techniques as for ste! plate bonding. Fibre reinforced polymer plates have many advantages over steel plates in this application and they can be used in situations where it would be impossible or impractical to use steel: for instance, they can be formed in place into compli- cated shapes. Fibre reinforced polymers are lighter in weight ‘han steel plates of equivalent strength. This makes installa- tion much simpler and quicker and eliminates the need for ‘temporary support for the plates while the adhesive gains strength. Fibre reinforced polymers can also be easily cut fo length on site. ‘Some types of fibre are also available in the form of fabrics, which can be bonded to the concrete surface. The chief advantage of fabrics over plates is that they can be wrapped round curved surfaces, for example around columns or completely surrounding the sides and soffits of beams. ‘A sketch showing a wide range of strengthening applications toa hypothetical structure is shown in Figure 1 ‘An appreciable number of structures in the UK and elsewhere have been strengthened using fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) ‘materials and the rate at which the technique is being used is increasing rapidly, However, there is little independent ‘guidance on how the design of strengthening works should be carried out and no national standard or code of practice. The Figure 1: Difeent types of structural strengthening, applied to beams, slabs, walls and columns. lack of independent guidance is leading to a reluctance to adoptthe technique by some designers, specifiers and owners. This Concrete Society Technical Report sets out to address this problem. The guidance in this Report is not specific to any particular type of fibre reinforced polymer material or any particular strengthening technique. It covers the use both of manufae- tured composite materials bonded to the concrete surface and ‘composites formed in situ on the surface. The Report deals mainly with the design of strengthened members, i.e. beams, slabs and columns. Other aspects, such as currently available materials, appropriate application tech- niques and current uses, are described. Iti intended to cover the principles involved, not the detailed approaches that are applicable to individual materials and techniques. Further details of material properties and techniques can be obtained from materials suppliers and from specialist designers and contractors. The Report is specifically concemed with strengthening ‘concrete structures. Fibre composites have been successfully used fo strengthen metallic and other structures. The basic principles of this Report will still be applicable but the detailed design recommendations will not apply. To help readers unfamiliar with composites, a glossary of terms is given in Appendix A. ‘Swrengthening concrete structures using fbre composite materials B 2 BACKGROUND 2.1 PRINCIPLES OF STRENGTHENING A concrete structure may need strengthening for many reasons. Examples are: + To increase live-load capacity, e.g. ofa bridge subject to inereased vehicle loads or a building the use of which is to change from residential to commercial. + To add reinforcement to a member that has been under- designed or wrongly constructed. + To improve seismic resistance, either by providing more confinement to increase the strain capacity of the con- crete, of by improving continuity between members. + Toreplace or supplement reinforcement, e.g. damaged by impactor lost ue to corrosion. (This will only be practi- cal if the eause of the damage is identified and treated.) ‘+ To improve continuity, e.g. across joints between precast members, + To provide replacement reinforcement following struc- tural alterations, e.g. around holes cut through floor slabs for lift or star installation or through walls to accommo- date new services, In most cases it is only practical to increase the live-load capacity ofa structure, However, in some situations it may be possible to relieve dead load, by jacking and propping, prior to the application of the additional reinforcement. In these cases, the additional reinforcement will play its partin carey ing the structure’s dead load. Prestressing techniques using composite materials are being developed that will also help to carry part of the dead load. This approach is not covered in detail inthe design sections of this Report. ‘Three basic principles underlie the strengthening of concrete structures using fibre composite materials, which are the same imespective of the type of structure: ‘+ Increase the bending moment capacity of beams and slabs by adding fibre composite materials to the tensile face. + Increase the shear capacity of beams by adding fibre ‘composite materials to the sides in the shear tensile zone. + Increase the axial and shear capacity of columns by ‘wrapping fibre composite materials around the perimeter. 2.2 ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURES TO BE STRENGTHENED ‘The decision to strengthen a structure will come at the end of | what may be a prolonged assessment process. The process is. independent of structure type and should be based on rigorous criteria and sound engineering judgement. The assessment process will usually involve some investigation of the condition ‘of the structure or some re-analysis and study of the background issues. Guidance may be obtained from documents such as ‘Concrete Society Technical Report 54 Diagnosis of deterioration in conerete structures and the Institution of Structural Engineers’ Appraisal of existing structures. In all cases an experienced engineer should be part ofthe assessment team. ‘The process will usually be aimed at providing answers to some or al of the following questions: ‘+ Has the condition or load-carrying capacity of the struc- ture decreased significantly? ‘+ Has the loading changed significantly? ‘+ What are the risks to the public, to commerce and to the structure of taking no action? ‘+ Whatare the cost implications ofstrengthening, including direct costs, future costs and the cost of disruption while the work is carried out? ‘+ What are the cost implications of demolition and rebuild- ing, including direct costs, future costs, costs associated with loss of use of the structure and disruption while the work is carried out? ‘+ What is the anticipated future life of the structure in its present form? ‘+ Will inspection and maintenance be possible? + How would strengthening works affect local infrastrue- ture, commerce, safety and the environment? ‘+ Are any political issues involved? ‘+ What is the age of the structure and is it of historical importance? © What parties and auth approve the works? s would be required to ‘+ Are there any programming or funding constraints? By addressing these issues, decisions about the appropriate action fora particular structure can be made. In some cases strengthening will not be a sensible option, unless remedial work is carried out first. Examples are structures with significant materials problems, such as high chloride content leading to severe reinforcement corrosion ora week, honey- combed surface. ‘Once it has been decided that strengthening is a realistic ‘option and that the structure is suitable for strengthening, the next step isto identify an appropriate strengthening scheme. ‘The feasibility study should include consideration of the “4 Concrete Society Technical Report $5 points listed above in relation to possible schemes, such issues as whole-life costs ofthe various options and careful assessment of the residual life and strength ofthe structure. The risks associated with each option should be assessed during the feasibility study. This assessment should compare ‘the possible higher risks associated with new techniques with little history of long-term performance to those of older, tried and tested, methods. However, the benefits of newer tech- niques can outweigh this perceived disadvantage: the risks associated with premature failure ae low if strengthening is to be provided only for the live-load case. 2.3 STRENGTHENING SOLUTIONS ‘Strengthening solutions considered in a feasibility study can range from repair of a damaged structure in order to restore its original strength to adding elements to increase its capacity. Allsolutions are, toa greater or lesser extent, project-specific but some general approaches are commonly used. Repair typically involves crack injection and/or breaking out dam- aged areas and reinstating with cementitious repair mortars or flowing concrete. As stated above, this approach is used ‘where the aim isto restore the original strength of a structure, ‘A task group of the Conerete Bridge Development Group is reviewing various forms of strengthening which might be applied o conerete bridges. The most common techniques are as follows + Increase the reinforced concrete cross-section. This solution is usually readily accepted by approval authori- ties and owners of structures as it has a proven track record. However, loading restrictions are required while the concrete cures to an acceptable strength. This restric- tion may be critical in some instances ~ for example where a bridge closure would lead to unacceptable disruption. + Add prestressing to relieve dead load. Like increasing the cross-section, this technique has a proven track record and gains ready acceptance. Loading restrictions may be required daring installation, which may not be acceptable, This technique requires the existing structure to be capable of withstanding high local prestressing forces. + Use plate bonding to enhance tensile reinforcement of elements. Steel plate bonding has been widely used and can be considered to have a proven track record, Design guidance is given in the Highways Ageney Advice Note BA 30/94. Disadvantages of the technique are the weight and difficulty of handling the plates, difficulty in cutting to shape, the need to apply and maintain corrosion protection and to anchor the plates to the concrete section while avoiding damage to embedded reinforcement. As discussed above, access and installation times may be critical issues in some locations. Fibre composite plate bonding is being used more widely as a viable alternative to steel plate bonding because of the speed and ease of installation and the ease with which the material can be cut to shape and bent to fit curved surfaces. As the technique is relatively new, a proven long- term track record does not exist and this is seen as its main disadvantage. However, the basic technique and theadhesives are similar to those used for steel plates, which have been ‘widely and successfully applied. + Add material 1 provide confinement ofthe concretein compression members. This can be achieved by install- ing in situ reinforced concrete or prefabricated steel collars or wrapping the element with resin-bonded fibre composite material. The use of collars is the most com- ‘mon technique where space permits. The technique tends tobe readily accepted asthe increase inthe cross-section ean be clearly seen. With in situ reinforced concrete collars, loading restrictions on the structure are required while the conerete gains strength. In locations where space does not allow a significant increase in cross- section or where the installation time iscritical, wrapping with fibre composite material and resin isa viable option. ‘The advantages of fibre composites tend to outweigh the peroeived disadvantage of a lack of track record and the reluctance of some approval authorities and owners of structures to adopt new materials. 2.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FIBRE COMPOSITE ‘STRENGTHENING 2.4.1 Advantages Fibre composite strengthening materials have higher ultimate strength and lower density than steel. When taken together these two properties lead to fibre composites having a strengthvweight ratio higher than steel plate in some cases, (hough itis often not possible to use this fully). The lower weight makes handling and installation signifi- cantly easier than steel. This is particularly important when. installing material in cramped locations. Figure 2 shows carbon fibre plates being installed in a culvert with limited headroom. Figure 2: Installing fibre composite plates in a culver. ‘Strengthening concrete soructures using fibre composite materials as Work on soffits of bridges and building floor slabs can often be carried out from man-access platforms rather than full scaffolding, Stee! plate requires heavy lifting gear and must ‘beheld in place while the adhesive gains strength. Bolts must be fitted through the steel plate into the parent concrete to support the plate while the adhesive cures and to reduce the effects of peeling at the ends. On the other hand, the applica- tion of FRP plate or sheet material has been likened to applying wallpaper; once it has been rolled on carefully to remove entrapped air and excess adhesive it may be left unsupported. In general, no bolts are required; infact, the use of bolts would seriously weaken the material unless additional cover plates are bonded on, Furthermore, because there is no need to drill into the structure to fix bolts or other mechanical anchors there is no risk of damaging the existing reinforce- ment. Fibre composite materials are available in very long lengths while steel plate is generally limited to 6m. The avail- ability of long lengths and the flexibility of the material (see Figure 3) also simplify installation: ‘+ Laps and joints are not required + The material can take up irregularities in the shape ofthe conerete surface + The material can follow a curved profile; steel plate would have to be pre-bent to the required radius ‘+The material can be readily installed behind existing services (see Figure 4) + Overlapping, required when strengthening in two direc tions, isnot a problem because the material is thin (see Figure 5), Figure 3: Installing FRP plate, showing the flexibilty of the materia, ‘The materials ~ fibres and resins ~ are durable if correctly specified, and require litte maintenance. If they are damaged in service, itis relatively simple to repair them, by adding an additional layer. ‘The use of fibre composites does not significantly increase the weight ofthe structure or the dimensions of the member. ‘The later may be particularly important for bridges and other structures with limited headroom and for tunnels. In terms of environmental impact and sustainability, studies have shown that the energy required to produce FRP materials. is less than that for conventional materials. Because of their light weight, the transport of FRP materials has minimal environmental impact. Figure 5: Ovetlapped carbon FRP plates on Dudley Port Bridge, West Midlands. ‘These various factors in combination lead to a significantly simpler and quicker strengthening process than when using steel plate. This is particularly important for bridges because of the high costs of lane closures and possession times on, ‘major highways and railway lines. Ithas been estimated that about 90% of the market for plate strengthening in Switzer land has been taken by carbon plate systems as a result of these factors. 242 Disadvantages ‘The main disadvantage of externally strengthening structures with fibre composite materials isthe risk of fie, vandalism or accidental damage, unless the strengthening is protected. A particular concer for bridges over roads isthe risk of soffit reinforcement being hit by over-height vehicles (‘bridge bashing’). However, strengthening using plates is generally provided to carry additional live load and the ability of the unstrengthened structure to carry its own self-weight is un- impaired (see also Section 2.7). Damage tothe plate strength- ening material only reduces the overall factor of safety and is unlikely to lead to collapse, Experience of the long-term durability of fibre composites is not yet available. This may be a disadvantage for struc- tures for which a very long design life is required (see 16 Concrete Society Technical Report 53 ‘Section 2.5) but can be overcome by appropriate monitoring (see Chapter 10). A perceived disadvantage of using FRP for strengthening is the relatively high cost of the materials, However, comparisons should be made on the basis of the complete strengthening exercise (see Section 2.6); in certain cases the costs can be less than that of steel plate bonding. A disadvantage in the eyes of many clients will be the lack of experience of the techniques and suitably qualified staff to ‘carry out the work. Finally, a significant disadvantage is the lack of accepted design standards; this Report aims to tackle this aspect. 2.5 DESIGN LIFE A draft Highways Agency Interim Advice Note on Sirength- ening concrete bridge supports using fibre reinforced plastic‘ uses 30 years for the design life ofa fibre composite strengthening system. This figure is considered reasonable, based on current experience of the adhesives used in steel plate bonding. There is considerable experience of the use of adhesives in other applications, such as marine structures, which would suggest a design life of at least 40 years. Ideally, the design life for the strengthening system should be related to the remaining life of the structure and should take into account the future plans for the structure, In many cases, iffa mature structure is to be strengthened, a 30 year life for a strengthening system may well be appropriate. However, this ‘may not be the case for structures with long design lives, such as bridges and nuclear structures. Here, it may be necessary to accept a strengthening system with a design life less than the anticipated remaining life of the structure, on the under- standing that the life of the strengthening system will be reassessed at a future date. Because of the relative lack of long-term experience of the performance of fibre composite strengthening systems, regu- lar inspection and maintenance regimes should be instigated. This is particularly important for buildings which, unlike bridges, are not generally subjected to any form of routine inspection, Where practical, additional material should be installed, which can be removed at a later stage for testing, This approach has been adopted on a number of structures including the Bames Bridge in Manchester and the John Hart Bridge in British Columbia, see Section 4.3. It may be possible to incorporate some form of monitoring system inthe fibre composite. 2.6 2.6.1 ECONOMICS Installation The relative economies of the use of fibre composites and other strengthening systems depend on the circumstances. Many factors are involved, and itis necessary to compare costs both in the short and long term. The latter may be difficult to quantify as the life-time behaviour can only be estimated fairly crudely Factors such as the cost of access and possession time should be taken into account as they can have a significant influence. High closure costs are often incurred by highway works. For example, up-grading of a major highway in New York Ci had to be carried out at night as there was a requirement for the road to be fully open during the day. The penalty for failure to reopen the carriageway inthe morning was $30,000 per hour, with a penalty of $20,000 per day for over-run of the complete project. Studies carried out for Railtrack have indicated that strength- ning with FRP materials wll be approximately 30% cheaper than the equivalent strengthening using steel plate. ‘Some economic considerations for particular applications are reported in later chapters. Unfortunately, the information is largely qualitative, but can be used for guidance when investigating the economies of a situation, Examples of economics In Florida, the beam-column connections in a parking ‘garage were strengttiened by bonding carbon fibre sheet ‘material to the sides ofthe beams. It was estimated that the adhesively bonded repair was 35% cheaper than the conventional method, which would have involved dowelling in additional steel reinforcement and encasing the joint with additional concrete. In Edmonton, Canada, carbon fibre reinforced polymer composite sheet material was applied to the soffits and sides of a bridge, to improve its shear resistance. The ‘cost was reported as $70,500 for strengthening the com- plete bridge. A conventional extemal stirrup system was estimated to cost some $100,000. Thus the bonded sotu- tion showed approximately 30% saving in costs, duie chiefly to the fact that the work was carried out from below the bridge and avoided the traffic closures that ‘would have been required for the conventional system. Beams of the Maryland Street Bridge in Winnipeg, Canada, were strengthened with vertical and horizontal sheets of carbon fibre to increase the shear capacity. Itwas ‘estimated that the cost was about 70% ofthe conventional approach, which would have involved removing parts of the bridge deck, installing post-tensioned external shear stirrups and casting additional conerete round the beams. ‘This comparison was on the basis of direct costs and did not consider factors such as traffic delays. ‘A.100 m-high chimney in Japan was wrapped with carbon fibre, The work was carried out in one month, while the traditional approach using stee! bands would have taken six months, 2.6.2 Whole-life costing ‘The technique of whole-tife costing can play an important part in making decisions on when and how to repair or strengthen concrete structures. This is recognised in ENV 1504 Part 9 which lists among the factors to be considered wheri choosing between repair options: + The number and cost of repair cycles acceptable during the design life of the concrete structure Strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite materials ” + The cost and funding of the altemative protection or repair options, including future maintenance and access costs. The whole-life cost ofa repair or strengthening solution isthe sum of the initial (installation) cost and the future (main- tenance) costs over the remaining life of the structure. To permit meaningful comparisons to be made, future costs are discounted to present day value. To carry outa life-cycle cost analysis requires an understanding of: + Deterioration processes as they relate to the particular structure or different parts of the structure + Repair and strengthening methods and their durability + Costs of repair or strengthening and maintenance activi- ties + Indirect costs due to loss of service + The owner's requirements for the serviceability and service life ofthe structure. In many cases, the basic data to permit reasonable assess- rents ofthe various elements which make up the whole-lfe cost are not available. Nonetheless, it can be appreciated that strengthening using fibre composites can be competitive in ‘whole-life cost comparisons because both installation and maintenance costs are usually lower than those of competing techniques and possession times are shorter, Prolonging the useful life of structures which will still be required for a long time into the future (e.g. road or rail bridges) becomes an attractive proposition in whole-tife cost terms, This is because, if replacement can be delayed for ‘many years, the cost at present day value is considerably reduced. For example, ifa discount rate of 8% is assumed, a cost of 1,000,000 at year 20 has a present day value of only £200,000. Itcan be more economic, in whole-life cos terms, to strengthen now and replace in 20 years, than to replace (One factor which is dfficultto take into account in whole-fe costings is the time until the structure becomes obsolete. This ‘may happen for physical, economic, functional, technological, orlegalreasons. This uncertainty can lead tothe lowest initial cost option being favoured on the basis that there is, little 19 be gained from additional spending now, if the structure is unlikely tobe required in its present form inten years. 2.7 LEVEL OF STRENGTHENING ‘A key factor inthe choice of strengthening system will be the level of strengthening (ie. the maximum increase in load capacity) that can be achieved. Strengthening against one mode of failure (e.g. bending) may increase the probability of. ‘occurrenee of another mode (eg. shear). This must be ‘considered in the design process. In addition, account must be taken of the risks associated with any possible partial or complete failure of the strengthening. Because of the lack of long-term experience of fibre composite strengthening, some clients are recommending that the approach is only used to increase the factor of safety against collapse, ie. in the event of failure of the composite, the structure would not collapse. 18 Concrete Society Technical Report 55 3 MATERIAL TYPES AND PROPERTIES 3.1 INTRODUCTION Fibre composites are formed from high performance fibres combined with an appropriate resin. For strengthening applications, the composite may be preformed into plates or panels and bonded to the concrete, The most common «example is composite plates bonded tothe soffits of beams or slabs, Alternatively, the fibres may be combined with the resin in situ as part ofthe application process, such as in the wrapping of columns. The mechanical properties of fibre composites ate chiefly controlled by the type, amount, orientation and distribution of fibres in the cross-section. The role ofthe resin isto transfer stresses to and from the fibres and also to provide some protection from the environment. This Chapter provides a general introduction tothe fibres and resins used for strengthening. For further information on the properties and behaviour of composites, the reader should consult standard textbooks, such as An introduction to composite materials" and Composite materials: engineering and science. 3.2 B21 FIBRES ‘Types of fibre ‘The most suitable fibres for strengthening applications are ‘glass, carbon or aramid. (Aramids are better known by the ‘trade names Kevlar® and Twaron.) Each is a family of fibre types and not a particular one, Typical values for the proper- ties of fibres are given in Table 3.1. It should be noted that these values are forthe fibres alone, not for fibre composites. ‘The strength and modulus for manufactured composites will, bbe lower, see Sections 3.4 and 3.5. The values in Table 3.1 should only be taken as indicative; where necessary, actual values should be obtained from the manufacturer. The fibres all have a linear elastic response up to ultimate load, with no ‘Table 3.1: Typical fibre properties. significant yielding. Details of some available materials are given in Appendix B. 32.2 Performance of different types of fibre The selection of the type of fibre to use in a particular application will depend on many factors — the type of strue- ture, the expected loading, the environmental conditions, and so on, Some information is given in this section; further advice can be obtained from the suppliers of strengthening ‘materials, Throughout, the comments referto the performance of the fibre itself in most situations this will be modified by the resin or adhesive. Chemical resistance Carbon and aramid fibres are resistant to most forms of chemical attack. Many types of glass fibre are attacked by alkalies (pH greater than about 11) but not by acids. Aramids, absorb much more water than either of the other two fibres, which can cause problems with the resin/fibre interface ‘There is some evidence to suggest that, in the presence of salts, fracture of all types of fibre can occur due to the formation of angular crystals. Resistance to ultraviolet light Glass and carbon fibres are not affected by ultraviolet light. Aramid fibres change colour under ultraviolet light and the strength is reduced. However, when embedded in aresin matrix this degradation only occurs near the outer surface and there is litle effect on the overall mechanical properties. (Direct expo- ssure to sunlight can embrittleall resins and a protective paint is normally recommended if direct exposure is likely.) Electrical conductivity Aramid and glass fibres are non-conducting and hence are suitable for use close to power lines, railway lines and com- ‘munications facilities, 7 “Tense strength Bib (ram) arbon high stength* 4300-4900 Carbon: high modulat | 240-s:90 Carbon: ultra high modulust esocatol “Aramid: high srength and high modutust | 3200-3600 | Gas 2100-2500 | Modulus ofetastity | Elongation | sin gong avin) | 0 me 230-240 1921 | 18 pres one L181 540-640 0408 Loran 124-130 1 24 144 70-85 3547 26 ‘© Based on polyacryontile precursor + Based on pitch precursor Aramids with the same strength but a lower modulus are available but are not used in structural strengthening applications. ‘Strengthening concrete structures using bre composite materials » ‘Carbon fibres conduct electricity, but standards have been issued in Japan for the use of carbon FRP strengthening materials in railway applications close to power lines. They ‘must be electrically isolated from any steel reinforcement; in general the resin will be sufficient for this. Care is needed when handling or cutting carbon FRP close to electrical ‘equipment due to the risk of short-circuit by airborne par- ticles. (See Health and safety below.) In addition, when used close to powerlines ete, steps must be taken to ensure tht, in the unlikely event of adhesive failure, the composite does not come into contact with the electrical source. Compressive strength The compressive strengths of carbon and glass fibres are close to their tensile strengths; that of aramid is significantly lower. Stiffness ‘The elastic modulus of carbon fibre is similar to, or signifi- cantly greater than, that of steel. The stiffness of aramid is lower and that of glass significantly lower. Impact resistance Performance of fibres during impact is highly dependent on the elastic strain energy generated and absorbed. Fibres combining high strength with high elongation (tensile strength greaterthan 3,500N/mm: and elongation greater than 2%) are most suitable for applications where impact resistance is, important, Selected grades of carbon, aramid and glass fibre ccan meet these requirements. Fire Glass fibres retain strength up to their melting point (over 1000°C) while carbon fibres oxidise in air above 650°C. ‘Aramid fibres are not normally used above 200°C. None of the fibres will support combustion. In composites, the resi behaviour will dominate performance; most generate toxi ‘smoke. Health and safety All fibres present negligible risk to human health in normal use. However, care must be taken when cutting and machin- ing all composites, because fine fibre particles may iritate skin, eyes and mucous membranes. In addition, care must be taken when handling resins. Reference should be made to the COSHH Regulations “and to manufacturer’s data sheets. Suitable protective clothing worn should be wor. See also Section 9.1 It has been suggested that the release of fibres following impact on carbon fibre composite may represent a health hazard‘"?, However, carbon is not listed as carcinogenic by bodies such as the World Health Organisation, Limited tests fon animals have suggested that the effects, if any, are less than those of asbestos. Environmental aspects ‘Aramid, glass and carbon fibres are all non-toxic and inert, and are not considered to be hazardous as waste. For landfill, disposal, they do not contain any substance that could leach ‘out to contaminate the groundwater or the air. For incinera- tion, the matrix in composites may present a problem. In addition, incineration of carbon materials may release fine electically-conductve particles into the ar Various approaches are being developed for reeyeling composites, mainly involving grinding the material to form a filler in new composites. 3.3 FABRICS Fabrics are available in two basic forms: + Sheet material, either fibrés (generally unidirectional, ‘though bi-axial and tri-axial arrangements are available) ‘on a removable backing sheet or woven rovings. ‘+ Fibres pre-impregnated with resin (‘prepreg’ material), which is cured once in place, by the application of heat or by other means. ‘The selection of the appropriate fabric depends on the application. ‘The properties of the sheet materials depend on the amount ‘and type of fibre used. An additional consideration is the arrangement of the fibres; parallel lay gives unidirectional properties while a woven fabric has two-dimensional proper- ties. In woven fabrics, perhaps 70% of the fibres are in the ‘strong’ direction and 30% in the transverse direction. It should be noted thatthe kinking of the fibres in the woven material significantly reduces the strength. The thickness of the material may be as low as 0.1 mm (withthe fibres fixed to 1a removable backing sheet) and is available in widths of ‘500 mm or more. 3.4 PLATES Unidirectional plates are usually formed by the pultrusion process. Fibres, in the form of continuous rovings, are drawn off in a carefully controlled pattern through a resin bath, ‘which impregnates the fibre bundle. They are then pulled through a die which consolidates the fibre-resin combination and forms the required shape. The die is heated which sets and cures the resin, allowing the completed composite to be drawn off by reciprocating clamps or a tension device. The process enables a high proportion of fibres (generally about {65%) to be incorporated in the cross-section. Hence, in the longitudinal direction, relatively high strength and stiffness, are achieved, approximately 65% of the relevant figures in Table 3.1. Because most, if not all, of the fibres are in the Tongitudinal direction, the transverse strength will be very Tow. Plates formed by pultrusion are 1-2 mm thick and are supplied in a variety of widths, typically between 50 and 100 mm, As pultrusion is @ continuous process, very long lengths of material are available, Thinner material is provided in the form of a coil, with a diameter of about | m, as shown in Figure 6, It can be easily cut to length on site using a simple guillotine, see Figure 7. Plates can also be produced using the prepreg process, which js widely used to produce components for the aerospace and automotive industries. Typically plates have a fibre volume 20 Concrete Society Technical Report $5 Figure 6: Coil of carbon FRP plate fraction of 55% and can incorporate 10% fibres (usually glass aligned at an angle of 45° to the longitudinal axis) to improve the handling strength. Lengths up to 12 m can be produced, with the width and thickness being tailored to the particular application. Widths up to 1.25 m have been produced and thicknesses up to 30 mm, 3.5 PREFORMED SHELLS FOR COLUMN CONFINEMENT Preformed shells have been used to strengthen columns on a number of structures in North America. For a circular column, the most appropriate manufacturing process is probably filament winding. Resin-impregnated fibres are wound round a mandrel, in the pattern required to give the required hoop and longitudinal properties. Once fully cured, the cylindrical shell is removed from the mandrel and cut longitudinally so that it ean be bonded round the column, Alternatively, shells ean be formed, by hand lay-up or other processes, on the inside or outside of a suitable mould, Shells for strengthening columns on the New Jersey Turnpike were manufactured using a vacuum infusion process ?. A resin- rich outer skin was provided to improve the resistance to sunlight and salt water. In general, the internal diameter ofthe shell should be close to that of the extemal diameter of the column, to keep the increase in the overall diameter to a minimum. However, on the New Jersey Turpike, shells were installed with a clear- ance of between 50 and 150 mm from the concrete surface, which was late filled with grout. Because of the cost of fabricating mandrels or moulds, this approach is only likely tobe cost-effective when a large number of identical columns arebeing strengthened, such asin multi-span bridges or mult storey buildings. t Figure 7: Cutting carbon FRP plate on site, ‘The strength and stiffness of the shel inthe hoop and vertical

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