UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

FCE545 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING IIIA

Course Lecture Notes for Students

Compiled by
George P.K. MATHERI

October 2021

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SYLLABUS

The course syllabus is outlined below:

FCE 545 - Transportation Engineering IIIA (45 hrs)

Traffic data analysis. Traffic growth and forecasting. Traffic distribution and assignment.
Traffic stream characteristics. Traffic flow modelling.
Principles of regional and urban transportation planning.
Elements of manoeuvre areas. Intersection design.
Urban traffic management and parking Studies.
Traffic signals.
Highway plan appraisal.
Introduction to elements of transportation technology.

1.2 Recommended References

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 FCE545 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING IIIA

CONTENTS

Chapter Description Page

1 PRINCIPLES OF URBAN AND REGIONAL TRANSPORT PLANNING 7

1.1 Definition and Scope 7

1.2 Interdependence of the Land Use and Traffic 7

1.3 Systems Approach to Transport Planning 8

1.4 Stages in Transport Planning 9

1.4.1 Survey and Analysis of Existing Conditions 10
1.4.2 Forecast, Analysis of Future Conditions and Plan Synthesis 12
1.4.3 Evaluation 12
1.4.4 Programme Adoption and Implementation 12
1.4.5 Continuing Study 12
1.4.6 Citizen Participation 13

1.5 Difficulties in the Transport Planning Process 13

1.6 Comprehensive Transport Planning 13

1.6.1 Redefining the Objective 13
1.6.2 The 'Carrot' and the 'Stick' 13
1.6.3 Comprehensive Planning 14
1.6.4 The Transportation Study 14
1.6.5 The Planning Process under Comprehensive Transport Planning 15

1.7 Summary 15

2 TRANSPORTATION STUDY AND DEMAND FORECASTING 16

2.1 Definition of the Study Area 16

2.2 Dividing the Study Area into Zones 17

2.3 Defining the Networks 18

2.4 Data Requirements 19

2.5 Surveys 21
2.5.1 Household Interview Survey (HI Survey) 21
2.5.2 Roadside Interview Survey (RI Survey) 22
2.5.3 Employment Survey 22
2.5.4 Commercial Vehicle Survey (CV Survey) 22
2.5.5 Public Transport Surveys (PT Surveys) 23
2.5.6 Inventory Surveys 23
2.5.7 Parking Surveys 23
2.5.8 Census Data 24
2.5.9 Summary 24

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 2.6 Trip Generation 24
2.6.1 Definitions 24
2.6.2 Trip Purpose 25
2.6.3 Factors Governing Trip Generation and Attraction Rates 26
2.6.4 Multiple Linear Regression Analysis 26
2.6.5 Category Analysis 27

2.7 Trip Distribution 28

2.7.1 What is Trip Distribution 28
2.7.2 Method of Trips Distribution 29
2.7.3 Uniform (Constant) Factor Method 30
2.7.4 Average Factor Method 30
2.7.5 Fratar Method 31
2.7.6 Furness Method 32
2.7.7 Criticism of Growth Factor Methods 32
2.7.8 Gravity Model 32
2.7.9 Tanner's Model 39
2.7.10 Opportunity Model 39

2.8 Traffic Assignment 40

2.8.1 Purpose of Traffic Assignment 40
2.8.2 General Principles 40
2.8.3 Assignment Techniques 41
2.8.4 All-or-nothing Assignment 41
2.8.5 Multiple Route Assignment 42
2.8.6 Capacity Restraint Assignment 43
2.8.7 Diversion Curves 43

2.9 Modal Split 44

2.9.1 General Considerations 44
2.9.2 Factors Affecting Modal Split 44
2.9.3 Modal Split in the Transport Planning Process 45

2.10 Evaluation 45
2.10.1 Need for Evaluation 45
2.10.2 Several Plans to be Formulated 45
2.10.3 Testing 46
2.10.4 Considerations in Evaluation 46
2.10.5 Economic Evaluation 46

3 THEORY OF TRAFFIC FLOW 47

3.1 Scope, Definitions and Basic Diagram of Traffic Flow 47

3.1.1 Scope 47
3.1.2 Some Definitions 47
3.1.3 Relationships between the Variables 47
3.1.4 Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow 48
3.1.5 Linear Relationship between Speed and Concentration 49

3.2 Lighthill and Whitham's Theory 52

4 ELEMENTS OF TRAFFIC FLOW MODELLING 71

4.1 Introduction 71

4.2 Introduction Traffic Analysis 71

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 4.3 Traffic Flow, Speed, and Density 72

4.4 Basic Traffic Stream Models 73

4.4.1 Speed-Density Model 73
4.4.2 Flow-Density Model 74
4.4.3 Speed-Flow Model 75

4.5 Models of Traffic Flow 76

4.5.1 Poisson Models 77
4.5.2 Limitations of Poisson Models 80

4.6 Traffic Analysis at Highway Bottlenecks 80

5 LEVEL OF SERVICE ANALYSIS 82

5.1 Introduction 82

5.2 Defining Level of Service (LoS) 82

5.3 Basic Elements of LoS Analysis 85

5.4 Basic Freeway Segments 86

5.4.1 Service Flow Rates and Level of Service 88
5.4.2 Lane Width and/or Lateral Clearance Adjustment 89
5.4.3 Heavy Vehicle Adjustment 90
5.4.4 Driver Population Adjustment 93
5.4.5 Freeway Traffic Analysis 94

5.5 Multilane Rural and Suburban Highways 96

5.5.1 Free-Flow Speed Determination 98
5.5.2 Service Flow Rate Determination 103

5.6 Rural Two-Lane Highways 105

5.6.1 Ideal Conditions for Two-lane Highways 105
5.6.2 Determination of Service Flow for Two-lane Highways 105
5.6.3 Worked Examples 107

5.7 Design Traffic Volumes 109

5.8 Pedestrian and Bicycle Facilities 115

5.8.1 Background 115
5.8.2 Pedestrian-Flow Models 115

6 INTERSECTION DESIGN 116

6.1 General 116

6.2 Basic Forms of Intersections and Definition of Terms 116

6.2.1 T intersection 116
6.2.2 Staggered Intersection 116
6.2.3 Rotary Intersection (Roundabout) 116
6.2.4 At-Grade Junctions 117
6.2.5 At-grade intersections 117
6.2.6 Grade Separated Junctions 118

6.3 Alignment and Vertical Profile 119

6.4 The Design Vehicle 120

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 6.4.1 Definition 120
6.4.2 Types of design vehicles 120
6.4.3 Summary of Standards for Dimensions of Vehicles 120
6.4.4 Axle loads and weights of vehicles 121
6.4.5 Selection of the design vehicle 121
6.4.6 Design speed 122

6.5 Visibility at Intersections 123

6.5.1 Rural road intersections 123
6.5.2 Urban road intersections 125

6.6 Radii of Curves 127

6.6.1 Sharpest turn curves for minimum speed 127
6.6.2 Minimum design for turning roadways 128
6.6.3 Curves designed for different speeds 129
6.6.4 Speed change lanes 130
6.6.5 Right-turn (Storage) lanes 130
6.6.6 Widths of carriageways in junctions 131

6.7 Channelization 131

6.7.1 Median openings 137

6.8 Roundabouts (Rotary Intersections) 138

6.8.1 Definition of terms 138
6.8.2 Advantages of rotary intersections 139
6.8.3 Disadvantages of rotary intersections 139
6.8.4 Guidelines for selecting a rotary type of intersection 140
6.8.5 Shape of Rotary Island 140
6.8.6 Mini roundabouts 141

6.9 Grade Separated Intersections 143

6.9.1 Criteria for provision 143
6.9.2 Types of grade-separated intersections 144
6.9.3 Design considerations 149

7 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT 150

7.1 Introduction 150

7.2 Travel Demand Management 150

7.3 Traffic Management 150

7.3.1 Scope of Traffic Management Measures 150
7.3.2 Restrictions of turning movements 151
7.3.3 One-way Streets 152
7.3.4 Tidal flow operation 153
7.3.5 Closing Side-streets 154
7.3.6 Exclusive Bus Lanes 155

8 PARKING AND TERMINAL FACILITIES 156

8.1 Introduction 156

8.2 Ill-effects of Parking 156

8.3 Parking Policies 156

8.4 Zoning and Parking Space Requirement Standards 157

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 8.5 On-street Parking Facilities 159
8.5.1 Common methods of on-street parking 159
8.5.2 Traffic Regulatory Measures for On-street Parking 160

8.6 Off-street Parking Facilities 161

8.6.1 Surface car parks 162
8.6.2 Multi-storey car parks 163
8.6.3 Roof parks 164
8.6.4 Mechanical car parks 165
8.6.5 Underground car parks 165

8.7 Peripheral Parking Schemes 166

8.8 Loading and Unloading Facilities 167

8.8.1 Bus-bays 167
8.8.2 Commercial traffic 167
8.8.3 Truck Terminals 167
8.8.4 Long Distance Bus Terminals 168

8.9 Parking Surveys 169

8.9.1 Parking Space Inventory 169
8.9.2 Parking Usage Survey 169
8.9.3 Questionnaire Type Parking Usage Survey 169
8.9.4 Cordon Count 170

8.10 Parking Design for Automobiles 170

8.10.1 Terminology used in Parking Design 170
8.10.2 Curb Parking 171
8.10.3 Off-Street Parking 172

8.11 Characteristics of Parking Supply and Demand 174

8.11.1 Forecasting Parking Demands 175
8.11.2 Analysis of Parking Facilities 176
8.11.3 Parking Accumulation Analysis 177

8.12 Benefits of Good Parking Management 180

9 TRAFFIC SIGNALS 181

9.1 Introduction 181

9.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Traffic Signals 181

9.3 Definitions 181

9.3.1 Types of signals 181
9.3.2 Pedestrian signals indications 182
9.3.3 Flashing amber. 182

9.4 Components of a Signal System 182

9.4.1 Signal Face 182
9.4.2 Illumination of the Signals 184
9.4.3 Number and Location of Signal Faces 184

9.5 Elements of a Signal Timing System 185

9.6 Warrants for Signals 186

9.7 Timing Schemes: Fixed-Time Vs Vehicle-Actuated Signals 186

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 9.8 Signal Timing for Pre-timed Isolated Signals 187
9.8.1 Homburger and Kell’s method 187
9.8.2 Webster’s Method 187
9.8.3 Pignataro’s method 202

9.9 Vehicle-Actuated Signals 202

9.9.1 Differentiating between pre-timed and Vehicle-actuated signals 202
9.9.2 Vehicle-Actuated Signals 203
9.9.3 Types of Actuated Control 203
9.9.4 Detection for Actuated Signalization 204

9.10 Coordinated Traffic Signals 204

9.10.1 Need for co-ordinated control 204
9.10.2 Off-set 205
9.10.3 Time-and distance diagram 205
9.10.4 Types of co-ordinated signal system 207

9.11 Signal Approach Dimensions 208

9.12 Area Traffic Control 210

9.12.1 Introduction 210
9.12.2 Traffic control methods 211
9.12.3 Combination method 211
9.12.4 TRANSYT method (Traffic Analysis Study Tool) 211
9.12.5 FLEXIPROG (Flexible progressive) 211
9.12.6 EQUISAT (Equally Saturated) 212
9.12.7 PLIDENT (Platoon Identification) 212
9.12.8 SPG (Signal Plan Generation) 212
9.12.9 SCOOT (Split Cycle Offset Options Technique) 212

9.13 Delay at Signalised Intersections 212

10 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF TRANSPORTATION PLANS 214

10.1 Need for Economic Evaluation 214

10.2 Costs and Benefits of Transport Project 214

10.2.1 Cost. 214
10.2.2 Benefits 215
10.2.3 Taxes 217

10.3 Time Horizon in Economic Assessment 217

10.4 Basic Principles of Economic Evaluation 217

10.5 Interest Rate 218

10.6 Methods of Economic Evaluation 219

10.6.1 Benefit-Cost Ratio Method 219
10.6.2 First Year Rate of Return 220
10.6.3 Net Present Value Method (NPV) 222
10.6.4 Internal Rate of Return Method 225
10.6.5 Comparison of the Various Methods of Economic Evaluation 225

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1 PRINCIPLES OF URBAN AND REGIONAL TRANSPORT PLANNING

1.1 Definition and Scope

Transport planning is a science that seeks to study the problems that arise in providing
transportation facilities in an urban, regional or national setting and to prepare a
systematic basis for planning such facilities. The principles of urban transport planning
can be applied to regional or national transport planning as well with due changes
wherever called for.

Town and County Planning is a science that deals with the study of the urban or county
"system" covering the interacting activities using adapted spaces linked by
communications through channels. Transport planning is an important part of overall
town and county planning, since it deals with the transport network which is an
important channel of communications.

Motor vehicles have revolutionized life and brought comfort, pleasure and convenience,
they have created problems of congestion, lack of safety and degeneration of the
environment. To understand the nature of these problems and formulate proposals for
the safe and efficient movement of goods and people from one place to another is the
subject of transport planning.

1.2 Interdependence of the Land Use and Traffic

Mitchell and Rapkin (1954) made a statement that urban traffic was a function of land
use. Various kinds of activities based on the land (called land use), "generated" different
amounts and kinds of traffic. Though measures such as (i) regulation and control of
traffic and (ii) provision and improvement of physical channels of movement, were
effective in dealing with urban traffic, the most basic level of action for a long-run
solution of the traffic problems is the planning, guidance and control in the pattern
of land use.

Buchanan (1963) also emphasised the inter-relationship between traffic and

buildings in a town. He stated that in towns, traffic takes place because of buildings,
and all movements in a town have an origin and destination in a building. The pattern
traced by traffic is therefore related to the manner in which buildings are arranged.
Commuter flows are closely dependent upon the location and size of the workplaces
and of the home areas, just as school traffic is governed by the location of the schools
and the home areas.

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 Figure 1-1 The Land Use-Transportation Cycle

Just as transport is a function of land-use, the reciprocal statement that land-use is a

function of transport is also true. As new systems of transport are built, the land-use
pattern that follows has a close relation to the accessibility that has been made
possible.

1.3 Systems Approach to Transport Planning

Operations Research finds interesting applications in Transport Planning. It is mainly

concerned with optimising the performance of a "system"; which is defined as a
complex whole, an organized whole, consisting of set of connected things or parts,
whose components and interconnections are vital to the operation of the system.

The processes involved in the systems approach in transport planning can be

represented by the Figure below.

Figure 1-2 Systems Approach to Transport Planning

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 The transport planning process starts with the decision to adopt planning as a tool for
achieving certain desired goals and objectives. After the goals and objectives are
defined, solutions are generated, taking due cognizance of problems, constraints,
potentials and forecasting. These solutions are evaluated after thorough analysis. The
best amongst them is chosen for implementation. After implementation, the system is
studied in operation and its performance assessed. Based on this assessment it may be
necessary to go back to certain stages of planning and repeat the sequence-

1.4 Stages in Transport Planning

It will be seen that the transport planning process can be broken down to five important
stages:

1. Survey and analysis of existing conditions

2. Forecast, analysis of future conditions and plan synthesis
3. Evaluation
4. Programme adoption and implementation
5. Continuing study.

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 Figure 1-3 Stages in the Transport Planning Process

1.4.1 Survey and Analysis of Existing Conditions

The survey area is defined and divided into smaller units, called zones, to study the
pattern of movement. The goals in planning are set at this stage, and these include:

i. Minimum disruption of the general environment.

ii. Minimum demolition of housing.
iii. Re-vitalisation of public transport.
iv. The removal of through traffic from urban centres and residential areas.
v. A high benefit/cost ratio.
vi. Operational feasibility.
vii. A qualitative compatibility with general urban structure.

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The survey encompasses the following:

(a) The inventory of existing travel pattern includes data on the following:

 Origins and destinations of Journey by home-interview, roadside interview,

registration number plate survey, pre-paid post card survey, screen line and
cordon surveys.
 Movement of goods vehicles
 Movement of public transport buses and coaches.
 Movement by rail transit.

b) The inventory of existing transport facilities consists of:

 Inventory of streets forming the transport network, including dimensions, type

and condition of surface, capacity, control devices, volume of traffic etc.
 Studies on travel time by different modes.
 Inventory of public transport buses, their operating speeds, headways,
schedules, capacity terminals, passengers carried etc.
 Inventory of rail transit facilities.
 Parking inventory (on-street off-street), loading and unloading facilities for
trucks.
 Accident data.

c) The inventory of land-use and economic activities consists of:

 Information on land-use type (residential, industrial, commercial, recreational

etc.) and intensity for the various zones.
 Zoning laws in operation
 Population statistics, usually from census operations
 Household structure, including family income, car-ownership, family size and
sex etc.
 Employment pattern
 School attendance.

The above data which describe the socio-economic characteristics, the travel pattern,
the existing land-use pattern and the transportation system are analysed to determine
any quantifiable relationship between the measurements. As already pointed out earlier,
the sub-division of the study area into zones facilitates the spatial analysis.
Mathematical models are then built to relate the present travel pattern to land-use and
other socio-economic characteristics of the household.

Trip generation, trip distribution, trip assignment on the existing network and modal split
are considered at this stage. Trip generation models determine the mathematical
relationship between the number of trips produced in a zone and the land-use and
socio-economic characteristics. The trip distribution models connect the trip-ends
predicted by the trip generation models between any set of two zones. Trip assignment
is the procedure by which the route chosen by a trip-maker is determined. The modal
split model determines the mode of travel chosen by the traveller and can be
considered at any stage between generation and assignment. The models so
formulated are calibrated and checked for their accuracy before they are further used
for determining the future travel pattern.

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1.4.2 Forecast, Analysis of Future Conditions and Plan Synthesis

Transport plans are long-range in scope and involve planning for 20 to 25 years ahead.
Travel pattern and needs for the future year, future economic activity for the study as
well as future land-use pattern also need to be predicted- Future transportation demand
is tied up with future economic activity and future land-use.

Economic activity can be predicted in a number of ways., including:

 Extending the past trends in the various parameters representing economic

activity,
 More sophisticated methods such as the input-output model analysis

Population forecast can be done by studies of the past trend. Estimate of future
employment pattern follow from predictions of economic activity. Future level of car
ownerships is an important parameter that influences future travel and mode choice.
The predicted growth in land-use is determined by formulating suitable land-use
allocation models.

The future land-use activity arrangement and information concerning future income
levels, family size', car ownership rates, employment, population and other economic
activity factors are then fed as inputs to the previously formulated trip generation model.
The output will be the future trip generation rates. The other stages such as trip
distribution, assignment and modal split are synthesized using the future predicted
parameters governing travel pattern and the respective models formulated for the base
year.

The output from the above stages yields the flow on each link of the network, and speed
and level of service afforded by the planned facility.

1.4.3 Evaluation

In an urban system, a number of alternative transport plans are feasible for a given set
of goals and policies. In order to select the best from these, it is necessary to evaluate
each of the alternatives as to how it fulfils the desired objectives.

Cost/Benefit techniques are often used to evaluate the alternatives in economic terms.

Depending on the results of evaluation, it may be necessary to revise the plans or even
evolve further alternatives.

1.4.4 Programme Adoption and Implementation

The best alternative emerging from the evaluation study is selected for adoption and
implementation. The stages in which the project is to be implemented are decided with
the consideration for the financial resources.

1.4.5 Continuing Study

Because transport planning is a dynamic and complex process, there cannot be a final
plan. The final plan adopted undergoes continuous review and updating in a process of
constant iteration and feedback.

Periodic surveys are carried out to determine the trends in travel patterns, journey times
and other relevant factors. The plan may be readjusted, if need be.

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1.4.6 Citizen Participation

Since the transport plans are essentially intended to serve the community and fulfil their
aspirations, it is necessary to consult the affected people in the community and give
them a voice in the formulation of decisions. The policies and goals may need to be
redefined as a result of such consultations. It is desirable that a rapport with the
community is established right from the start to minimize controversies and public
criticism.

1.5 Difficulties in the Transport Planning Process

The transport planning process is complex, involving the interplay of numerous socio-
economic factors. This in turn makes the process involved with complex computational
procedures. Even with considerable advances in model building technology to
accurately synthesise the travel demand, the probabilistic nature of peoples' behaviour
can disrupt plans. The dynamic behaviour of the urban system makes the whole
process iterative with a continuous need for review and feedback.

1.6 Comprehensive Transport Planning

1.6.1 Redefining the Objective

The real objective of transport planning is the MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE AND GOODS
- not necessarily the movement of vehicles.

People can be moved by car or by public transport — they could even walk, but this is
increasingly unlikely for other than short distances! For some movements the car is
ideal, for others the bus or other mass transit mode is preferable. Comprehensive
transport planning is about the optimization of the balance between the uses of these
modes. For inter-urban travel the flexibility of the car is a major advantage. For leisure
trips in urban areas too, this flexibility is important — and the destinations of leisure, and
other non-work, trips are often widely spread in both space and time, reducing their
impact on congested streets. It is for the journey to work that public transport is most
appropriate.

The journey from home to work occurs in a short peak period each morning and is, of
course, largely repeated in reverse each evening. Many trips terminate in relatively few
locations — the town centre, the industrial area, etc. As car occupancies average
around 1.2 persons, and buses can carry at least ten times more people per length of
road - lane, a partial remedy is clear. Some trips from home to work MUST be attracted,
or diverted, to public transport.

1.6.2 The 'Carrot' and the 'Stick'

Bus travel, however, is not popular with commuters, because services are too often
unreliable, slow, and uncomfortable and crowded, whereas a car is at least thought to
be convenient and reliable. The change of mode must therefore be induced. This
requires the use of both 'the carrot' and 'the stick'.

First, 'the carrot' — bus services must be improved, in reliability, in frequency and in
convenience (and perhaps, although this is of less importance than is sometimes

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 thought — in cost). Bus priority measures of one form or another can usually do a lot to
meet these requirements. But the carrot alone is not enough, the car will still be
preferred, so 'the stick' — restraint measures — must be applied. This means making
the use of the car less attractive, by providing fewer parking spaces at higher cost, by
closing streets to cars, or just by allowing congestion to take effect. Perhaps even, at
some later date, differential road-use pricing or supplementary licensing could be
applied, although there are operational problems in both cases.

No matter what is done to induce people to change their travel mode, or goods vehicles
to change their routes, there will eventually Still be congestion on many roads. Before
new roads are built, it is plain that the existing road system should be used as fully as
possible. And this means, among other things, using roads for movement instead of for
parking. Other typical traffic-management measures to improve on the use of existing
roads, to move people rather than vehicles, might include some or all of the following:

 Pedestrianization of central shopping-area roads

 Bus priority measures — bus-only lanes etc.
 One-way systems
 Linked traffic signals
 Right-turn bans
 Peak-hour urban clearways.

After consideration of all of these however, and the application of appropriate measures
there will still be a need for some new roads. And these have to be planned.

1.6.3 Comprehensive Planning

Transport planning for a county, covering town and rural areas together, must be
comprehensive, and based on financial realism (there is NEVER enough money). The
roles of public transport, private car restraint, traffic management measures, and new
road construction need to be fully integrated — both with each other and between urban
and rural areas — to derive the best use of the inevitably limited resources. A transport
plan is developed as a complete package of projects and policies, conceived as a
unified whole. It should be implemented comprehensively in across-the-board stages in
accordance with a carefully conceived, financially realistic, annual programme, derived
in turn from a longer programme.

1.6.4 The Transportation Study

In larger urban areas, the medium-term planning of future transport systems is usually
based on a transportation study. A transportation study is basically a computer-
dependent mathematical process, founded on present-day observation, whereby future
travel patterns can be predicted. In essence, the transportation study process consists
of:

a) surveying the present-day travel habits of people living and/or working in the
specified area,
b) Developing mathematical formulae which, given details of household structure,
income, car ownership, etc. in the study area, can reproduce present-day travel
patterns as surveyed. The formulae (or 'models') in their simplest form are
basically:

i. trip-end prediction — determining how many trips leave a zone e.g. a

group of households,

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 ii. ii) trip distribution — determining the destination of these trips,
iii. iii) modal split — determining the mode of travel — car or bus,
iv. iv) assignment — determining the actual roads used,

c) using these formulae, together with predicted values for future population,
incomes, etc. to predict future travel patterns,
d) Comparing the merits of alternative transport systems to accommodate the
predicted movements. (The comparison is on economic, operational and
environmental grounds, but the final decision is inevitably a subjective one, a
political decision, taking account of public opinion etc. and the relative
importance of the evaluated criteria)

1.6.5 The Planning Process under Comprehensive Transport Planning

The techniques of comprehensive transport planning aside, the process, is similar in

both urban and rural contexts.

1. Asses the present transportation situation, together with financial and existing policy
constraints on possible future action.
2. Identify future problems. (There is always a possibility that the best thing to do is
nothing)
3. Consider the timescale for problem solution
4. Develop alternative possible solutions
5. Finally, transport planning is not a finite exercise. Planning decisions for the next
few years may be irreversible but those for the medium-term may provide scope for
reconsideration. Transport planning is a continuous process — it needs continuous
attention.

1.7 Summary

a) The objective of comprehensive transport planning is the optimum

movement of people and goods.
b) Particularly for the journey to work, public transport could be more efficient
than the private car - but is less attractive
c) To induce greater use of public transport the system needs to be improved
and restraint applied to the use of the private car
d) County transport planning should be done on a comprehensive basis,
developing integrated packages of public transport, private car restraint, and
the optimum use of both existing and new roads
e) In larger urban areas, transport planning is usually based on a transportation
study - a means of predicting future travel movements
f) The preferred strategy, which is not just a collection of unrelated schemes, is
best developed by optimization from a range of integrated possible
packages

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2 TRANSPORTATION STUDY AND DEMAND FORECASTING

Transportation study consists of the development of formulae, or models, enabling

future travel demands to be forecast, and the assessment of alternative strategies for
handling this demand, see Figure.

Figure 2-1 The Transportation Planning Process

The model development, which is central to the overall process depends, like nearly
everything else in the field of transport planning, on the collection of data - by various
surveys. Basically, these surveys are directed at the collection of data relevant to the
uses of the land, the population and its trip-making characteristics and the components
of the available transport system. Alongside and integrated with these surveys are those
directed at obtaining information on present-day movements for comparing with
predictions of these same movements.

2.1 Definition of the Study Area

Assuming the need for a study is confirmed, the next problem is to define the area to be
studied. Administrative boundaries of urban areas, while undoubtedly convenient, will
not necessarily be the most suitable for transportation study purposes. Ideally, the area
to be studied should be fairly tight around an urban area, yet at the same time, including
anticipated future growth areas within the boundary. Clearly the study area boundary
must, to some extent, be a matter of subjective judgement.

The boundary, which will become the line of a cordon surrounding the urban
transportation study area, should:

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 a) Be 'sensibly' close around the urban development,
b) Include potential development areas,
c) Incorporate natural boundaries where possible and be compatible with other nearby
studies,
d) Avoid peninsulas and inlets,
e) Be suitably located for roadside survey stations.

Figure 2-2 Definition of a Study Area

The determination of the boundary of a study area should, where practicable, take
account of natural or man-made movement-limitations - such as rivers, railway lines,
motorways, etc., all of which require special facilities for crossing, and therefore form
effective travel barriers. It is also of great importance to take account of the boundaries
of other studies, both past, and projected for the near future. This is to enable future
amalgamation and re-use of basic data, and, as far as possible, to ensure compatibility
between adjacent studies. Finally, within the area design limitations already imposed,
the boundary should, as far as possible, be so adjusted to cross radial roads at locations
suitable for roadside surveys.

2.2 Dividing the Study Area into Zones

The next stage in the study design is to divide up the study area into internal zones or
small packets of land. These zones are usually smallest nearest the centre, increasing
in size towards the boundary. Zoning is necessary in order to be able to handle and
analyse the data which will be collected within the study area, through some form of
grouping. The area outside the study area too should be divided up into large external
zones, which should also increase in size as they increase in distance from the study
area.

17
 Figure 2-3 Diagram of a national study area indicating internal and external zones

Internal zones should be:

a) As internally homogeneous as possible — ideally a residential zone should

contain only residential land use, but this is usually extremely difficult.
b) Small enough to enable travel patterns to be reliably synthesized (intra-zonal
trips cannot readily be modelled) yet large enough to ensure that the data
collected within them is statistically significant. Population in residential
zones is commonly within the range 1000 to 3000.
c) Made up of one or more National Population Census Enumeration Districts
(EDs). This is important because the Census data which is of use in
checking surveys etc. is available in terms of EDs.
d) amenable to the assembly of planning data — this may mean odd shapes to
accommodate, say, a whole zone with a single planning use, but will save
time and money when obtaining land use data for the study
e) Located with regard to major routes, natural, administrative, and study
boundaries, adjacent study zone patterns etc. They should also be designed,
as far as possible, to be equally appropriate to future land development, with
each zone being wholly within a single local authority area
f) Numbered in a logical sequence - logical, to enable checks to be made
easily.

External zones may sometimes be sub-classified into intermediate and external zones.
This subdivision is really only an acknowledgement that external zones adjacent to the
study area - say within the surrounding sub-region or region - will need to be
considerably smaller (finer zoning) than the true external zones comprising a remote but
large part of the country. Both intermediate and true external zones should be
compatible with adjacent studies' zoning, and also with the National zoning system, i.e.,
basically with local authority and other administrative boundaries.

2.3 Defining the Networks

Just as the survey area was defined and split into zones so the networks too need to be
defined, broken down and coded.

18
 The roads of traffic significance and those likely to attain significance in the future are
selected and divided into links bounded by nodes. Nodes should be provided at all
important intersections included in the network of traffic-significant roads. They should
also be provided where the character of a length of road changes significantly - such as
where a single-carriageway road becomes dual carriageway, or a speed limit is. Nodes
throughout the road network are numbered and the network links are identified by the
nodes at each end - often referred to as the A node and the B node.

Figure 2-4 Relationship between zones, nodes and links. Centroid connectors also shown

The public transport network is not the same as the road network since vehicles can
move about the coded road network subject only to available coded junctions, but
pedestrians can only join, leave or change direction in the public transport network at
stopping and interchange points. Equally, the buses themselves always remain on their
predetermined routes.

In both road and public transport networks though, trips must be loaded from any one
zone onto the network. All trips generated within a zone are assumed to emanate from a
zone centroid, which is linked by a centroid connector to a node or nodes in the relevant
network. The travel characteristics of the centroid connector will represent the zonal
average of trips starting and finishing therein. Similarly, all trips attracted to a zone are
assumed to terminate at the zone centroid via the centroid connector.

2.4 Data Requirements

The objective of the surveys is to enable the building of a group of models (formulae)
which will represent present-day travel patterns within the study area and can thereafter
be used to predict future travel patterns.

It is now more usual to model travel patterns by trip purpose. Trip purposes* for which
separate models are developed include:

HBW (Home-based work trips)

a) between home and work-place — home-based work trips

OHBW (Other home-based work trips)

19
b) between home and shopping area
c) between home and personal business (to dentist, bank, etc,)
d) between home and educational establishment
e) between home and social and/or recreational activity

NHB (Non-home-based work trips)

f) non-home-based trips — including trips on employers 'business from work

The purposes identified above as HBW, OHB and NHB are now the minimum normally
acceptable in an urban transportation study.

Just as it is important to differentiate between private car trip purposes, it is also

essential to model public transport trips and those of commercial vehicles separately
from private cars and from each other. In connection with the modal choice of travellers
it is also customary to differentiate between car-available and non-car-available people,
using the non-car-available classification as a proxy for captive public transport users.

The use of twenty-four-hour modelling is also becoming less common, particularly in

respect of HBW trips which are largely concentrated within the morning and evening
peak periods. An acceptable compromise between the desirable advantages of
complete peak and off-peak modelling of all trip purposes and the extra cost of doubling
the number of models is to model HBW trips for the peak period and all other trips for
either the whole 24-hour period or for a typical off-peak hour only.

Finally, travel patterns are needed in respect of four basic movements:

1) Between one internal zone and another (internal-internal)

2) Between an external zone, i.e. outside study area, and an internal zone (external-
internal)
3) Between two external zones, i.e. through the study area (external-external)
4) Within an individual internal zone (intra-zonal)

Figure 2-5 Diagrammatic representation of the basic travel movements

The different methods of handling these different categories of movement will be dealt
with in the chapter on the modelling process — at this stage it is sufficient to appreciate
that separate models will need to be built for inter-zonal trips and for external trips.

There is therefore a need to collect information to enable models of varying complexity

to be built in respect of:

 purposes - HBW, OHB and NHB

20
  2 modes — private car and public transport
 2 time periods — peak and off-peak or 24-hour
 2 movements — inter-zonal trips and external trips
 commercial vehicles

This list is an indication of the complexity of the urban transportation study process.
Clearly though, the whole process comprises the permutations and combinations of the
list.

2.5 Surveys

The basic surveys, which are common to most urban transportation studies, and from
which travel and other characteristics are derived, are:

HI HI Household interview (home interview) survey (a), (b)

RI RI Roadside interview survey (and associated counts) (a)
ES Employment survey (b)
CV CV Commercial vehicle survey (a)
PT PT Public transport surveys (a)
Road and public transport inventory surveys (a)
Parking surveys (b)

Notes:
(a) Surveys collecting data relating chiefly to movement characteristics
(b) surveys collecting data relating chiefly to zonal use characteristics

Besides the actual fieldwork of data collection as summarized above, there is also
considerable deskwork to be undertaken to ascertain the zonal population and land-use
statistics for the whole study area at base year, including the classification of all
employment operations within the study area in terms of the Standard Industrial
Classifications and, with the aid of the Registrar-General's (National) Census of
Population data, the derivation of zonal average income levels etc.

2.5.1 Household Interview Survey (HI Survey)

The HI survey is designed to collect statistical data on:

 travel habits, and
 household structures and characteristics.

The HI itself is intended to ascertain the details of all members (over 5 years of age) of
that household. For each individual journey the following details would perhaps be
recorded:

 person making journey

 origin of journey (address and land use or activity, for coding by zone)
destination of journey (as for origin) start and finish times of journey
 journey purpose (MBW etc. plus a dummy for change travel mode) mode of
travel
 persons in car (if car trip)
 bus route
 bus trip characteristics (ticket type, ticket cost for journey)
 And possibly, details of car park usage.

21
2.5.2 Roadside Interview Survey (RI Survey)

All movements across the cordon line are inevitably external trips of one form or another
(external-external or external-internal trips). These movements are not modelled in the
same way as internal-internal trips, but their volume needs to be known to enable future
such movements to be predicted. Also important is a screen line or lines across the
study area, at which cross-study-area, internal-internal trips can be observed. This
screen line, which should be located along zone boundaries, avoiding inlets and
peninsulas and suitably sited for roadside surveys, should wherever possible follow a
natural study-arch dividing line with as few crossing points as possible. Ideally, a screen
line should be unavoidably crossed by as many movements as possible, in as few
locations as possible.

The purpose of the screen-line survey is to obtain origin and destination information on
internal movements across the study area, which is in turn used as a check on the trips
determined by the household interview survey. Because it is not possible to intercept
and interview every traveller across a cordon or internal screen line, a count is also
made of all vehicles and public transport passengers crossing the lines. From this count,
the numbers of interviewed travellers and their inter-zonal movements can be factored-
up to equate to the whole crossline movement.

The roadside interview itself consists partly of observation by the interviewer and partly
of questioning the driver of the vehicle. The purpose of the survey is briefly explained to
the driver and he is asked to state:
 Origin address.
 Destination address
 Trip purpose

In some locations, most commonly at central-area screen-line stations or narrow-bridge

sites on town approaches, it may not be practicable to delay traffic for an actual
interview. In these circumstances, a reply-paid postcard can be handed to the driver for
completion at his leisure and return to the study team.

2.5.3 Employment Survey

The objectives of the employment survey arc two-fold:

 as a check on local-authority records of employment opportunities, to which trips

are attracted, in the area, by zone,
 to establish the population from which the sample is taken for the commercial-
vehicle survey

The basic questionnaire used for the employment survey would ask all centres of
employment to give details of:

a) Type of activity undertaken

b) Floor area — usually covered floor space but occasionally total site area,
c) Number of employees — differentiating between male and female workers.
d) Number of light and heavy commercial vehicles operating from address.

2.5.4 Commercial Vehicle Survey (CV Survey)

Having surveyed and/or otherwise obtained details of all employment locations within
the study area and the commercial vehicles operating there, it is possible to select a
sample of commercial vehicles for detailed study. The selected sample drivers, with the
agreement of the fleet operators, would be asked to log each trip they made on a
specified day, recording:
22
 a) Vehicle type — plus identification details, firm's name and address, vehicle
registration, etc.,
b) Journey number—defining a Journey as from essential stop to essential stop,
c) Origin address — home garage for trip 1, first essential Stop for trip 2,
d) Destination address — essential stop,
e) Start and finish time of trip,
f) Trip purpose — firm's business or to and from home.

It is customary for an interviewer to call at the vehicle depot the day after the survey to
assist the driver in completing the survey questionnaire form.

2.5.5 Public Transport Surveys (PT Surveys)

Information on public transport passengers is also required. The prime public transport
survey objective, as in other surveys, is to obtain information on the origins and
destinations of travellers and on the volumes of passenger traffic.

At both cordon and screen-line roadside stations a manual volumetric count is made of
all passengers crossing the lines. The information on origin and destination is less
readily obtained.
It is customary to distribute reply-paid post-card questionnaires. The information
required is:

 address of journey origin — not the bus stop

 address of journey destination — not the bus stop
 purpose of journey

Together with;

 Mode of travel prior to boarding bus (walk/other bus/train/etc.)

 Mode of travel after alighting from bus.

2.5.6 Inventory Surveys

This involves the collection of data relating to the facilities available for that travel.
Inventories must be taken of the roads and of the bus services - link by link. Information
is needed on link lengths and effective widths, link capacities and associated link
speeds, link accident rates and the general character of the surrounding urban fabric.

2.5.7 Parking Surveys

The last of the surveys common to nearly all urban transportation studies are those of
parking facilities and use. These (linked) surveys are important to the study process
because of the influence that parking-space availability can have on actual travel
demand. Basically, the surveys comprise:

a) Parking space inventory - including all public- or privately-owned publicly available

and private parking spaces, both on- and off-street, and the charges levied for those
spaces.
b) A parking duration survey - recording all legally and illegally parked cars and the
duration of their parking, by ½-hourly beat patrols noting registration numbers and
matching up later.
c) A parking purpose survey - recording origin addresses, destination addresses after
parking, parking purpose (work, shopping etc.), and vehicle type. The survey is
undertaken by direct personal interview linked to the duration-survey %-hour cycle.

23
2.5.8 Census Data

As well as the detailed local information collected in the course of the surveys just
described, there is another valuable source of data available to the transportation
planner in the Registrar-General's National Census of Population (undertaken at ten-
year intervals). Data is collected in respect of household make-up by sex, marital Status
and age groups, and of occupation and work-place.

2.5.9 Summary

a) The limits of an urban study area should be so defined to form an external cordon.
Future development areas should be included in the study area which should otherwise
be kept reasonably small around the urban development.

b) The study area is divided into internal zones, small enough to provide adequate travel
data. Beyond the study area the whole country is divided into external zones, increasing
in size with remoteness.

c) All traffic-significant roads within the study area are divided into links, bounded by
nodes at important junctions. The public transport network is defined in a similar
manner. Trips from each zone are linked to the network by centroid connectors.

d) Data is collected in respect of land use and travel characteristics sufficient for
modelling for several purposes, for peak and off-peak periods, for movements within the
study area and movements starting or finishing outside, and for movements by both
private and public transport.

e) Basic surveys include:

 Household interview — of a small sample, sometimes even as low as 1000

houses.
 Roadside interview and counts — at cordons and screen lines.
 Commercial vehicle survey — of a sample selected from a population
determined by employment survey and other sources.
 Public transport surveys — comparable to the car-driver's roadside interview,
 Inventory surveys — to collect data on the characteristics of each link in both
road and public transport networks.
 Parking surveys — of spaces available, the use made of them, and the purpose.

f) The National Census of Population provides useful information, additional to the basic
surveys, which can be used directly in the Category Analysis process to derive
generated trips from trip rates which have been calibrated by the household interview.

2.6 Trip Generation

2.6.1 Definitions

Trip generation is a general term used in the Transportation Planning Process to cover
the field of calculating the number of trip-ends in a given area. The objective of the trip
generation stage is to understand the reasons behind the trip making behaviour and to
produce mathematical relationships to synthesise the trip-making pattern on the basis of
observed trips, land-use data and household characteristics.

24
 A trip is a one-way person movement by a mechanised mode of transport or otherwise,
having two trip ends, an origin (the start of the trip) and a destination (the end of the
trip).

Trips are usually divided into home-based and non-home-based. Home-based trips are
those having one end (either origin or destination) at the home of the persons making
the trip, while non-home based trips are those having neither end at the home of the
person making the trip.

The trip ends are classified into generations and attractions. A generation is the home
end of any trip that has one end at the home (i.e. of a home-based trip) and is the origin
of a trip with neither end home based (i.e. of a non-home-based trip). An attraction is the
non-home end of a home-based trip and is the destination of a trip with neither end
home-based (i.e. of a non-home-based trip).

Fig. 31-1. Home-based trips.

In Fig. 31-1, both trips are home-based, because one end of the trips is the home. Both
are generated at the home zone and attracted to the work zone. We have two work-
purpose trip end generations in the home zone and two work-purpose attractions in the
work zone.

Fig. 31-2. Non-home-based trips.

In Fig. 31-2, both trips are non-home-based, because neither end of the trip is the home
of the person making the trip.

By the above definitions, the total number of trip generations in any area should be
equal to the total number of attractions.

2.6.2 Trip Purpose

Trips are made for different purposes and a classification of trips by purpose is
necessary. The following are some of the important classes of trip purpose:
 Work
 School
 Business
 Social or recreational, sports Others

The break-up of trips by purpose is normally done for the home-based trips which
represent nearly 80-90% of the total trips.

25
2.6.3 Factors Governing Trip Generation and Attraction Rates

A number of factors govern the trip generation rates. These are discussed below:
 Income.
 Car ownership.
 Family size and composition.
 Land use characteristics.
 Distance of the zone from the town centre.
 Accessibility to public transport system and its efficiency
 Employment opportunities, floor space in the industrial and shopping units and
offices, sales figures in shops etc.
.
2.6.4 Multiple Linear Regression Analysis

Multiple linear regression analysis is a well-known statistical technique for fitting

mathematical relationships between dependent and independent variables. In the case
of trip generation equations, the dependent variable is the number of trips and the
independent variables are the various measurable factors that influence trip generation.
These independent variables are the land-use and socio-economic characteristics
discussed earlier. The general form of the equation obtained is:

The equation of the above form is developed from the present-day data pertaining to
independent variables and the dependent variable, using the statistical technique of
"least squares" fitting. The equation thus developed is used for determining the future
values of trips, knowing the estimated future values of the independent variables.

As an example of the multiple linear regression analysis equation, the following equation
developed from a study of Toronto is given:

(a) Assumptions

26
 The statistical theory of regression analysis is based on the following important
assumptions:
1. All the variables are independent of each other.
2. All the variables are normally distributed.
3. All the variables are continuous.
4. A linear relationship exists between the dependent variable and the independent
variable.
5. Influence of independent variable is additive. That is, the inclusion of each
variable in the equation contributes a distinct portion of the trip numbers.

(b) Aggregated and disaggregated analysis

Multiple linear regression analysis is of two types:

(i) Aggregated, or Zonal least-square regression, where each traffic zone is treated as
one observation.
(ii) Disaggregated, or Household least-square regression, where each household is
treated as an observation.

Aggregated analysis is most widely used.

(c) Criteria for evaluation of regression equations

The following criteria should be applied in evaluating and selecting a regression

equation:

(i) The multiple correlation coefficient should have a value at least 0.75 or even higher.
(ii) The standard error of the estimate of the dependent variable should be sufficiently
small.
(iii) The F-test should be carried out to examine evidence of the degree of certainty that
a meaningful relationship exists between the dependent and independent variables.
(iv) The equation should have accuracy, validity, simplicity, sharpness and constancy

(d) Disadvantages of the Multiple-Linear Regression Analysis Technique

The following points deserve mention:

(i) The equation derived is purely empirical in nature and fails to establish a meaningful
relationship between the dependent and independent variables.
(ii) The technique is based on the premise that the regression coefficients initially
established will still remain unchanged in the future and can be used in the regression
equation for predicting future travel. How far the prediction is valid in future is a moot
question.
(iii) Difficulties arise in evaluating the effect of statistical problems relating to non-
linearity of the response surface and high correlations amongst the explanatory
variables.

2.6.5 Category Analysis

Category Analysis or cross-classification technique is a method developed by Wotton

and Pick and has been used in some transportation studies in U.K. It is based on
determining the average response or average value of the dependent variable for
certain defined categories of the independent variables.

A multi-dimensional matrix defines the categories, each dimension in the matrix

representing one independent variable. The independent variables themselves are
classified into a definite number of discrete class intervals.

27
(a) Assumptions

The technique is based on the following assumptions:

i. The household is the fundamental unit in the trip generation process, and most
journeys begin or end in response to the requirements of the family.
ii. The trips generated by the household depend upon the characteristics of that
household and its location relative to its required facilities such as shops, school
and workplace.
iii. Households with one set of characteristics generate different rates of trips from
households with other set of characteristics.
iv. Only three factors are of prime importance in affecting the amount of travel a
household produces: car-ownership, income and household structure.
v. Within each of the above three factors, a limited number of ranges can be
established to describe the trip-generating capacity of a household by a limited
number of categories.
vi. Trip generation rates are stable over a time so long as factors external to the
household are the same as when the trips were first measured.

(b) Categorisation of Households

As stated above, households are classified on the basis of three factors, viz., car
ownerships, income and household structure. These are then classified into different
ranges.

(c) Critical appraisal of the category analysis technique

Advantages:
(i) The whole concept of household trip-making is simplified in this technique
(ii) Unlike regression analysis technique, no mathematical relationship is derived
between trip-making and household characteristics. This takes away many of the
statistical drawbacks of the regression analysis
(iii) Since data from the census can be used directly, it saves considerable effort, time
and money spent on home-interview survey.
(iv) The computations are relatively simpler.
(v) Since disaggregate data are used, the technique simulates human behaviour more
realistically than the zonal aggregation process normally employed in regression
analysis.

Disadvantages:
(i) It is difficult to test the statistical significance of the various explanatory variables.
(ii) The technique uses past studies made elsewhere, with broad corrections.
(iii) In the analysis it is assumed that income and car ownership increase in future. The
categories of higher incomes and higher car ownership are, however, the ones which
are the least represented in the base year. Moreover, they are the ones most likely to be
used for future estimates of trip generations.
(iv) New variables cannot be introduced at a future date.
(v) Large samples are needed to assign trip rates to any one category.

2.7 Trip Distribution

2.7.1 What is Trip Distribution

After having obtained an estimate of the trips generated from and attracted to the
various zones, it is necessary to determine the direction of travel. The number of trips
generated in every zone of the area under study has to be apportioned to the various
28
 zones to which these trips are attracted. Thus,- if gi is the number of trips ends
generated in zone i and aj is the number of trip ends attracted to zone j, trip distribution
stage determines the number of trips ti-j which would originate from zone i and terminate
in zone j.

The distribution of trips between zones can best be understood by a matrix, given in Fig.
32-1.

Fig. 32-1. O-D Matrix.

The horizontal axis of the matrix represents the zones of attractions (destinations, D), 1,
2, 3, ...j...n and the vertical axis represents the zones of generations (origin, O), 1, 2,
3,...i...n. The number of trips indicated at the intersection of any zone of origin and
attraction e.g. ti-j represents the number of trips originating in zone i and terminating in
zone j. The total of any individual row, i, represents the total number of trips generated
in zone, i.e. gi. Similarly, the total of any individual column, j, represents the number of
trips terminating in zone j, i.e., dj.

2.7.2 Method of Trips Distribution

There are two types of trip distribution methods, viz.,

(i) Growth factor methods.
(ii) Synthetic methods.

Growth factor methods have been used in earlier studies but have yielded place now to
the more rational synthetic models. A description of the growth factor methods is,
however, given here because they are still used in small studies and they serve to
provide the historical background before the more recent methods are discussed.

The following are the important growth factor methods:

(i) Uniform factor method.
(ii) Average factor method.
(iii) Fratar method.
(iv) Furness method.

The growth factor methods are based on the assumption that the present travel patterns
can be projected to the design year in the future by using certain expansion factors. This
can be represented by the general formula:

Ti-j =ti-j x.E ... (321)

29
 where
Ti-j = design year (future) number of trips from zone i to zone j.
ti-j = observed based year number of trips from zone i to zone j.
E = growth factor.

The synthetic methods that will be discussed here will be the following:
(i) Gravity Model.
(ii) Tanner Model.
(iii) Intervening opportunities model.
(iv) Competing opportunities model.

Synthetic models utilise the existing data to discern a relationship between trip making,
the resistance to travel between the zones and the relative attractiveness of the zones
for travel. Once a model is established on the basis of the present-day data, the model
can be used to predict the future pattern-of travel between zones.

2.7.3 Uniform (Constant) Factor Method

This is the oldest of the growth factor methods and assumes that the growth rate for the
whole area is valid for predicting future inter-zonal trips. A single growth factor, E, for the
entire area under study is calculated by dividing the future number of trip ends expected
in the survey area for the design year by the trip ends in the base year. The future trips
between zones i and j, Ti-j, are then calculated by applying the uniform factor E to the
base year trips between zones i and j. Thus:

Ti-j = ti-j x E

The method, therefore, suffers from certain disadvantages, which are enumerated
below:

(i) The assumption of a uniform growth rate for the entire study is not correct,
because each zone will have its own growth rate and the rate of growth of traffic
movement between any two zones will be different.
(ii) The method under-estimates movements where present-day development is
limited and over-estimates movements where present-day development is
intensive.
(iii) If the present trip movement between any two zones is zero, the future trip
movement also becomes zero as per this method. This may rarely be the case in
reality.

2.7.4 Average Factor Method

In this method, a growth factor for each zone is calculated based on the average of the
growth factors calculated for both ends of the trip. The factor thus represents the
average growth associated both with the origin and the destination zones. The following
mathematical relationship represents the principle employed:

30
 After the distribution has been completed on the above basis, it will be found that the
sums of the trips from zone i will probably not agree with the projected trip ends in zone i
and the sums of trips to zone j will not agree with the projected trip ends in zone j. This
difficulty is overcome by an iterative process using new values for Et and Ej calculated
from:

where p’i and a’j are the total generations and attractions of zones i and j respectively
obtained from the first stage of distribution.

The iteration is carried out till the growth factor approaches unity and the values balance
within, say, plus or minus 1%.

The average factor method has the same disadvantages of the uniform factor method.
The multiplying factor has no real significance and is only a convenient tool to balance
the movements. There is no explanation of the movement between zones and the
factors causing the movement. It has the additional disadvantage that a large number of
iterations are required.

2.7.5 Fratar Method

This method was introduced by T.J. Fratar and is based on predicting future inter-zonal
movements by successive approximations. According to this method, the total trips for
each zone are distributed to the inter-zonal movements, as a first approximation,
according to the relative attractiveness of each movement. Thus, the future trips
estimated for any zone would be distributed to the movements involving that zone in
proportion to the existing trips between it and each other zone and in proportion to the
expected growth of each other zone. This may be expressed mathematically as follows:

When the future traffic into and out of all zones is similarly distributed, each inter-zonal
trip has been assigned two tentative values-one the result of the distribution for one of
the zones involved.

The procedure is laborious except for simple problems but can be conveniently tackled
by a computer. It has the same drawbacks as other growth factor models and is unable
31
 to forecast trips for those areas which were predominantly under-developed during the
base year. It does not take into account the effects of changes in accessibility for
various portions of the study area.

2.7.6 Furness Method

The method devised by K.P. Furness is also iterative in nature. For this the estimates of
future traffic originating and terminating at each zone are required, thus yielding origin
growth factors and destination growth factors for each zone. The traffic movements are
made to agree alternately with the future traffic originating in each zone and the
estimated future terminating in each zone, until both these conditions are roughly
satisfied.

The Furness method gives results similar to Fratar but requires less computations.

2.7.7 Criticism of Growth Factor Methods

The following are some of the disadvantages of the growth factor methods:
i. Present trip distribution matrix has to be obtained first, for which large scale O-D
studies with high sampling sizes are needed so as to estimate the smaller zone-
to-zone movements accurately.
ii. The error in original data collected on specific zone-to-zone movements gets
magnified.
iii. None of the methods provide a measure of the resistance to travel and all imply
that resistance to travel will remain constant. They neglect the effect of changes
in travel pattern by the construction of new facilities and new network.

Despite the above shortcomings, the growth factor methods are relatively simpler to use
and understand. They can be used for studies of small areas and for updating stable
and uniform data.

2.7.8 Gravity Model

In synthetic models of trip distribution, an attempt is made to discern the underlying

causes of movement between places, and relationships are established between trips
and measures of attraction, generation and travel resistance. Synthetic models have an
important advantage that they can be used not only to predict future trip distributions but
also to synthesise the base-year flows. The necessity of having to survey every
individual cell in the trip matrix is thus obviated and the cost of data collection in
reduced.

One of the well-known synthetic models is the Gravity Model. Based on Newton's
concept of gravity, the model as proposed by Voorhees (Ref. 4) assumes that the
interchange of trips between zones in an area is dependent upon the relative attraction
between the zones and the spatial separation between them as measured by an
appropriate function of distance. This function of spatial separation adjusts the relative
attraction of each zone for the ability, desire or necessity of the trip maker to overcome
the spatial separation. Whereas the trip interchange is directly proportional to the
relative attraction between the zones, it is inversely proportional to the measure of
spatial separation. A simple equation representing the above relationship is of the
following form:

32
 The following formulation was also used in earlier studies dispersing with the
proportionality constant:

where Ti-j, Pi, Aj, di-j and n have the same meaning as given earlier. In order to simplify
the computation requirements of the model, the following formulation has been
frequently used:

The above relationship can be used for determining the trip interchange for each trip
purpose and each mode of travel. A few simple problems will now be solved to illustrate
the above concepts.

(a) Examples

Example.
A self-contained town consists of four residential areas A, B,C, D and two industrial
estates X and Y. Generation equations show that, for the design year in question, the
trips from home to work generated by each residential area per 24 hour day are as
follows :

33
 Zone No. of Trips
A 1000
B 2250
C 1750
D 3200

There are 3,700 jobs in industrial estate X and 4,500 in industrial estate Y. It is known
that the attraction between zones is inversely proportional to the square of the journey
times between zones. The journey times in minutes from home to work are:

Zones X Y
A 15 20
B 15 10
C 10 10
D 15 20

Calculate and tabulate the inter-zonal trips for journeys from home to work.

Solution.

34
The results are tabulated in the matrix below:

It will be seen that as a result of the distribution, the total attractions do not tally with the
predicted attractions. An iterative procedure is necessary to balance out both the
predicted attractions and the productions. For this purpose, the total attractions are first
adjusted as follows:

35
36
The results are tabulated in the matrix below:

It will be seen that the results are now closer to the total predicted attractions. If more
accuracy is needed, further iterations can be done.

Example.
37
 The total trips produced in and attracted to the three zones A, B and C of a survey area
in the design year are tabulated as:

Zone Trips Trips

produced attracted
A 2000 3000
B 3000 4000
C 4000 2000

It is known that the trips between two zones are inversely proportional to the second
power of the travel time between zones, which is uniformly 20 minutes. If the trip
interchange between zones B and C is known to be 600, calculate the trip interchange
between zones A and B, A and C, B and A, C and B.

Solution.

Using the formula:

(b) Calibration of the Gravity Model

Calibration is the process of determining the travel time factor Fi-j which expresses the
area-wide effect of spatial separation on trip interchange between zones and the factor
which is the specific zone-to-zone adjustment factor to account for the social and
economic factors influencing the travel pattern. The following are the phases involved in
the calibration process:

Phase 1. In this phase, the basic data on the area's travel patterns and transportation
facilities are processed to provide the three basic inputs to the gravity model formula,
i.e. zonal trip productions and attractions and the spatial separation between the zones
as measured by travel times. The network is studied and driving time and terminal times
are determined. The inter-zonal and intra-zonal travel times are derived.

Phase 2. The basic survey trip data are analysed and a table of zone-to-zone movement
for each trip purpose is built. The effect of trip length on trip making is studied by

38
 obtaining the trip length frequency distribution by one-minute travel time increments, for
each trip purpose being analysed.

Phase 3. This phase relates to the development of travel time factors. Initially, set of
travel time factors are assumed, and this is facilitated by a pervious study of a city of
comparable size. This trip interchanges are then calculated by using the gravity model
formula on the basis of the data on zonal trip productions and attractions, minimum path
travel times and assumed travel time factors. The initial estimate of the trip interchanges
is then combined with the minimum time paths to obtain an estimated trip length
frequency distribution for each trip purpose category. A comparison of the actual and
estimated trip length frequency distributions is then made, and successive iterations are
done to get close agreement between the two.

Phase 4. In this phase, zone-to-zone adjustment factors (Ki-j) are developed to account
for social or economic linkages. Topographical barriers such as rivers etc. are now
eliminated by adjustments to the minimum path travel times.

Phase 5. The calibrated gravity model is tested to make sure that it simulates accurately
existing travel patterns.

Computer Softwares are available to facilitate the above process, which is otherwise
very complex.

2.7.9 Tanner's Model

Tanner has suggested that the inverse of nth power, 1/(di-j)n in the gravity model formula
cannot give valid estimates at both very small and very large distances. In its place he
proposes the function eλd/dn, where λ and n are constants. The new formula suggested
by him is of the form:

where the summation is over all places

2.7.10 Opportunity Model

Opportunity models are based on the statistical theory of probability as the theoretical
foundation. The concept has been pioneered by Schneider and developed by
subsequent studies. The two well-known models are:

(i) the intervening opportunities models.

(ii) the competing opportunities model.

39
2.8 Traffic Assignment

2.8.1 Purpose of Traffic Assignment

Traffic assignment is the stage in the transport planning process where the trip
interchanges are allocated to different parts of the network forming the transportation
system. In this stage (i) the route to be travelled is determined and (ii) the inter-zonal
flows are assigned to the selected routes. The applications of traffic assignment are:

i. To determine the deficiencies in the existing transportation system by assigning

the future trips to the existing system.
ii. To evaluate the effects of limited improvements and additions to the existing
transportation system by assigning estimated future trips to the improved
network.
iii. To develop construction priorities by assigning estimated future trips for
intermediate years to the transportation system proposed for those years.
iv. To test alternative transportation system proposals by systematic and readily
repeatable procedures.
v. To provide design hour traffic volumes on highway and turning movements at
junctions.

Thus, the assignment process is useful both to the transport planner and the highway
designer; to the former, because of the need to evaluate how the proposed transport
system will work, and to the latter, for geometric design of individual links and
intersections.

The advent of the modern digital computers has facilitated the growth of assignment
techniques, which involve computations too laborious for manual handling.

2.8.2 General Principles

All assignment techniques are based on route selection. The choice of the route is made
on the basis of a number of criteria such as journey time, length, cost, comfort,
convenience and safety. Journey time is often considered as the sole criterion since
length and cost can be considered as functions of time in most cases. The route
selection is made manually for small jobs, but large jobs make use of an electronic
computer for this purpose.

As a first step, the highway network is described by a system of links and nodes. A link
is a section of a highway network between two intersections. A node is either the
centroid of a zone or the intersection of two or more links. For computer analysis, the
network description is coded, key punched and stored in the memory of the computer.
The computer is then made to select the minimum path between the zones and assign
predicted trips to these paths. Traffic volumes are thus accumulated for each section of
the network. As stated earlier, the minimum path may be that route of travel which has
least accumulation of time, distance or other parameters. The sequence of nodes which
defines the links comprising the minimum path between any two zone centroids is called
the 'tree'. The tree is determined by the computer starting from the zone centroid and
progressively selecting the shortest path to the terminal zone centroid. When traffic is
accumulated for each link it may so happen that certain individual links get overloaded.
In that event, certain adjustments will have to be made in accordance with travel-time
flow relationships fed to the computer.

A procedure commonly employed in assignment studies is what is known as 'Moore's

Algorithm'. Moore developed a method for dealing with telephone calls on the basis of
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 shortest path, and this method has been exploited in many computer programmes
designed to assign the traffic in a street network. A simple example below illustrates the
method of building the minimum-path tree.

Fig. 33-1. Minimum path 'tree'.

2.8.3 Assignment Techniques

Though the broad principles of assignment have been discussed above, in practice
different techniques of assignment are available. Some of these are:

i. All-or-nothing assignment (Free assignment or Desire assignment)

ii. Multiple route assignment
iii. Capacity restraint assignment
iv. Diversion curves.

2.8.4 All-or-nothing Assignment

This is the simplest technique and is based on the premise that the route followed by
traffic is one having the least travel resistance. The resistance itself can be measured in
terms of travel time, distance, cost or a suitable combination of these parameters. The
procedure of network description and tree-building has been described earlier. The next
stage is to assign the traffic flows to the minimum path tree. The following simple
example is intended to illustrate the procedure.

Fig. 33-2 shows the minimum path tree connecting zone centroid 1 with zone centroid 2,
3 and 4. The traffic volume from zone centroid 1 to zone centroids 2, 3 and 4 are given
here:

41
 Fig. 33-2

As seen from the above figure- the traffic volumes assigned to the various links are
volumes

Once the traffic volumes are assigned to the various links, a check is made to see that
no link is loaded beyond its capacity. If overloading is found to exist, the journey times
on this overloaded links are altered and the assignment is repeated.

Though simple, all-or-nothing assignment suffers from certain disadvantages. It is found

to be the least desirable technique when compared with more accurate techniques.

i. If time alone is used as the governing factor for the choice of the minimum path,
other equally important factors such as cost, reliability, convenience and safety
will be neglected. But a driver may attach more value to these neglected factors,
thus causing errors in the assigned flow. If cost is used as the sole governing
factor, difficulties can arise because different person’s value cost differently. It is
also difficult to quantify all the costs involved in a journey, and some studies
have restricted themselves only to quantifiable journey cost (Ref. 2).
ii. Because of the very principle on which the technique is based, too many
vehicles tend to be assigned to more attractive routes. This may cause
increasing congestion on these routes and the technique takes no account of
this factor. For the same reasons, all facilities in the network are not effectively
utilised under this procedure.
iii. If a superior facility is available, say, for example a motorway, people tend to
prefer to use this facility for longer journeys. If the travel time or cost is the sole
factor, the all-or-nothing assignment might not reflect this tendency.
iv. Small differences in journey times by different routes between the same origin
and destination can result in unrealistic journey paths.

2.8.5 Multiple Route Assignment

All road users may not be able to judge the minimum path for themselves. It may also
happen that all road users may not have the same criteria for judging the shortest route.
These limitations of the all-or-nothing approach are recognised in the multiple route
assignment technique. The method consists of assigning the inter zonal flow to a series
of routes, the proportion of the total flow assigned to each being a function of the length
of that route in relation to the shortest route.

42
 In an interesting approach suggested by Burrell (Ref. 3) it is assumed that a driver does
not know the actual travel times, but that he associates with each link a supposed time.
This supposed time is drawn at random from a distribution of times, having the actual
link time as its mean. The driver is then assumed to select the route which minimises
the sum of his supposed link times. Multiple route models have been found to yield more
accurate assignment than all-or-nothing assignments.

2.8.6 Capacity Restraint Assignment

Capacity restraint assignment is a process in which the travel resistance of a link is

increased according to a relation between the practical capacity of the link and the
volumes assigned to the link. This technique has been developed to overcome the
inherent weakness of all-or-nothing assignment technique which takes no account of the
capacity of the system between a pair of zones. The capacity restraint system, on the
other hand, clearly restrains the number of vehicles that can use any particular corridor
and, in fact, the whole system, if the assigned volumes are beyond the capacity of the
network, and redistributes the traffic to realistic alternative paths.

Because of the iterative nature of the calculations involved, the capacity restraint
technique is carried out entirely by an electronic computer. The procedure is similar to
the all-or-nothing assignment as far as the initial data input are concerned. The
additional data that is fed is the capacity of each link. The best paths are determined in
the same way as in all-or-nothing technique by building the minimum path trees. Traffic
is then assigned to the minimum paths, either fully or in stages, and as the assigned
volume on each link approaches the capacity of the link, the new set of travel time on
the link is calculated. This results in a new network with a different minimum path tree,
differing significantly from the earlier minimum path tree. As a consequence, assigning
the inter-zonal volumes to the new tree produces a new volume on each link. This
iterative process is repeated until a satisfactory balance between volume and speed is
achieved.

Some of the methods of capacity restraint are given below:

(1) Smock Method.
(2) The Bureau of Public Roads (B.P.R.) Method.

2.8.7 Diversion Curves

One of the frequently used assignment techniques is the diversion curves. These curves
represent empirically derived relationships showing the proportion of traffic that is likely
to be diverted on a new facility (bypass, new expressway, new arterial street etc.) once
such a facility is constructed. The data collected from the pattern of road usage in the
past serve to build up such curves.

Diversion curves can be constructed using a variety of variables such as:

(i) Travel time saved.
(ii) Distance saved.
(iii) Travel time ratio.
(iv) Distance ratio.
(v) Travel time and distance
(vi) Distance and speed ratio, saved.
(vii) Travel cost ratio.

43
2.9 Modal Split

2.9.1 General Considerations

Modal split is the process of separating person-trips by the mode of travel. It is usually
expressed as a fraction, ratio or percentage of the total number of trips. In general,
modal split refers to the trips made by private car as opposed to public transport (road or
rail).

An understanding of modal split is very important in transportation studies. Future

transportation pattern can only be accurately forecast if the motivations that guide the
traveller in his choice of the transportation modes can be analysed. Though the factors
that govern the individual's choice of mode are complex, a study of the same is of great
utility. Considerable attention is being given recent years to this aspect of transport
planning.

2.9.2 Factors Affecting Modal Split

The factors that affect choice among alternative modes are heterogeneous and
numerous and it is convenient to discuss the factors under some broad categories as
below:
1. Characteristics of the trip.
2. Household characteristics.
3. Zonal characteristics.
4. Network characteristics.

These will now be examined in detail.

Characteristics the trip

(i) Trip purpose. The choice of mode is guided to a certain extent by the trip purpose,
e.g. home-based school trips have a high rate of usage of public transport while home-
based shopping journeys can have a higher rate of private car usage
(ii) Trip length. The length can govern an individual's choice of a particular mode.

Household characteristics
(i) Income. The income of a person is a direct determinant of the expenses he is
prepared to incur on a journey
(ii) Car ownership. Car ownership is determined by the income and hence both inter-
related in their effect on model choice.
(iii) Family size and composition. The number of persons in the family, the number of
school-going children, the number of wage earners, the number of unemployed, the
age-sex structure of the family, and some other factors connected with the socio-
economic status of the family profoundly influence the modal choice.

Zonal characteristics
(i) Residential density. The use of public transport increases with residential density
increases.
(ii) Concentration of workers.
(iii) Distance from CBD.

Network characteristics
(i) Accessibility ratio. Accessibility ratio is a measure of the relative accessibility of that
zone to all other zones by means of mass transit network and highway network.
(ii) Travel time ratio. The ratio of the travel time by public transport compared to private
car gives a measure of the attractiveness of public transport system. The travel time by
44
 public transport system is itself composed of: (a) time spent walking to public transport
vehicle at origin, (b) time spent for waiting for public transport vehicle, (c) time spent in
public transport vehicle, (d) time spent in transfer from one public transport vehicle to
another, and (e) time spent walking from public transport vehicle at destination. Travel
time by private car is composed of (a) time spent driving the car, (b) time spent in
parking at destination, and (c) time spent in walking from parked vehicle to destination. It
is generally found that as the travel time ratio increases, the usage of the public
transport system falls down.

(iii) Travel cost ratio. The ratio of cost of travel by public transport and cost of travel by
car is one of the most important factors influencing modal choice. In assessing the cost
of travel by cars, the possibility car pooling for journey to work is also considered. The
importance of travel cost is related to the economic status. People with high incomes
are unmindful of cost and prefer more expensive modes.

Apart from the factors mentioned above, there are some others which are difficult of
being quantified accurately including comfort, convenience and prestige associated with
various forms of travel fall under this category.
a. Comfort is one of the main considerations in modal choice.
b. Convenience which also includes seat probability in a public transport system
and hand luggage, is another factor most frequently weighed by the travellers in
deciding between private car and a public transport. The relative
c. Safety of travel is yet another factor which may be a consideration with some.
d. The opportunity to read can be a factor favouring travel by rail.
e. Waiting, transferring, overcrowding, standing and long walking are some
considerations most unfavourable to public transport usage.

2.9.3 Modal Split in the Transport Planning Process

Modal split is considered in the transport planning process at a number of stages.

Basically, two variations are possible:
(i) Pre-distribution modal split, in which the modal split is considered prior to trip
distribution stages, also known as trip end modal split procedure.
(ii) Post-distribution modal split, in which the modal split is considered after trip
distribution stage, also known as trip interchange modal split procedure.

In the pre-distribution modal split procedure, there are again two possibilities:
(i) At the trip generation stage itself.
(ii) After trip generation, but before trip distribution.

2.10 Evaluation

2.10.1 Need for Evaluation

The transportation plans, which are prepared with specific goals, require to be evaluated
to assess how far they meet the desired objectives. The plan which satisfies the
requirements in the best possible manner is ultimately selected for implementation.
Evaluation is, therefore, an important stage in the formulation of transportation plan.

2.10.2 Several Plans to be Formulated

Obviously, for achieving certain specific goals, there may be more than one solution.
Some may be costly, and some may have other disadvantages and advantages. It is

45
 only by comparing the pros and cons of several alternatives that the best and optimum
solution can be made to emerge.

One of the alternatives is the "do nothing" situation, which serves as a convenient
yardstick with which to measure up the others.

2.10.3 Testing

For comparing several alternatives, the initial step is to test the plan and assess how it
would function in practice. The transport plan itself is based on a number of models
which are designed to represent the various factors that determine the nature and
amount of travel.

The planner seeks answers to the following questions:

 What are the actual flows in the network and what are the effects of these flow
patterns on the environment, accident situation and comfort?
 What is the impact of the plan on the parking requirements?
 How do the intersections behave under the expected flows?
 How is the land-use development going to be influenced by the plan?

These are some of the questions that need to be answered by testing the several
alternatives and by preparing a balance-sheet of advantages and disadvantages of each
plan.

2.10.4 Considerations in Evaluation

Some of the considerations in evaluating alternatives are:

i. System performance, including freedom of choice as to time and route of travel,
comfort, convenience, safety and level of service provided in terms of reliability,
travel time and delay.
ii. Effect on the community environment including impact on the compatibility with
adjacent land use, considering such factors as fumes, noise and disruption of
neighbourhoods, effects on pattern of land development and aesthetics.
iii. Economic factors, including annual capital costs, user operating costs (including
accidents) and time costs.
iv. Financial considerations as to the funds available to the community.
v. Political acceptability considering the many governmental units within the typical
metropolitan study area, many with differing and often opposing interests as to
desirable transportation facilities.

2.10.5 Economic Evaluation

The qualitative answers obtained by testing the plans need to be translated into
monetary terms so as to easily asses the pros- and cons of the plans. It is, therefore,
very common to express the evaluation in economic terms. The idea is to use money as
measure of the effectiveness of the several plans and to provide a common yardstick.

A full discussion on economic evaluation follows below.

46
3 THEORY OF TRAFFIC FLOW

3.1 Scope, Definitions and Basic Diagram of Traffic Flow

3.1.1 Scope

The theory of traffic flow can be defined as a mathematical study of the movement of
traffic (MT and NMT) over road network. The subject is a mathematical approach to
define, characterise and describe different aspects of traffic.

The development of the subject has taken inspiration from various branches of
knowledge. Statistics, applied mathematics, psychology and Operations Research are
some of those. The subject is greatly being researched upon and newer and newer
theories are emerging.

3.1.2 Some Definitions

Traffic flow theory is mainly concerned with three measurable characteristics of road
traffic, viz., speed, flow and concentration.

The definitions of various terms associated with speed are:

 Speed (v) is the rate of movement of traffic or of specified components of traffic
and is expressed in metric units in kilometres per hour (K.P.H.).
 Time mean speed (vt) is the average of the speed measurements at one point in
space over a period of time.
 Space-mean speed (vs) is the average of the speed measurements at an instant
of time over a space.
 Flow or volume (Q) is the number of vehicles passing a specified point during a
stated period of time – expressed in veh/hour.
 Concentration or density (K) is the number of vehicles present in a stated length
of road at an instant - expressed in veh/km/lane.
 Space Headway, (s), is the distance between the fronts of successive vehicles. It
is measured in metres.
 Time Headway, or headway (h) is the time interval between the passage of the
fronts of successive vehicles at a specified point, in seconds.

3.1.3 Relationships between the Variables

Space mean speed, flow and density are related by the following equation:

_
Q
vs 
K
Since concentration (K) is the reciprocal of the space headway (s/1000 when expressed
in kilometres)
_
Q*s
vs 
1000
s, the space headway, is related to h, the time headway as follows:

_
h
s  * v s *1000
3600

47
3.1.4 Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow

In the equation above concentration (K) has a theoretical maximum value when vehicles
are packed from end-to-end, called the jamming concentration, K j, which is the
reciprocal of the length of a car. E.g. If the average length of cars in a stream is 5m, the
jamming concentration, Kj=1000/5 = 200veh/km/l

When the vehicles are packed from end-to-end, the flow Q = 0. Also, when the K=0,
there are no cars, hence Q=0. As the concentration slowly increases from zero, the flow
also increases, and a point is reached when the flow is maximum. The maximum flow
that is capable of being accommodated in a road is the capacity of the road. The
general form of the Flow-Concentration curve, usually known as the Fundamental
Diagram of Traffic Flow, is indicated in Fig. 22-1.

Fig. 22-1. Fundamental diagram of road traffic.

The exact shape of the flow-concentration curve will depend upon a number of factors. It
is in fact a characteristic of a particular road section at a particular time with a particular
population of drivers. Hence a large number of curves are possible.

_ QA
vs 
Since KA

The slope of the line joining the origin O to a point A on the curve gives the space mean
speed associated with a concentration KA and a volume QA. The slope of the line, OB
tangential to the curve at the origin represents the mean free speed ṽ sf, which is the
speed the drivers would adopt if there were no interference from other vehicles.

For simplicity, it is often assumed that the shape of the curve is a parabola – which is
true for a straight-line relationship between speed and concentration.

48
 Fig. 22-2. Speed-Flow Curve.

The general shape is the basis of describing the levels of service when dealing with the
capacity of a road. The curve should obviously start at the origin zero, since the speed is
zero when the flow is zero. The curve should also pass through ṽsf when again the flow
is zero and speed is the maximum corresponding to free flow conditions. For
intermediate values of speed, the volume varies and has a maximum value, Q max
corresponding to the capacity of the road.

The relationship between speed and concentration can similarly be deduced. When the
speed is zero, the concentration is maximum, corresponding to Kj, the jamming
concentration. Also, when the concentration is zero, speed is the free speed, ṽsf. The
exact shape of the curve joining these two points, depends on a number of factors. A
straight-line relationship yields the parabolic shape of the curve relating flow and
concentration. Typical speed-concentration curves are given in Fig. 22-3.

Fig. 22-3. Speed-concentration relationship.

3.1.5 Linear Relationship between Speed and Concentration

A linear relationship between speed and concentration was derived as follows:

49
Differentiating Equation 22-5 with respect to concentration the concentration when flow
is a maximum is obtained. Thus

50
Fig. 22-4. Speed-flow-concentration curves when the speed-concentration relationship
in linear.

51
3.2 Lighthill and Whitham's Theory

One of the attempts to understand traffic flow has been to draw an analogy between the
flow of fluids and the flow of traffic. Lighthill and Whitham contributed to this topic by
their theory which is based on kinematic waves. The limitation of the theory which is
based on the 'continuous flow' approach in fluid dynamics and it thus represents the
limiting behaviour of a stochastic process for a large 'population', which in this case is
the total number of vehicles. Therefore, it is applicable to large-scale problems only, and
principally to the distribution of traffic on long, crowded roads.

The assumptions in the derivation of the equations of the theory are:

(i) The equation of continuity, i.e., law of the conservation of vehicles, holds good. Thus:
Inflow = outflow ± storage
(ii) At any point on the road, the flow Q is a function of the concentration K.

Consider a length of road AB with a stationary observer O at the mid-point, as in figure

below.

Fig.

There are n vehicles in the length OB when the observer starts counting the number
passing him. The count stops at the expiry of time t when all the n vehicles have passed
the observer.

At the same instant when the stationary observer starts counting, a moving observer
starts at O and travels with the stream at speed U, which is less than Vs, the space-
mean speed of the stream, and counts the vehicles passing him. The count stops at the
expiry of time t when all the n vehicles have passed O. The moving observer has
travelled a distance OC in time t given by OC = U*t. His count will be less than the count
of the stationary observer by the number of vehicles in the length OC.

Suppose two moving observers are travelling at speed U at time t apart.

Suppose the flow and concentration change with time, the changes being relatively
small ; but the observers have been told to adjust their speeds U so that the vehicles

52
which pass them minus the vehicles which they pass is, on the average, the same for
each.

But the number of vehicles between the observers must remain the same; and the
number of vehicles passing any point between the times at which the observers pass it
is Qt. As t is fixed, it follows that the flows remain unchanged along the path of the
observers travelling with speed U. In other words, when changes in flow are occurring,
the waves which carry such changes through the stream of vehicles travel at a velocity
given by the equation

Q
U
K

This velocity, relative to the road, may be positive or negative, but it never exceeds ṽ s,
the space-mean speed.

If Q and K are functionally related, then small changes in flow are propagated at the
dQ dQ

speed: dK . On the fundamental diagram of traffic flow, this implies that dK is the
slope of the tangent to the curve. See Fig. below

Fig. Flow-concentration curve.

53
It may be noted that the speed of the wave at the crest is zero.

Consider a stretch of road where the traffic is dense in front (A) and less dense behind
(B), whose fundamental diagram of traffic flow is given below.

The slope of the curve is steeper at B than at A. The speed of wave propagation of Q b at
B is greater than the speed of propagation of Qa at A. A shock wave will now be
generated if the flow changes discontinuously from A to B. The speed of the wave:

Q Q A  QB
   slope of the chord AB
K K A  K B

Note that in the experiment of two observers mentioned earlier, the speed of the shock
wave will be U, the speed at which the two observers travelled.

An example of the shock wave can be the approach to a signalised intersection, where
the vehicles are brought successively to a halt, from a flow Q A at a concentration KA. In
the region of the

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4 ELEMENTS OF TRAFFIC FLOW MODELLING

4.1 Introduction

This chapter is concerned with the capacity and performance analysis of actual
transportation facilities and systems. Transportation facilities and systems work under
uninterrupted or under interrupted flow conditions. Uninterrupted flow can often be
approximated by fluid dynamics analogies or other continuous mathematical
formulations. Interrupted flow is usually more complex and involves more interacting
elements and probabilities for event occurrence. The mathematical formulation
usually yields capacity in units per hour [e.g., veh/h] and one or more measures of
effectiveness such as speed, density, or delay. The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM)
includes specific definitions of the level of service (LOS) for each type of facility. LOS
ranges from A (the best) to F (the worst) and is defined based on ranges of values for
a specific measure of effectiveness (e.g., density for freeways, delay for
intersections.)

The concepts and analytical procedures in this chapter largely reflect methodologies
presented in published volumes of the HCM. The HCM is a "living" document subject
to frequent updates. As a result, the material in this chapter is appropriate for
education and learning, but it should not be used for conducting real-world analyses.
Instead, the HCM itself or locally approved procedures should be used.

4.2 Introduction Traffic Analysis

The primary function of a highway is to provide a transportation service. In an

engineering context, the functional effectiveness of a highway is measured in terms
of its ability to assist and accommodate the flow of vehicles with both safety and
efficiency. This requires certain parameters of the highway to be measured and
analysed, including:

 The quantity of traffic

 The type of vehicles within the traffic stream
 The distribution of flow over a period of time (usually 24 hours)
 The average speed of the traffic stream
 The density of the traffic flow.

Analysis of these parameters directly influences the scale and layout of the proposed
highway, together with the type and quantity of materials used in its construction.
This process of examination is termed traffic analysis.

In undertaking such an analysis, the various dimensions of traffic, such as number of

vehicles per unit time (traffic volume), vehicle types, vehicle speeds, and the variation
in traffic volumes over time, must be addressed because they will influence highway
design (the selection of the number of lanes, pavement types, and geometric design)
and highway operations (selection of traffic control devices including signs, markings,
and traffic signals), both of which impact the performance of the highway in terms of
its ability to handle vehicle traffic. It is therefore important for the analysis of traffic to

71
 begin with theoretically consistent quantitative techniques that can be used to model
traffic volumes, speeds, and temporal fluctuations.

4.3 Traffic Flow, Speed, and Density

Traffic flow, speed, and density are variables that underpin traffic analysis. The basic
definitions of traffic flow, speed, and density are presented below.

Traffic flow, q, is simply defined as the number of vehicles, n, passing some

designated highway point in a time interval of duration, t, expressed in vehicles per
hour.
𝑛
𝑞=
𝑡

Time headway, h, is the time between the passage of the fronts of successive
vehicles. Time headway is are related to time, t, as follows

𝑡= ℎ

where hj is the time headway of the i-th vehicle. Substituting into the equation of flow
gives:

𝑞=∑ or 𝑞 =

where h is the average headway (∑(hi/n).

Time-mean speed, ūi, is the arithmetic mean of the speeds observed at some
designated point along the highway, expressed as

where ui is the spot speed of the i-th vehicle.

Space-mean speed, u, is average traffic speed and is determined on the basis of

the time necessary for a vehicle to traverse some known length of highway, l, that is,

where l, is the length of highway used for the speed measurement of vehicle i , and

where t n (l n ) is the time necessary for vehicle n to traverse a section of highway of

length l. Note that if all vehicle speeds are measured over the same length of
highway (L = l1 = l2 = ……ln),

72
 this is the harmonic mean of speed (space-mean speed). This space-mean speed is
the average speed used in traffic models.

Traffic density, k, refers to the number of vehicles occupying some length of

highway at some specified time, and is simply

4.4 Basic Traffic Stream Models

Based on the definitions presented in the preceding section, the basic relationship
between traffic flow, speed (space-mean speed), and density is given as follows:

with typical units of flow (q), speed (u), and density (k) being vehicles per hour
(veh/h), kilometres per hour (km/h), and vehicles per kilometre (veh/km), respectively.
This equation is important in linking specific models of traffic into a consistent
generalized model.

4.4.1 Speed-Density Model

Consider a section of highway with only a single vehicle on it. Under these
conditions, the density is very low, and the driver can travel freely at a speed close to
the design speed of the highway (referred to as free-flow speed, u f ) . As the flow
increases, the traffic density will increase, and the average operating speed of
vehicles will decline from the free-flow value as drivers slow to allow for the
manoeuvres of other vehicles. Eventually, the highway section will become so
congested that the traffic will come to a stop ( u = 0) and the density will be
determined by the length of the vehicles and the spaces that drivers leave between
them. This high-density condition is referred to as the jam density, kj.

One possible representation of the process just described is the linear relationship
shown in Fig. 5.1.

Figure 5.1 Illustration of a typical linear speed-density relationship.

73
 Mathematically, such a relationship can be expressed as

The advantage of using a linear representation of the speed-density relationship is

that it provides a basic insight into the relationships among traffic flow, speed, and
density interactions without having these insights clouded by the additional
complexity that a nonlinear speed-density relationship introduces. However, it is
important to note that field studies have shown that the speed-density relationship
tends to be nonlinear at low densities and high densities (i.e., those that approach the
jam density).

4.4.2 Flow-Density Model

Using the assumption of a linear speed-density relationship, a parabolic flow-density

model can be obtained as follows:

The general form of Eq. 5.12 is shown in Fig. 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Illustration of the parabolic flow-density relationship.

Note that maximum flow rate, q m , represents the highest rate of traffic flow that the
highway is capable of handling, referred to as the traffic flow at capacity or simply the
capacity of the highway. The density corresponding to maximum flow is k m , and the
corresponding speed is u m .

Equations for q m , km, and u m can be derived by differentiating the derived equation
of flow since at maximum flow,

and because the free-flow speed ( u f ) is not equal to zero,

Substituting gives

74
 and also

4.4.3 Speed-Flow Model

Returning to the linear speed-density model, a corresponding speed flow model can
be developed as follows:

By substituting Eq. 5.17 into Eq. 5.10, we obtain

The speed-flow model defined by Eq. 5.18 again gives a parabolic function as shown
in Fig. 5.3.

Figure 5.3 Illustration of the parabolic speed-flow relationship.

The figure shows two speeds are possible for flows, q, up to the highway's capacity
qm. It is desirable, for any given flow, to keep the average space-mean speed on the
upper portion of the speed-flow curve (i.e., above um). When speeds drop below um,
traffic is in a highly congested and unstable condition.

All of the flow, speed, and density relationships and their interactions are graphically
represented in Fig. 5.4.

75
 Figure 5.4 Flow-density, speed-density, and speed-flow relationships (assuming a
linear speed-density model).

Example 5.1
A section of highway is known to-have a free-flow speed of 90 km/h and a capacity of
3300 veh/h. In a given hour, 2100 vehicles were counted at a specified point along
this highway section. If the linear speed-density relationship applies, estimate the
space-mean speed of these 2100 vehicles.

4.5 Models of Traffic Flow

With the basic relationships among traffic flow, speed, and density formalized, we
now turn attention to a more microscopic view of traffic flow. That is, instead of simply
modelling the number of vehicles passing a specified point on a highway in some

76
 time interval, there is considerable analytic value in modelling the time between the
arrivals of successive vehicles.

The most simplistic approach to vehicle arrival modelling is to assume that all
vehicles are equally or uniformly spaced. This results in what is termed a
deterministic, uniform arrival pattern. However, actual observations show that such
uniformity of traffic flow is not always realistic, and hence a representation of vehicle
arrivals that goes beyond the deterministic, uniform assumption is often warranted.

4.5.1 Poisson Models

Models that account for the non-uniformity of flow are derived by assuming that the
pattern of vehicle arrivals corresponds to some random process. An example of a
probability distribution is the Poisson distribution, which is expressed as

where t is the duration of the time interval over which vehicles are counted, P(n) is
the probability of having n vehicles arrive in time t, and λ is the average vehicle flow
or arrival rate (in vehicles per unit time).

Example 5.2
An engineer counts 360veh/h at a specific highway location. Assuming that the arrival
of vehicles at this highway location is Poisson distributed, estimate the probabilities of
having 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 or more vehicles arriving over a 20-second interval.

Solution
The average arrival rate, λ, is 360 veh/h or 0.1 vehicles per second (veh/s). Using
this in Eq. 5.19 with t = 20 seconds, we find the probabilities of having 0, 1, 2, 3, and
4 vehicles are

For five or more vehicles,

A histogram of these probabilities is shown in Fig. 5.5

77
Figure 5.5 Histogram of the Poisson distribution for λ = 0.1 vehicles per second.

Example 5.3
Traffic data are collected in fifteen 60-second intervals at a specific highway location
as shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Observed Traffic Data for Example 5.3

Observed Number of
Time Period
Vehicles
12:00 p.m. to 12:01 p.m. 3
12:01 p.m. to 12:02 p.m. 5
12:02 p.m. to 12:03 p.m. 4
12:03 p.m. to 12:04 p.m. 10
12:04 p.m. to 12:05 p.m. 7
12:05 p.m. to 12:06 p.m. 4
12:06 p.m. to 12:07 p.m. 8
12:07 p.m. to 12:08 p.m. 11
12:08 p.m. to 12:09 p.m. 9
12:09 p.m. to 12:10 p.m. 5
12:10 p.m. to 12:11 p.m. 3
12:11 p.m. to 12:12 p.m. 10
12:12 p.m. to 12:13 p.m. 9
12:13 p.m. to 12:14 p.m. 7
12:14 p.m. to 12:15 p.m. 6

Assuming the traffic is Poisson distributed and continues to arrive at the same rate as
that observed in the first fifteen time periods, what is the probability that six or more
vehicles will arrive in each of the next three 60-second time intervals (i.e., 12:15pm to
12:16pm, 12:16pm to 12:17pm, and 12:17pm to 12:18pm)?

Solution

Table 5.1 shows that a total of 101 vehicles arrive in the 15-minute period from
12:00pm to 12:15pm. Thus, the average arrival rate, λ, is 0.112 veh/s (101/900). As
in previous example, the Poisson equation is applied to find the probabilities of

78
exactly 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 vehicles arriving. With λ = 0.112 veh/s and t = 60 seconds
(λt = 6.733), the equation gives probabilities 0.0012, 0.008, 0.027, 0.0606, 0.102, and
0.137 for having 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 vehicles, respectively, arriving in a 60-second
time interval. The summation of these probabilities (0.3358) is the probability that 0 to
5 vehicles will arrive in any given 60-second time interval (i.e., P(n < 5)), so 1 minus
0.3358 (=0.6642) is the probability that 6 or more vehicles will arrive in any 60-
second time interval (i.e., P(n ≥ 6)). The probability that 6 or more vehicles will arrive
in three successive time intervals (i’s) is simply the product of probabilities:

The assumption of Poisson vehicle arrivals also implies a distribution of the time
intervals between the arrivals of successive vehicles (i.e., time headway). To show
this, let the average arrival rate, λ, be in units of vehicles per second so that
𝑞
𝜆=
3600

where q is the flow in vehicles per hour. Substituting this to the Poisson model gives

𝑞𝑡 /
(3600) 𝑒
P(n)=
𝑛!

Note that the probability of having no vehicles arrive in a time interval of length t (i.e.,
P (0)) is equivalent to the probability of a vehicle headway, h, being greater than or
equal to the time interval t. So, from above equation,

/
𝑃(0) = 𝑃(ℎ ≥ 𝑡) = 𝑒

This distribution of vehicle headways is known as the negative exponential

distribution and is often simply referred to as the exponential distribution.

Example 5.4
Consider the traffic situation in Example 5.2 (i.e., 360veh/h). Again, assume that the
vehicle arrivals are Poisson distributed. What is the probability that the gap between
successive vehicles will be less than 8 seconds, and what is the probability that the
gap between successive vehicles will be between 8 and 10 seconds?

Solution
By definition, P (h < t) = 1 - P (h > t). Therefore, the probability that the gap will be
less than 8 seconds is defined as follows:

Probability that the gap will be greater than or equal to 10 seconds is also obtained

79
 So, the probability of the gap being between 8 and 10sec is (1 -0.551 - 0.368) =
0.081.

Fig. 5.6 shows the probability distribution with the flow, q, equal to 360 veh/h as in
Example 5.4.

Figure 5.6 Exponentially distributed probabilities of headways ≥ t with q = 360 veh/h.

4.5.2 Limitations of Poisson Models

Poisson-distributed traffic arrivals is most realistic in lightly congested traffic

conditions. As traffic flows become heavily congested or when traffic signals cause
cyclical traffic stream disturbances, other distributions of traffic flow become more
appropriate. The primary limitation of Poisson models of vehicle arrivals is the
constraint imposed by the Poisson distribution that the mean of period observations
equals the variance.

4.6 Traffic Analysis at Highway Bottlenecks

Some of the most severe congestion problems occur at highway bottlenecks, which
can be generally defined as a portion of highway with a lower capacity ( q m ) than the
incoming section of highway. This reduction in capacity can originate from a number
of sources including a decrease in the number of highway lanes and reduced
shoulder widths. There are two general types of traffic bottlenecks, vide

• Recurring bottlenecks, where the highway itself limits capacity and

• incident-induced bottlenecks occur as a result of vehicle breakdowns or
accidents that effectively reduce highway capacity by restricting the
through movement of traffic

80
Because incident-induced bottlenecks are unanticipated and temporary in nature,
they have features that distinguish them from recurring bottlenecks, such as the
possibility that the capacity resulting from an incident-induced bottleneck may change
over time. A feature shared by both recurring and incident-induced bottlenecks is the
adjustment in traffic flow that may occur as travellers choose other routes and/or
different trip departure times to avoid the bottleneck area, in response to visual
information or traffic advisories.

81
5 LEVEL OF SERVICE ANALYSIS

5.1 Introduction

The underlying objective of level of service analysis is to quantify a roadway's

performance with regard to specified traffic volumes (i.e., its ability to efficiently
handle a specified volume of traffic). This performance can be measured in terms of
travel delay (as the roadway becomes increasingly congested) as well as other
factors. The comparative performance of various roadway segments (which is
determined from an analysis of traffic) is important because it can be used as a basis
to allocate scarce roadway construction and improvement funds.

In Chapter 3, capacity, q m , is simply defined as the highest traffic flow that a roadway
is capable of supporting. However, the capacity of a roadway section is a function of
factors such as roadway type (e.g., freeway, multilane highway without full access
control, or rural road), free-flow speed, number of lanes, and widths of lanes and
shoulders. For level of service analysis, a consistent and reasonably precise method
of determining capacity is developed, which accounts for a wide variety of physical
and operational roadway characteristics.

In Chapter 3 traffic flow was defined in units of vehicles per hour. However, two
practical issues arise when using this unit of measure.
1. First, vehicular traffic consists of a variety of vehicle types with substantially
different performance characteristics. These performance differentials can be
magnified by changing roadway geometries, which have a differential effect
on the acceleration and deceleration capabilities of the various types of
vehicles. E.g. a 1500-veh/h traffic flow, consisting of 100% automobiles, will
differ significantly with regard to operating speed and traffic density when
compared to a 1500-veh/h traffic flow that consists of 50% automobiles and
50% heavy trucks. Hence traffic must be defined in terms of vehicles per unit
time and vehicle composition.

2. Second is the temporal distribution of traffic. In practice, the analysis of

roadway traffic usually focuses on the most critical condition, which is the
most congested hour within a 24-hour daily period. However, within this most
congested peak hour, traffic flow is likely to be non-uniform. It is therefore
necessary to arrive at some method of defining and measuring the non-
uniformity of flow within the peak hour.

To summarize, the objective of level of service analysis is to provide a practical

method of quantifying the degree of traffic congestion and being able to relate this to
the overall traffic-related performance of the roadway. The following sections of this
chapter discuss and demonstrate accepted standards for level of service analysis.

5.2 Defining Level of Service (LoS)

To begin to quantify a roadway's degree of congestion, a qualitative measure

describing traffic operational conditions and their perception by drivers is first needed.

82
Such a measure is referred to as level of service and is intended to capture factors
such as speed and travel time, freedom to manoeuvre, and safety. Current practice
designates six levels of service ranging from A to F, with level of service A
representing the best operating conditions and level of service F the worst. The
Highway Capacity Manual (Transportation Research Board 1994) defines level of
service (LOS) for freeways (divided highways with two or more lanes in each
direction and full access control) as follows:

Level of Service A LOS A represents free-flow conditions (i.e., traffic operates at

free-flow speeds.) Individual users are virtually unaffected by the presence of others
in the traffic stream. Freedom to select desired speeds and to manoeuvre within the
traffic stream is extremely high. The general level of comfort and convenience
provided to drivers is excellent.

Level of Service B LOS B also allows speeds at or near free-flow speeds, but the
presence of other users in the traffic stream begins to be noticeable. Freedom to
select desired speeds is relatively unaffected, but there is a slight decline in the
freedom to manoeuvre within the traffic stream relative to LOS A.

Level of Service C LOS C has speeds at or near free-flow speeds, but the freedom
to manoeuvre is noticeably restricted (e.g., lane changes require careful attention on
the part of drivers). The general level of comfort and convenience declines
significantly at this level. Disruptions in the traffic stream, such as an incident (e.g.,
vehicular accident or disablement), can result in significant queue formation and
vehicular delay. In contrast, the effects of incidents at LOS A or LOS B are minimal,
and cause only minor delay in the immediate vicinity of the event.

Level of Service D LOS D represents the conditions where speeds begin to decline
slightly with increasing flow. The freedom to manoeuvre becomes more restricted
and drivers experience reductions in physical and psychological comfort. Incidents
can generate lengthy queues because the higher density associated with this LOS
provides little space to absorb disruptions in the traffic flow.

Level of Service E LOS E represents operating conditions at or near the roadway's

capacity. Even minor disruptions to the traffic stream, such as vehicles entering from
a ramp or changing lanes, can cause delays as other vehicles give way to allow such
manoeuvres. In general, manoeuvrability is extremely limited, and drivers experience
considerable physical and psychological discomfort.

Level of Service F LOS F describes a breakdown in vehicular flow. Queues form

quickly behind points in the roadway where the arrival flow rate temporarily exceeds
the departure rate, as determined by the roadway's capacity (see Chapter 5). Such
points occur at minor incidents and on-and off-ramps where incoming traffic results in
capacity being exceeded. Vehicles often proceed at reasonable speeds and then are
required to stop in a cyclic fashion. The cyclic formation and dissipation of queues is
a key characterization of LOS F.

83
Figure 7.2 Illustration of freeway level of service (A to F). (Reproduced by permission
from Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report 209,
National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994).

A visual perspective of level of service for freeways is provided in Fig. 7.2. In dealing
with level of service it is important to remember that roadway capacity (which will be
shown as a function of the prevailing traffic and physical characteristics of the
roadway) will always be reached when the roadway is operating at LOS E. This,
however, is not a desirable condition because LOS E causes considerable driver
discomfort that could increase the likelihood of vehicular accidents and overall delay.
In roadway design, the possibility of a degradation in level of service to LOS E should
be avoided, although this is not always possible due to financial and environmental
constraints that may limit the design speed, number of lanes, and other factors that
affect roadway capacity.

84
5.3 Basic Elements of LoS Analysis

In determining the level of service of a roadway segment, a few key definitions and
associated notations must be well understood.

Hourly volume: - is the actual traffic volume on a roadway in vehicles per hour, given
the symbol V. Generally, the highest volume in a 24-hour period (i.e., the peak-hour
volume) is used for V in traffic analysis computations.

Peak-Hour Factor: - accounts for the non-uniformity of traffic flow over the peak hour.
It is denoted PHF and is defined as the ratio of the hourly volume (V) to the maximum
15-min rate of flow (V15) expanded to an hourly volume. Therefore,

(7.1)

Equation 7.1 indicates that the further the PHF is from unity, the more peaked or non-
uniform the traffic flow during the hour.

For example, consider two roads both of which have a peak-hour volume, V, of 2000
veh/h. The first road has 1000 vehicles arriving in the highest 15-min interval, and the
second road has 600 vehicles arriving in the highest 15-min interval. The first road
has a more non-uniform flow, and this is substantiated by the fact that its PHF of 0.5
[i.e., 2000/(1000 X 4)] is further from unity than the second road's PHF of 0.83 [i.e.,
2000/(600 X 4)].

Service Flow: - is the actual rate of flow for the peak 15-min period expanded to an
hourly volume and expressed in vehicles per hour. Service flow is denoted SF and is
defined as

Returning to the previous peak-hour factor example, note that the road with PHF =
0.5 has a service flow of 4000 veh/h and the road with PHF = 0.83 has a service flow
of 2400 veh/h. In determining level of service, service flow (not peak-hour volume)
will be used. Thus, the road with a service flow of 4000 veh/h will have a considerably
worse level of service even though both roads have the same hourly volume, V.

These definitions apply to all basic roadway types: freeways, multilane highways, and
two-lane highways (one lane in each direction). However, there are a number of
additional terms that must be introduced before a roadway level of service analysis
can be undertaken. These additional terms are best defined within specific roadway
types as presented in the following sections.

85
5.4 Basic Freeway Segments

A basic freeway segment is defined as a section of a divided roadway having two or

more lanes in one direction, full access control, and traffic that is unaffected by
merging or diverging movements near ramps or lane additions or lane deletions. It is
important to note that capacity analysis for divided roadways focuses on the traffic in
one direction only. This is a logical approach because the concern is to measure the
highest level of congestion and, due to directional imbalance of traffic flows (i.e.,
typically during morning rush hours the high volumes are going toward the central city
and during evening rush hours the high volumes are going away from the central
city), consideration of traffic volumes in both directions is likely to seriously
understate the true level of traffic congestion.

Determination of a roadway's level of service begins by specifying ideal roadway

conditions. Recall that the effect of vehicle performance and roadway design
characteristics on traffic flow was discussed qualitatively (i.e. LoS consideration). In
practice, the effect of such factors on traffic flow is measured quantitatively, relative
to traffic and roadway design conditions that are considered ideal.

For freeways, ideal conditions can be categorized as those relating to lane widths
and/or lateral clearances, the effects of heavy vehicles (such as large trucks and
buses), and driver population characteristics. Studies have shown that:
1. the ideal lane width is 12 ft (3.6 m), and
2. objects (e.g., telephone poles) not closer than 6 ft (1.8 m) from the edge of
the travelled pavement (at the roadside or median).
3. there should be passenger cars only in the traffic stream, i.e no heavy
vehicles such as buses or large trucks, and
4. the driver population should be weekday drivers or commuters (i.e., regular
users) who, due to their presumed familiarity with traffic and roadway
conditions, will behave so as to enhance the efficient flow of traffic.

With the concept of ideal conditions established, the term maximum service flow,
MSF; can be defined for a given level of service i as the highest service flow that can
be achieved while maintaining the specified level of service i, assuming ideal
roadway conditions. Because ideal conditions specify the presence of passenger
cars only, and because it is desirable to have the maximum service flow rate
independent of the number of lanes, MSF, is in units of passenger cars per hour per
lane (pcphpl). Accepted level of service criteria for a given maximum service flow rate
have been found to be a function of the freeway's free-flow speed.

The free-flow speed is the speed of traffic as the traffic density approaches zero. In
practice, free-flow speed is determined by the design speed of the roadway (i.e., the
design speed of the horizontal and vertical curves), the frequency of on-ramps and
off-ramps and number of vehicles entering and exiting the traffic stream, the general
density of the surrounding development, the complexity of the driving environment
(e.g., possible distractions from roadway signs and so on), and speed limits. For
freeways, free-flow speeds are determined directly from the field by measuring the
mean speed of passenger cars when flow rates are 1300 pcphpl or less.

Table 7.1 provides the level of service criteria corresponding to maximum service
flows, traffic densities, and speeds.

86
Table 7.1 Level of Service Criteria for Freeways
Maximum Maximum Service
Level of Minimum Speed Maximum
Density Flow Rate
Service (mph) v/c Ratio
(pc/mi/ln) (pcphpl)
Free-Flow Speed = 70 mph
A 10.0 70.0 700 0.318/0.304
B 16.0 70.0 1,120 0.509/0.487
C 24.0 68.5 1,644 0.747/0.715
D 32.0 63.0 2,015 0.916/0.876
E 36.7/39.7 60.0/58.0 2,200/2,300 1.000
F Var Var var var
Free-Flow Speed = 65 mph
A 10.0 65.0 650 0.295/0.283
B 16.0 65.0 1,040 0.473/0.452
C 24.0 64.5 1,548 0.704/0.673
D 32.0 61.0 1,952 0.887/0.849
E 39.3/43.4 56.0/53.0 2,200/2,300 1.000
F Var Var var var
Free-Flow Speed = 60 mph
A 10.0 60.0 600 0.272/0.261
B 16.0 60.0 960 0.436/0.417
C 24.0 60.0 1,440 0.655/0.626
D 32.0 57.0 1,824 0.829/0.793
E 41.5/46.0 53.0/50.0 2,200/2,300 1.000
F Var Var var var
Free-Flow Speed = 55 mph
A 10.0 55.0 550 0.250/0.239
B 16.0 55.0 880 0.400/0.383
C 24.0 55.0 1,320 0.600/0.574
D 32.0 54.8 1,760 0.800/0.765
E 44.0/47.9 50.0/48.0 2,200/2,300 1.000
F var Var var var
Note: In table entries with split values, the first value is for four-lane freeways, and
the second is for six- and eight-lane freeways.
Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 2000.

Also note that each level of service has a maximum volume-to-capacity ratio that
corresponds to the maximum service flow rate. Within this context, one of the basic
relationships underlying Table 7.1 can be expressed as

where
• MSF is the maximum service flow rate per lane for level of service i under
ideal conditions in pcphpl,
• (v/c), is the maximum volume-to-capacity ratio associated with level of service
i for a specified number of freeway lanes (see Table 7.1), and
• cj is the per-lane capacity under ideal conditions for a freeway with a specified
number of lanes.

The per-lane capacity Cj has been determined to be 2200pcphpl for four-lane

freeways (two lanes in each direction) and 2300 pcphpl for freeways with six or more
lanes. Note that the value of q equals the maximum service flow rate at LOS E in
Table 7.1 because the maximum volume-to-capacity ratio at LOS E is equal to one
[i.e., (v/c)E = 1]. A graphical representation of Table 7.1 is provided in Fig. 7.3.

87
 Figure 7.3 Speed-flow curves and level of service criteria: (a) four-lane freeways, (b)
six-or-more-lane freeways.

5.4.1 Service Flow Rates and Level of Service

The concept of a maximum service flow provides an important benchmark for

determining a roadway's level of service, but, because ideal conditions are seldom
realized in practice, a method of converting the maximum service flow rate into an
equivalent service flow rate (which accounts for actual prevailing conditions) is
needed. Once this is achieved, the highest service flow rate at prevailing conditions
for a given level of service (SF,) can be related to the service flow rate obtained from
actual vehicle counts (i.e., SF in Eqs. 7.2 and 7.3) to determine the roadway's level of
service (as will soon be demonstrated by example).

In calculating service flow rates under prevailing conditions, correction factors are
used along with the number of lanes (in each direction) such that

where

88
 • SF, is the service flow rate (in veh/h) for level of service i under prevailing
conditions for /V lanes (in one direction) in vehicles per hour,
• fw is a factor to adjust for the effects of less than ideal lane widths and/or
lateral clearances (distances from the roadway edge to objects on the side of
the roadway),
• fHV is a factor to adjust for the effect of vehicles other than passenger cars in
the traffic stream (i.e., heavy vehicles such as large trucks, buses, and
recreational vehicles), and
• fp is a factor to adjust for the effect of non-ideal driver populations (e.g.,
drivers who are not regular users).

The combination of Eqs. 7.4 and 7.5 provides another equation that will prove useful
in forthcoming level of service computations:

Eqs. 7.4, 7.5, and 7.6 form the basis for freeway level of service analysis.

5.4.2 Lane Width and/or Lateral Clearance Adjustment

When lane widths are narrower than the ideal 12 ft (3.6 m) and/or obstructions (e.g.,
retaining walls or utility poles) are closer than 6 ft (1.8 m) from the travelled pavement
(at the roadside or at the median), the adjustment factor is used to reflect the impact
on level of service.

The adjustment factors used in current practice are presented in Table 7.2. An
obstruction is a right-side (roadside) or left-side (median-side) object that can either
be continuous (e.g., a retaining wall or barrier) or periodic (e.g., light posts or utility
poles). Table 7.2 provides corrections for obstructions on one side of the roadway
(either median or roadside) and for both sides (both median and roadside). For the
case where obstructions are on both sides of the roadway and distances from the
travelled pavement edge to objects are unequal (e.g., 2 ft [0.6 m] to right-side
obstructions and 4 ft [1.2 m] to left-side obstructions), the average distance is used to
arrive at the fw. In this case, the values in Table 7.2 would have to be interpolated.

Table 7.2 Adjustment Factor for Restricted Lane Width and Lateral Clearance (for
Freeways)

Adjustment Factora
Obstructions on One Side Obstructions on Two
Distance from
Sides
Travelled Way
to Obstruction Lane Width (ft)
(ft) >12 11 10 >12 11 10
>6 1.00 0.95 0.90 1.00 0.95 0.90
4 0.99 0.94 0.89 0.98 0.93 0.88
2 0.97 0.92 0.88 0.95 0.90 0.86
0 0.92 0.88 0.84 0.86 0.82 0.78
a
Interpolation may be used for lane width or distance from travelled way to
obstruction.
Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

89
 As an example, suppose we have a freeway with 11-ft (3.4m) lanes with the unequal
obstructions (on both sides of the roadway) at 2ft (0.6 m) and 4ft (1.2 m) as
previously discussed. With an average of 3ft (0.9m) obstructions on both sides, f w is
0.915 [(0.93 + 0.90)/2] for 11-ft (3.4m) lanes. This implies that 8.5% of the capacity is
lost due to non-ideal lane widths and lateral clearances.

5.4.3 Heavy Vehicle Adjustment

Large trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles have performance characteristics

(slow acceleration and inferior braking) and dimensions (length, height, and width)
that have an adverse effect on roadway capacity. Recall that ideal conditions
stipulate that no heavy vehicles are present in the traffic stream, and when prevailing
conditions indicate that presence of such vehicles, the adjustment factor f HV is used
to translate ideal to prevailing conditions.

The fHV correction term is found using a two-step process. The first step is to
determine the passenger-car equivalent (PCE or PCU) for each large truck, bus,
and/or recreational vehicle in the traffic stream. These values represent the number
of passenger cars that would consume the same amount of roadway capacity as a
single large truck, bus, or recreational vehicle. These passenger-car equivalents are
denoted ET for large trucks and buses, and ER for recreational vehicles. They are a
function of roadway grades because steep grades will tend to magnify the poor
performance of heavy vehicles as well as the sight distance problems caused by their
larger dimensions (i.e., the visibility afforded to drivers in vehicles following heavy
vehicles). For roadway segments where no single section has a grade of more than
3% for more than 0.25 mi (0.4km), or is longer than 0.5 mi (0.8 km) if the grade is
less than 3%, the passenger car equivalency factors can be obtained from Table 7.3
with terrain types defined as follows (Transportation Research Board 1994):

Level Terrain: Any combination of grades and horizontal and vertical alignments
permitting heavy vehicles to maintain approximately the same speed as passenger
cars. This generally includes short grades of no more than 2%.

Rolling Terrain: Any combination of grades and horizontal and vertical alignment that
causes heavy vehicles to reduce their speed substantially below those of passenger
cars, but does not cause heavy vehicles to operate at their limiting speed on the
given grade for any significant length of time (i.e., not having Fet(V) = 0 due to high
grade resistance as illustrated in Fig. 2.6).

Mountainous Terrain: Any combination of grades and horizontal and vertical

alignments that causes heavy vehicles to operate at their limiting speed on the given
grade for significant distances or at frequent intervals.

TABLE 7.3 Passenger Car Equivalents on Extended Roadway Sections

(for Freeways and Multilane Highways)

Type of Terrain
Category Level Rolling Mountainous
ET for trucks and buses 1.5 3.0 6.0
ER for recreational vehicles 1.2 2.0 4.0
Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

90
Table 7.4 Passenger Car Equivalents for Trucks and Buses on Specific Upgrades
(for Freeways and Multilane Highways)
Grade Length ET
(%) (mi)
Percent Trucks and Buses
2 4 5 6 8 10 15 20 25
<2 All 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
2 0-V* 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
V4-V2 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Vz-% 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
¥4-1 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
1-1% 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
>m 4.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
3 0-V4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
V4-V2 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5
V2-V4 6.0 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0
%-i 7.5 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0
1-1V2 8.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.0
8.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0
4 0-1/4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
1/4-1/2 5.5 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5
1/2-% 9.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5
¥4-1 10.5 8.0 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0
>i 11.0 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 4.5
5 0-1/4 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
1/4-1/3 6.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.0
1/3-1/2 9.0 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5
!/2-¥4 12.5 9.0 8.5 8.0 7.0 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.0
¥4-1 13.0 9.5 9.0 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5
>1 13.0 9.5 9.0 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5
6 0-1/4 4.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0
V4-V3 9.0 6.5 6.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 3.5 3.0
1/3-1/2 12.5 9.5 8.5 8.0 7.0 6.5 6.0 6.0 5.5
l/2-¥4 15.0 11.0 10.0 9.5 9.0 8.0 8.0 7.5 6.5
¥4 15.0 11.0 10.0 9.5 9.0 8.5 8.0 7.5 6.5
>1 15.0 11.0 10.0 9.5 9.0 8.5 8.0 7.5 6.5
Note: If the length of grade falls on a boundary, apply the longer category; interpola-
tion may be used to find equivalents for intermediate percent grades. Source:
Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report 209,
National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

Table 7.5 Passenger Car Equivalents for Recreational Vehicles on Specific Upgrades
(for Freeways and Multilane Highways)
Grade Length ER
(%) (mi)
Percent Recreational Vehicles
2 4 5 6 8 10 15 20 25
<2 All 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

91
 >y2 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.2
4 0-V* 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
V4-V2 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5
>¥z 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5
5 0-X/4 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
V4-V2 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
>V2 4.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0
6 0-44 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5
V4-V2 6.0 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0
>V2 6.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.0
Note: If the length of grade falls on a boundary, apply the longer category;
interpolation may be used to find equivalents for intermediate percent grades.
Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

If a roadway has grades greater than 3% that are longer than 0.25 mi (0.4 km) or has
grades less than 3% but longer than 0.5 mi (0.8 km), the values in Table 7.3 are no
longer valid. In these cases, more detailed tables are used. Tables 7.4 and 7.5 are
the tables used for positive grades (upgrades). These tables assume typical large
trucks (with average weight-to-horsepower between 125 and 150 lb/hp [746 and 895
N/kW]) and recreational vehicles (with average weight-to-horsepower ratios between
30 and 60 lb/hp [179 and 358 N/kW]). Note that the equivalency factors presented in
these tables increase with increasing grade and length of grade but decrease with
increasing heavy vehicle percentages. This decrease with increasing percentages is
because heavy vehicles tend to group together as their percentages increase on
steep, extended grades, thus decreasing their adverse impact on the traffic stream.

When two or more grades are present, a distance-weighted average may be used if
all grades are less than 4% and the total combined length of the grades is less than
4000 ft (1220 m). For example, a 2% upgrade for 1000 ft (305 m) followed
immediately by a 3% upgrade for 2000 ft (610 m) would use the equivalency factor
for a 2.67% upgrade [(2 X 1000 + 3 X 2000)/3000] for 3000 ft (914 m) or 0.568 mi.
For additional information on combining two grades within the same section when
grades exceed 4% or the combined lengths are greater than 4000 ft (1220 m),
determining the length of a grade that starts or ends on a vertical curve, and the
critical part of a grade when more than one grade exists in the roadway segment
(e.g., if a 4% grade were immediately followed by a 2% grade, the 4% grade would
be used because the vehicle could be assumed to accelerate on the 2% portion), see
the Highway Capacity Manual (Transportation Research Board 1994).

Negative grades (downgrades) also have an impact on equivalency factors because

the comparatively poor braking characteristics of heavy vehicles have a more
deleterious effect on the traffic stream on downgrades than on level terrain. Table 7.6
gives the passenger car equivalents for trucks and buses on downgrades. It is
assumed that recreational vehicles are not significantly impacted by downgrades;
thus, downgrade values for ER are drawn from the level terrain column in Table 7.3.
Once the appropriate equivalency factors have been obtained, the following equation
is applied to arrive at the heavy vehicle correction factor f HV:

where P's are the proportions of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream and E's are the
equivalency factors from Tables 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, and/or 7.6.

92
 Table 7.6 Passenger Car Equivalents for Trucks and Buses on Specific Downgrades
(for Freeways and Multilane Highways)
Downgrade Length of Passenger Car Equivalent, ET
(%) Grade (mi)
Percent Trucks/Buses
5 10 15 20
<4 All 1.5a 1.5a 1.5a 1.5a
a a a
4 <4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5a
4 >4 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5a
a a a
5 <4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5a
5 >4 5.5 4.0 4.0 3.0
>6 <4 1.5a 1.5a 1.5a 1.5a
>6 >4 7.5 6.0 5.5 4.5
a
Value for level terrain.
Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

As an example of how a heavy vehicle correction factor is computed, consider a

freeway with a 0.75-mi- (1.2-km) long 4% upgrade with a traffic stream having 8%
trucks, 2% buses, and 2% recreational vehicles. Tables 7.4 and 7.5 must be used
because the grade is too steep and long for Table 7.3 to apply. The corresponding
equivalency factors for this roadway are ET = 5.5 (applying the longer category
because 0.75 mi [1.2 km] is on the boundary between two categories, and using a
combined truck and bus percentage of 10) and ER = 3.0 as obtained from Tables 7.4
and 7.5 respectively. Also, from the given percentages of heavy vehicles in the traffic
stream, PT = 0.1 and PR = 0.02. Substituting these values into Eq. 7.7 gives fHV = 0.67
or a 33% reduction in effective roadway capacity relative to the ideal condition of
having no heavy vehicles in the traffic stream.

5.4.4 Driver Population Adjustment

Under ideal conditions, a traffic stream is assumed to consist of regular weekday

drivers and commuters. Such drivers have a high familiarity with the roadway and
generally manoeuvre and respond to the manoeuvres of other drivers in a safe and
predictable fashion. There are times, however, when the traffic stream has a driver
population that is less familiar with the roadway in question (e.g., weekend drivers or
recreational drivers). Such drivers can cause a significant reduction in roadway
capacity relative to the ideal condition of having only familiar drivers.

To account for the composition of the driver population, the fp adjustment factor is
used; its recommended values are given in Table 7.7. Note that for non-ideal driver
populations (i.e., "recreational or other" in Table 7.7), the loss in roadway capacity
can vary from 1% to 25%.
Table 7.7 Adjustment Factor for Driver Population (for Freeways)

Traffic Stream Type Adjustment

Factor (fp)
Weekday, commuter (familiar users) 1.00
Recreational or other 0.75-0.99

93
 Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

The exact value of the non-ideal driver correction is dependent on local conditions
such as roadway characteristics and the surrounding environment (e.g., possible
driver distractions such as scenic views, and so on). When non-ideal driver
populations are present, judgment is necessary to determine the exact value of this
term. This usually involves collection of data on local conditions (for further
information see the Highway Capacity Manual [Transportation Research Board
1994]).

5.4.5 Freeway Traffic Analysis

With all the terms in Eqs. 7.4, 7.5, and 7.6 defined, these equations can now be
applied to determine freeway level of service and freeway capacity. The manner in
which this is done is best demonstrated by example.

EXAMPLE 7.1
A. six-lane freeway (three lanes in each direction) is on rolling terrain with a 70mph
(113 km/h) free-flow speed, 10-ft (3-m) lanes, with obstructions 2-ft (0.6 m) from both
the right and left edges of the travelled pavement. The traffic stream consists of
urban commuters. A directional weekday peak-hour volume of 2200 vehicles are
observed with 700 vehicles arriving in the most congested 15-min period. If the traffic
stream has 15% large trucks and buses and no recreational vehicles, determine the
level of service.

SOLUTION
The approach to take to determine the level of service is to compute the volume-to-
capacity ratio ( v / c ) of the freeway and compare it with the maximum volume-to-
capacity ratios for specified levels of service as given in Table 7.1. To arrive at the
freeway's volume-to-capacity ratio, Eq. 7.6 is rearranged giving

where, from Eq. 7.3,

From Eq. 7.7 we obtain

Substituting, we find that

94
which gives LOS C from Table 7.1, because the maximum v/c for LOS B (with 70-
mph [113-km/h] free-flow speed and a six-lane freeway) is 0.487, and the maximum
v/c for LOS C is 0.715 (i.e., 0.487 < 0.614 < 0.715).
This problem can also be solved using maximum service flow. To do so, Eq. 7.5 is
applied:

From Table 7.1 we see that the freeway operates at LOS C because the maximum
MSF for LOS B (with 70-mph [113-km/h] free-flow speed and a six-lane freeway) is
1120 pcphpl, and the maximum MSF for LOS C is 1644 pcphpl (i.e., 1120 < 1411.28
< 1644). Using MSF, this problem can also be solved graphically by applying Fig. 7.3.
Using part (a) of this figure (four-lane freeway), we draw a vertical line up from
1411.28 pcphpl (on the figure's x-axis) and find that this line intersects the 70-mph
(113-km/h) free-flow speed curve in the LOS C region.

EXAMPLE 7.2
Consider the freeway and traffic conditions in Example 7.1. At some point farther
along the roadway there is a 5% upgrade that is 0.5 mi (0.8 km) long. All other
characteristics are the same as in Example 7.1. What is the level of service of this
portion of the roadway, and how many vehicles can be added before the roadway
reaches capacity (assuming that the proportion of vehicle types and the peak-hour
factor remain constant)?

SOLUTION
To determine the LOS of this section of the freeway, we note that all adjustment
factors are the same as those in Example 7.1 except f H V , which must now be
determined using an equivalency factor, E T , drawn from the specific upgrade tables
(in this case Table 7.4). From Table 7.4, ET = 6.0, which gives

which gives LOS D from Table 7.1, because the maximum v/c for LOS C (with 70-
mph [113-km/h] free-flow speed and a six-lane freeway) is 0.715, and the maximum
v/c for LOS D is 0.876 (i.e., 0.715 < 0.826 < 0.876).

To determine how many vehicles can be added before capacity is reached, the
service flow at capacity must be computed. Because roadway capacity occurs at
LOS E, and the highest volume-to-capacity ratio under LOS E is 1.0 (Table 7.1, with
volume equal to capacity), the service flow at capacity can be calculated from Eq. 7.6
as

Recall that service flow is based on the highest 15-min volume in the peak hour. To
determine the number of vehicles that can be added to the entire peak hour, service
flow must be converted to an equivalent hourly volume. By rearranging Eq. 7.2, we
get

95
 or, because initial V = 2200 veh/h (given) and V15 = 700 vehicles (given),

This means that about 463 vehicles (2663 - 2200) can be added to the peak hour
before capacity is reached. It should be noted that the assumption that the peak-hour
factor would remain constant as the roadway approaches capacity is not very
realistic. In practice, it is observed that as a roadway approaches capacity, the PHF
gets closer to one. This implies that the flow rate over the peak hour becomes more
uniform. This uniformity is the result of, among other factors, motorists adjusting their
departure and arrival times to avoid congested periods within the peak hour.
Graphically this means that the "valleys" shown in Fig. 7.1 will tend to fill in.

5.5 Multilane Rural and Suburban Highways

Multilane highways in suburban and rural settings are highways that do not meet
freeway standards because:
1. They don’t have full access control (i.e. vehicles may enter or leave the roadway
at at-grade intersections and driveways and may cross the median at certain
points),
2. Traffic signals may be present,
3. Design standards (e.g., design speeds) are typically lower than those for
freeways, and
4. The visual setting and development along multilane highways are more
distracting to drivers than along freeways.

Multilane highways are usually four or six lanes (total, both directions), have posted
speed limits between 40 mph (64.4 km/h) and 55 mph (88.5 km/h), and can have
physical medians (i.e. medians that are two-way left-turn lanes - TWLTLs), or
opposing directional volumes that may not be divided by a median at all. Some
examples of rural and suburban multi-lanes are given in Fig. 7.4.

96
Figure 7.4 Illustration of rural and suburban multilane highways. (Reproduced by per-
mission from Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Re-
port 209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994).

Determining level of service on rural and suburban multilane highways differs from
the procedure previously discussed for freeways. While freeway and multilane
analyses have some elements in common, there are some important differences. The
procedure presented here is only valid for sections of highway that:
1. are not significantly influenced by large queue formations and dissipations
resulting from traffic signals (generally considered that traffic signals are
spaced 2.0 mi [3.2 km] or more apart),
2. do not have significant on-street parking,
3. do not have bus stops with high usage, and
4. do not have significant pedestrian activity.

Ideal conditions for multilane highways are defined as

a. having level terrain (no grades greater than 2%),
b. 12-ft (3.6-m) lanes,
c. objects (e.g., utility poles or retaining walls) no closer than 6 ft (1.8 m)
from the edge of the travelled pavement (at the roadside or median),
d. no direct access points along the roadway,
e. a divided highway,
f. passenger cars only in the traffic stream, and
g. a free-flow speed of 60 mph (97 km/h) or more.

As was the case in the freeway level of service analysis, adjustments must be made
when non-ideal conditions are encountered.

Level of service estimation for multilane highways is best done by using the speed-
flow relationships shown in Fig. 7.5, which is a graphical representation of the values
given in Table 7.8. The level of service estimation procedure will be to estimate the

97
 free-flow speed and the service flow rate, and to use the intersection of a vertical line
from the flow with the corresponding free-flow curve to determine level of service.

For example, a multilane highway with a free-flow speed of 55 mph (89 km/h) and a
service flow rate of 800 pcphpl would be operating at LOS B. The LOS problem for
multilane highways is simply one of determining the free-flow speed, which can be
obtained directly from field studies or by other means, and the service flow rate,
which will be a function of the traffic volume, peak-hour factor, number of lanes, and
a heavy vehicle adjustment factor.

5.5.1 Free-Flow Speed Determination

As previously defined, free-flow speed is the mean speed of passenger cars under
low to moderate flow rates, which is usually taken as up to 1400 passenger cars per
hour per lane (pcphpl) for multilane highways, as shown graphically in Fig. 7.5.

Figure 7.5 Speed-flow curves and level of service criteria for multilane highways. (Re-
produced by permission from Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity
Manual, Special Report 209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994).

98
Table 7.8 Level of Service Criteria for Multilane Highways

Free-Flow Speed
60 mph 55 mph 50 mph 45 mph
Max Max Max Max
Level of
Max Average Service Max Average Service Max Average Service Max Average Service
Service Max Max Max Max
Density Speed Flow Density Speed Flow Density Speed Flow Density Speed Flow
v/c v/c v/c v/c
(pc/mi/ln) (mph) Rate (pc/mi/ln) (mph) Rate (pc/mi/ln) (mph) Rate (pc/mi/ln) (mph) Rate
(pcphpl) (pcphpl) (pcphpl) (pcphpl)
A 12 60 0.33 720 12 55 0.31 660 12 50 0.30 600 12 45 0.28 540
B 20 60 0.55 1,200 20 55 0.52 1,100 20 50 0.50 1,000 20 45 0.47 900
C 28 59 0.75 1,650 28 54 0.72 1,510 28 50 0.70 1,400 28 45 0.66 1,260
D 34 57 0.89 1,940 34 53 0.86 1,800 34 49 0.84 1,670 34 44 0.79 1,500
E 40 55 1.00 2,200 41 51 1.00 2,100 43 47 1.00 2,000 45 42 1.01 1,900

Note: The exact mathematical relationship between density and v/c has not always been maintained at LOS boundaries because of the
use of rounded values. Density is the primary determinant of LOS. LOS F is characterized by highly unstable and variable traffic flow.
Prediction of accurate flow rate, density, and speed at LOS F is difficult.

Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report 209, National Research Council, Washington, DC,
1994.

99
 Unlike freeways (which require direct free-flow speed measurement), multilane highway
free-flow speeds can be determined in a number of ways.
1. The direct measurement approach, which is to simply measure the mean
speed of passenger cars at flow rates at or below 1400 pcphpl, is still the
preferred option. If this approach is used, the resultant mean speed (the free-
flow speed) accounts for possible non-ideal roadway characteristics,
including lane width, lateral clearance, type of median, and number of access
points.
2. However, conducting the necessary speed study may not always be possible
due to financial constraints and/or other reasons. If this is the case, two other
empirical approaches to determine free-flow speed for multilane highways
can be used.
a. The first is to use the 85th-percentile speed from existing speed data
(this speed is often used to determine the roadway's speed limit and
is the speed that has 85% of all traffic travelling slower than the
speed and 15% greater than the speed). In determining this 85th-
percentile speed, the speeds of heavy vehicles may be included if the
terrain is level, but the speeds of passenger cars only should be used
for rolling or mountainous terrain (see earlier terrain definitions in
section 7.4.3).
b. The second approach is to simply use the speed limit of the facility.

If either the 85th-percentile speed or speed limit is used to determine free flow speed,
free-flow speed corrections must be applied. To do this, we first estimate the free-flow
speed for ideal roadway conditions (i.e., 12-ft [3.6-m] lanes, etc.). We denote this speed
FFS, and it is determined from the 85th-percentile and speed limits as shown in Table
7.9. Then free-flow speed for existing conditions (which may not be ideal) is determined
from

where
• FFS is the estimated free-flow speed in mph,
• FFSl is the estimated free-flow speed in mph for ideal conditions,
• FM is an adjustment for median type,
• FLW is an adjustment for lane width,
• FLC is an adjustment for lateral clearance, and
• FA is an adjustment for the number of access points along the roadway.

Note that this equation is used only when speeds are obtained from the 85th-percentile
speed or speed limit. If the mean speed of passenger cars is obtained at flow levels less
than 1400 pcphpl, this equation is not used because FFS is obtained directly.

Values for the adjustment factor for median type FM are provided in Table 7.10. This
table shows that undivided highways have a free-flow speed that is1.6 mph (2.6 km/h)
lower than divided highways (which include those with two-way left-turn lanes). Table
7.11 gives free-flow speed reductions resulting from lane widths that are less than the
ideal 12 ft (3.6 m) (the values in this table are for the adjustment factor FLW). In this
table, lane widths greater than 12 ft (3.6 m) are assumed to be 12 ft (3.6 km), and no
data exist for lane widths less than 10 ft (3.0 m).

Table 7.9 Determination of Free-Flow Speed with Ideal Roadway Conditions (FFSI)
for Multilane Highways
Data Basis for Free- Equation for FFSi
Flow Speed
85th percentile of speed FFSi = 85th-percentile speed in mph + [3 - 0.1 x (85th-percentile
speed in mph)]

100
Speed limit For 40- and 45-mph speed limits: FFSI = 7 + (speed limit in mph)

For 50- and 55-mph speed limits: FFS, = 5 + (speed limit in mph)

Table 7.10 Adjustment for Median Type (for Multilane Highways)

Reduction in Free-
Median Type Flow Speed (mph)
Undivided Highways 1.6
Divided Highways (including TWLTLs) 0.0
Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

The adjustment factor for possible non-ideal lateral clearances (FLC) is determined first
by computing the total lateral clearance, which is defined as

where
• TLC is the total lateral clearance in feet,
• LCR is the lateral clearance on the right side of the travelled lanes to obstructions
(e.g., retaining walls, signs, trees, utility poles, and so on), and
• LCL is the lateral clearance on the left side of the travelled lanes to obstructions.

For undivided highways, there is no adjustment for left-side lateral clearance because
this is already taken into account in the FM term (i.e., LCL = 6 ft [1.8 m] in Eq. 7.9). If an
individual lateral clearance (either left or right side) exceeds 6 ft (1.8 m), 6 ft (1.8 m) is
used in Eq. 7.9. Finally, highways with TWLTLs are considered to have an LCL equal to
6 ft (1.8 m). Once Eq. 7.9 is applied, the value for FLC can be determined directly from
Table 7.12.

Table 7.11 Adjustment for Lane Width (for Multilane Highways)

Reduction in Free-Flow
Lane Width
Speed
(ft)
(mph)
10 6.6
11 1.9
12 0.0
Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

Table 7.12 Adjustment for Lateral Clearance (for Multilane Highways)

Four-Lane Highways Six-Lane Highways
Reduction in Reduction in
Total Lateral Total Lateral
Free-Flow Speed Free-Flow Speed
Clearance" (ft) Clearance" (ft)
(mph) (mph)
12 0.0 12 0.0
10 0.4 10 0.4
8 0.9 8 0.9
6 1.3 6 1.3
4 1.8 4 1.7
2 3.6 2 2.8
0 5.4 0 3.9
101
"Total lateral clearance is the sum of the lateral clearances of the median (if greater than
6 ft, use 6 ft) and shoulder (if greater than 6 ft, use 6 ft). Therefore, for analysis
purposes, total lateral clearance cannot exceed 12 ft.
Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

Table 7.13 Number of Access Points for General Development Environments

(for Multilane Highways)
Access Points per Mile (One Side
Type of Development
of Roadway)
Rural 0-10
Low-Density Suburban 11-20
High-Density Suburban 21 or more
Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

The final adjustment factor in Eq. 7.8 is the adjustment factor for the number of access
points, FA. An access point is defined to include intersections and driveways (on the
right side of the highway in the direction being considered) that significantly influence
traffic flow and, as such, do not generally include driveways to individual residences or
service driveways at commercial sites. For up to 40 access points per mile (25 access
points per kilometre), studies show that every access point per mile reduces the free-
flow speed by approximately 0.25 mph (0.4 km/h). If the number of access points per
mile exceeds 40 (access points per kilometre exceeds 25), a constant 10 mph (16.1
km/h) reduction in free-flow speed is used. Considering number of access points per
mile (NAPM), we have

To get some idea of the typical number of access points per mile in different
development environments, see Table 7.13. This provides some important background
information on access point densities in rural and suburban environs.

EXAMPLE 7.3
A four-lane undivided highway has 11-ft (3.4-m) lanes, with 4-ft (1.2-m) shoulders on the
right side. There are seven access points per mile (four access points per kilometre) and
the 85th-percentile is 51 mph (82 km/h). What is the estimated free-flow speed?

SOLUTION
The problem is solved with a direct application of Eq. 7.8:

where
• FFS, = 48.9 mph (78.7 km/h) (from Table 7.9, FFS, = 51 + [3.0 - 0.1 X 51])
• FM = 1.6 mph (2.6 km/h) (from Table 7.10, undivided highways)
• FLW = 1.9 mph (3.1 km/h) (from Table 7.11,11 ft [3.4 m] lane width)
• FLC = 0.4 mph (0.6 km/h) (from Table 7.12, with TLC = 4 + 6 = 10, from Eq. 7.9,
with LCL = 6 ft because the highway is undivided)
• FA = 1.75 mph (2.8 km/h) (from Eq. 7.10, FA = 0.25 X 7 = 1.75)

Substitution gives

102
 this means that the non-ideal conditions reduced the ideal free-flow speed by 5.65 mph
(9.1 km/h).

5.5.2 Service Flow Rate Determination

The service flow rate used in Fig. 7.5 is determined by making two adjustments to the
hourly traffic volume: one for the peak-hour factor and one for heavy vehicles. The
appropriate equation is

Where,
vp is the service flow rate in passenger cars per hour per lane (pcphpl),
V is the hourly volume,
N is the number of lanes,
PHF is the peak-hour factor as defined in Eq. 7.1, and
fHV is the heavy vehicle adjustment as defined in Eq. 7.7.

The determination of fHV for multilane highways is exactly the same as that for freeways,
with Tables 7.3, 7.4, and 7.5 used to arrive at Er's and E R s .

Using vp from Eq. 7.11 and FFS from Eq. 7.8, level of service can be readily determined.
This is demonstrated by the following example.

EXAMPLE 7.4
A six-lane rural multilane divided highway is on rolling terrain with two access points per
mile (one access point per kilometre) and has 10-ft (3-m) lanes, with a 5-ft (1.5-m)
shoulder on the right side and a 3-ft (0.9-m) shoulder on the left side. The peak-hour
factor is 0.80 and the directional peak-hour volume is 3000 veh/h. There are 6% large
trucks, 2% buses, and 2% recreational vehicles. No speed studies are available, but the
speed limit is 55 mph (89 km/h). Determine the level of service.

SOLUTION
We begin by determining the FFS by applying Eq. 7.8:

where
FFSi = 60 mph (97 km/h) (from Table 7.9, FFSi = 5 + 55)
FM = 0.0 mph (0 km/h) (from Table 7.10, divided highways)
FLW = 6.6 mph (10.6 km/h) (from Table 7.11,10 ft [3 m] lane width)
FLC = 0.9 mph (1.4 km/h) (from Table 7.12, with TLC = 5 + 3 = 8, from Eq. 7.9)
FA = 0.5 mph (0.8 km/h) (from Eq. 7.10, FA = 0.25 X 2 = 0.5)

Substitution gives

Next, we determine the service flow rate using Eq. 7.11:

where
V = 3000 veh/h (given)
N = 3 (given)
PHF = 0.8 (given)
ET = 3.0 (rolling terrain, Table 7.3)
103
ER = 2.0 (rolling terrain, Table 7.3)

From Eq. 7.8 we obtain

Substitution gives

As shown in Fig. 7.6, we draw a speed-flow curve for 52 mph (84.7 km/h) FFS (using
the same shape of the curves for 60, 55, 50, and 45 mph as shown in Fig. 7.5) and note
that the 1475.8 pcphpl service flow rate intersects this curve in LOS D. Therefore, this
highway is operating at LOS D.

Figure 7.6 Solution to Example 7.4. (Reproduced by permission from Transportation

Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report 209, National Research
Council, Washington, DC, 1994).

EXAMPLE 7.5
A local manufacturer wishes to open a factory near the section of highway described in
Example 7.4. How many large trucks can be added to the peak-hour directional volume
before capacity is reached? (Assume only trucks and buses are added and that the PHF
remains constant).

SOLUTION
Note that the FFS will remain unchanged at 52 mph (83.7 km/h). Table 7.8 shows that
the capacity with FFS = 55 mph (88.6 km/h) is 2100 pcphpl, and with FFS = 50 mph
(80.5 km/h) is 2000 pcphpl, so a linear interpolation gives us a capacity of 2040 pcphpl
at FFS = 52 mph (83.7 km/h). The current number of large trucks and buses in the peak-
hour traffic stream is 240 (0.08 X 3000), and the current number of recreational vehicles
is 60 (0.02 X 3000). Let us denote the number of new trucks added as V„t. The
combination of Eq. 7.7 and 7.11 gives

104
 With V = 3000 veh/h, ET = 3, ER = 2, N = 3, PHF = 0.8, and vp = 2040 pcphpl, we have

which gives Vnl = 452, which is the number of trucks that can be added to the peak hour
before capacity is reached.

5.6 Rural Two-Lane Highways

Two-lane highways are defined as roadways with one lane available in each direction.
For determination of LoS, a key distinction between two-lane highways, freeways and
multilane highways, is that traffic in both directions must be considered (previously
considered traffic in one direction only). This is because traffic in an opposing direction
has a strong influence on level of service. E.g., high opposing traffic volume limits the
opportunity to pass slow-moving vehicles and thus forces a lower traffic speed and,
consequently, a lower LoS. Therefore, geometric features that restrict passing sight
distance (such as sight distance on horizontal and vertical curves) adversely impact on
LoS.

Finally, the type of terrain (i.e., level, rolling, or mountainous) is critical LoS calculations
relative to freeways and multilane highways; due to often limited ability to pass slower-
moving vehicles on grades (due to sight distance restrictions or opposing traffic does not
permit safe passing).

5.6.1 Ideal Conditions for Two-lane Highways

With the above points in mind, HCM states the following ideal conditions for rural two-
lane highways:
1. Design speed greater than or equal to 60 mph (97 km/h)
2. Lane widths greater than or equal to 12 ft (3.6 m)
3. Clear shoulders wider than or equal to 6 ft (1.8 m)
4. No no-passing zones on the highway segment
5. All passenger cars in the traffic stream
6. A 50/50 directional split of traffic (e.g., 50% travelling northbound and 50%
travelling southbound)
7. No impediments to through traffic due to traffic control or turning vehicles
8. Level terrain (as defined in section 7.4.3)

The capacity of a roadway under such conditions is 2800pcph, total, both directions.

5.6.2 Determination of Service Flow for Two-lane Highways

The basic service flow expression for two-lane, two-way rural highways is as follows:

where
• SFi - service flow rate (in veh/h) for level of service i under prevailing conditions
for /V lanes (in one direction) in vehicles per hour,
• fd – adjustment factor for non-ideal directional distribution of traffic,
• fw - adjustment factor for lane widths and/or lateral clearances,
• fHV – heavy vehicle adjustment factor, and
105
 As the directional distribution of traffic deviates from 50/50, the 2800 pcph (total both
directions) is adjusted downward toward the extreme case in which the directional
distribution is 100/0. In such a case the total capacity in both directions becomes 2000
pcph or, because all flow is in one direction, 2000 pcphpl.

fd values are provided in Table 7.14; (v/c) values from Table 7.15; and fw from Table
7.16. Determination of fHV is slightly different from that used in the freeway and multilane
highway cases in that trucks and buses are now considered separately. The equation
thus becomes (compare to Eq. 7.7),

Where PT, PB, and PR are the proportions of large trucks, buses, and recreational
vehicles in the traffic stream, and ET, EB, and ER are their corresponding equivalency
factors. The equivalency factors for the general terrain types of level, rolling, and
mountainous (as defined in section 7.4.3) are shown Table 7.17. For details on the
procedure used to evaluate two-lane rural highways on specific grades (e.g., a 5%
grade 0.75 mi [1.2 km] long), the reader is referred to the Highway Capacity Manual
(Transportation Research Board 1994).

Table 7.14 Adjustment for Directional Distribution on Two-Lane Highways

Directional 100/0 90/10 80/20 70/30 60/40 50/50
Distribution
Adjustment factor, fd 0.71 0.75 0.83 0.89 0.94 1.00
Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

Table 7.15 Level of Service Criteria for Two-Lane Highways

Percent v/c Ratiob
Time
LOS Delay
Level Terrain Rolling Terrain Mountainous Terrain
Avg Avg Avg
Speed Percent No-Passing Zones Speed Percent No-Passing Zones Speed Percent No-Passing Zones
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

A < 30 > 58 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.04 > 57 0.15 0.10 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.03 > 56 0.14 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.01

B < 45 > 55 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 > 54 0.26 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.13 > 54 0.25 0.20 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.10
C < 60 > 52 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.32 > 51 0.42 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28 > 49 0.39 0.33 0.28 0.23 0.20 0.16
D < 75 > 50 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.57 > 49 0.62 0.57 0.52 0.48 0.46 0.43 > 45 0.58 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.37 0.33
E > 75 > 45 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 > 40 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 > 35 0.91 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.78
F 100 < 45 — — — — < 40 — — — < 35 — — — — —

a
Ratio of flow rate to an ideal capacity of 2800 pcph in both directions.
b
Average travel speed of all vehicles (in mph) for highways with design speed > 60 mph; for highways with
lower design speeds, reduce speed by 4 mph for each 10-mph reduction in design speed below 60 mph;
assumes that speed is not restricted to lower values by regulation.

Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report

209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

Table 7.16 Adjustment for Effects of Narrow Lanes and Restricted Shoulder Widths fw
(for Two-Lane Highways)
Usable
Shoulder 12-ft 11-ft 10-ft 9-ft
Width (ft).
LOS A-D LOS Eb LOS A-D LOS Bb LOS A-D LOS Eb LOS A-D LOSBb

106
 >6 1.00 1.00 0.93 0.94 0.84 0.87 0.70 0.76
4 0.92 0.97 0.85 0.92 0.77 0.85 0.65 0.74
2 0.81 0.93 0.75 0.88 0.68 0.81 0.57 0.70
0 0.70 0.88 0.65 0.82 0.58 0.75 0.49 0.66
 a - Where shoulder width is different on each side of the roadway, use average shoulder width .
 b - Factor applies for all speeds less than 45 mph.
Source: Transportation Research Board, Highway Capacity Manual, Special Report
209, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1994.

Table 7.17 Passenger Car Equivalents for Two-Lane Highways

Level of Type of Terrain
Vehicle Type Service Level Rolling Mountainous
Trucks, ET A 2.0 4.0 7.0
B and C 2.2 5.0 10.0
D and E 2.0 5.0 12.0
Recreational vehicles, ER A 2.2 3.2 5.0
B and C 2.5 3.9 5.2
D and E 1.6 3.3 5.2
Buses, EB A 1.8 3.0 5.7
B and C 2.0 3.4 6.0
D and E 1.6 2.9 6.5
Source: A. Werner and J. F. Morrall, "Passenger Car Equivalencies of Trucks, Buses,
and Recreational Vehicles for Two-Lane Rural Highways," Transportation Research
Record 615, 1976.

Two points relating to Tables 7.15, 7.16, and 7.17 are worthy of note;
1. First, the v/c terms shown in Table 7.15 differ from those used in similar tables
for freeways and multilane highways (i.e., Tables 7.1 and 7.8). The v/c terms in
Table 7.15 are implicitly adjusted to include reductions in level of service
resulting from the combined effects of different terrain types and different
percentages of no-passing zones. This explains why the maximum v/c for LOS E
is sometimes less than one (e.g., see values of LOS E for mountainous terrain).

2. The second point relates to the adjustment factor fw (Table 7.16) and the
passenger car equivalency factors (Table 7.17). Research has found that these
factors vary by level of service (which was not the case for freeways, for
example). As will be shown in forthcoming examples, this dependence on level
of service will complicate the traffic analysis procedure.

As a final observation, note that Eq. 7.12 does not contain an adjustment factor for
regular/nonregular users as was the case in Eq. 7.6 for freeways. This is because the
many other complexities of two-lane highways make the composition of drivers a less
significant concern (Transportation Research Board 1994). This lack of significance was
also observed in the multilane highway case.

5.6.3 Worked Examples

EXAMPLE 7.6
A rural two-lane highway is on level terrain with 11-ft (3.4-m) lanes, 2-ft (0.6-m) paved
shoulders, and 80% no-passing zones. The directional split is 80/20 and there are 5%
large trucks, 2% buses, and 5% recreational vehicles. Determine the service flow of the
roadway at capacity.

SOLUTION
107
The roadway reaches capacity at the maximum of LOS E, which, from Table 7.15, gives
a v/c ratio of 1.0, on level terrain with 80% no-passing zones. Thus, the service flow at
capacity can be computed using Eq. 7.12:

where
• v/c = 1.0 (Table 7.15)
• fd = 0.83 (80/20 directional split, Table 7.14)
• fw = 0.88 (11-ft [3.4-m] lanes, 2-ft [0.6-m] shoulders, LOS E, Table 7.16)
• ET = 2.0 (level terrain, LOS E, Table 7.17)
• ER = 1.6 (level terrain, LOS E, Table 7.17)
• EB = 1.6 (level terrain, LOS E, Table 7.17)

From Eq. 7.13, we obtain

Substituting these terms into the previous equation for SFE,

EXAMPLE 7.7
Consider the conditions described in Example 7.6. If the peak-hour vehicle count is 522
with a peak-hour factor of 0.90, determine the level of service.

SOLUTION
Note that both fw and fhv are dependent on the LoS, which is not yet known. Therefore,
this problem must be approached by initially assuming a LoS, then computing a LoS
based on this assumption, and then making certain that the computed LoS is consistent
with the initially assumed LoS. To begin, assume LoS E. Under this assumption, fd, fw,
and fhv are all as determined in Example 7.6. Also, from given information, the
application of Eq. 7.2 gives

To compute LoS (using v/c), Eq. 7.12 is rearranged:

Substituting, we obtain

From Table 7.15 (level terrain, 80% no-passing zones) LOS C is obtained (i.e., 0.17 <
0.31 < 0.33), which is inconsistent with the earlier assumed LOS E. This means that the
above computations must be reworked. If LOS D is assumed, only fw will change from
the assumed LOS E adjustment factors. In this case, fw = 0.75, assuming LOS D with
11-ft (3.4-m) lanes and 2-ft (0.6-m) shoulders, as indicated in Table 7.16. The v/c is
computed as

From Table 7.15, LOS D is obtained (i.e., 0.33 < 0.363 < 0.58), which is consistent with
the assumed LOS D. Therefore, the highway's level of service is D.

108
 As a final point, note that if LOS C had been assumed, fw = 0.75 (as for the LOS D
assumption), but a different fHV would result because now ET = 2.2, EB = 2.0, and ER =
2.5 (level terrain, LOS C, Table 7.17). So,

Substituting,

From Table 7.15, LOS D is again indicated (i.e., 0.33 < 0.384 < 0.58), which is
inconsistent with the assumed LOS C. Thus, LOS D provides the only consistent
answer.

5.7 Design Traffic Volumes

In the preceding sections of this chapter, consideration was given to the determination
of level of service, given some hourly volume. However, a procedure for selecting an
appropriate hourly volume is needed to compute level of service and to determine the
number of lanes that need to be provided in a new roadway design to achieve some
specified level of service. The selection of an appropriate hourly volume is complicated
by two concerns.

First, there is considerable variability in traffic volumes by time of day (hourly), day of
week (diurnal), time of year (seasonal), and type of roadway. Figure 7.7 shows such
variations in traffic volumes by hour of day and day of week for typical intercity and
intracity routes. Figure 7.8 gives variations by time of year by comparing monthly
average traffic flows with the average annual daily traffic, AADT (in units of vehicles per
day and computed as the total yearly traffic volume divided by the number of days in the
year).

Figure 7.7 Examples of hourly variations for intercity and intracity routes.

109
Figure 7.8 Examples of monthly traffic volume variations showing relative traffic trends
by route type on rural roads (Source: T. Mutanyi, "A Method of Estimating Traffic
Behaviour on All Routes in a Metropolitan County," Highway Research Record 41,
1963).

110
111
The second concern is an outgrowth of the first in that, given the temporal variability in
traffic flow, what hourly volume should be used for design and/or analysis? To answer
this question, consider the example diagram shown in Figure 7.9. This figure plots
hourly volume (as a percentage of AADT) against the cumulative number of hours that
exceed this volume, per year. For example, the highest traffic flow in the year, on this
sample roadway, would have an hourly volume of 0.148xAADT (a volume that is
exceeded by zero other hours). Sixty hours in the year would have a volume that
exceeds 0.11xAADT.

Figure 7.9 Highest 100 hourly volumes over a one-year period for a typical roadway.

In determining the number of lanes that should be provided on a new or redesigned

roadway, it is obvious that using the worst single hour in a year (the hour with the
highest traffic flow, which would be 0.148xAADT from Fig. 7.9) would be a wasteful use
of resources because additional lanes would be provided for a relative rare occurrence.
In contrast, if the 100th highest volume is used for design, the design level of service will
be exceeded 100 times a year, which will result in considerable driver delay. Clearly,
some compromise between the expense of providing additional capacity (e.g., additional
lanes) and the expense of incurring additional driver delay must be made.

A common design practice in the United States uses a design hourly volume (DHV) that
is between the 10th and 50th highest volume hour of the year, depending on the type
and location of the roadway (urban freeway, rural/suburban multilane highway, and so
on), local traffic data, and engineering judgment. Perhaps the most common hourly
volume used for roadway design is the 30th highest hourly volume of the year. In
practice, the K-factor is used to convert average annual daily traffic (AADT) to the 30th
highest hourly volume. K is defined as

where DHV is the design hourly volume (typically, the 30th highest annual hourly
volume) and AADT is the roadway's average annual daily traffic.

So, for example, Fig. 7.9 shows that the value corresponding to the 30th highest hourly
volume is 0.12. More generally, Ki can be defined as the i-factor corresponding to the ith
highest annual hourly volume. Again, for example, the 20th highest annual hourly

112
volume would have a i-value, K20 = 0.126, from Fig. 7.9. If K is not subscripted, the 30th
highest annual volume is assumed (i.e., Ki = K30).

Finally, in the design and analysis of some highway types (e.g., freeways and multilane
highways), the concern lies with directional traffic flows. Thus, a factor is needed to
reflect the proportion of peak-hour traffic volume traveling in the peak direction. This
factor is denoted as D and is used to arrive at the directional
design hour volume (DDHV) by application of

where all terms are as previously defined.

EXAMPLE 7.8
A freeway is to be designed as a passenger-car-only facility for an AADT of 35,000
vehicles per day. It is estimated that the freeway will have a free-flow speed of 70 mph
(112.7 km/h). The design will be for commuters, and the peak-hour factor is estimated to
be 0.85 with 65% of the peak-hour traffic traveling in the peak direction. Assuming that
Fig 7.9 applies, determine the number of 12-ft (3.6-m) lanes required (assuming no
lateral obstructions) to provide at least LOS C using the highest annual hourly volume
and the 30th highest annual hourly volume.

SOLUTION
By inspection of Fig. 7.9, the highest annual hourly volume has K1 = 0.148. Application
of Eq. 7.15 gives

We will assume that three or more lanes will be needed (i.e., a six- or eight-lane
freeway). This gives q — 2300 pcphpl. Also, Table 7.1 shows that the worst LOS C
condition for a six- or eight-lane freeway has (v/c)c = 0.715. Substituting, we obtain

Because 2.41 lanes are needed, 3 lanes must be provided to achieve at least a LOS C.
Thus the assumption of a six- or eight-lane freeway (needed to get a value for cj) was
correct. For the 30th highest hourly annual volume, Fig. 7.9 gives K30 = 0.12, which,
when used in Eq. 7.15, gives

113
We will now assume that only two lanes will be required (i.e., a four-lane freeway).
Therefore, c; will be 2200 pcphpl instead of the previous 2300 pcphpl, and, from Table
7.1, the maximum allowable volume-to-capacity ratio at LOS C is 0.747 (for a four-lane
freeway). All other terms are as before, so

This finding shows that only two lanes are needed to provide LOS C or better for the
30th highest annual hourly volume as opposed to the three lanes needed to satisfy the
level of service conditions for the highest annual hourly volume.

NOMENCLATURE FOR LOS ANALYSIS

AADT average annual daily traffic (in veh/day)
c roadway capacity (in veh/h)
capacity per lane at free-flow speed j (in pcphpl), for
cj
freeways
D directional factor
DHV design hour volume
DDHV directional design hour volume
passenger car equivalents for buses (two-lane rural
EB
highways only)
ER passenger car equivalents for recreational vehicles
passenger car equivalents for large trucks and buses,
for freeways and multilane highways; passenger-car
ET
equivalents for large trucks only, for two-lane rural
highways
adjustment factor for directional distribution of traffic
n
(rural two-lane highways only)
adjustment factor for heavy vehicles
f, adjustment factor for driver population (freeways only)
u adjustment factor for lane widths and lateral clearances
FFS estimated free-flow speed (multilane highways)
estimated free-flow speed for ideal conditions (multilane
FFS,
highways)
free-flow speed adjustment for access points (multilane
FA
highways)
free-flow speed adjustment for lateral clearance
FLC
(multilane highways)
free-flow speed adjustment for lane width (multilane
FLW
highways)
free-flow speed adjustment for median type (multilane
FM
highways)
factor used to convert AADT to 30th highest annual
K
hourly volume
factor used to convert AADT to /the highest annual
KT
hourly volume

114
 LCL left-side lateral clearance (multilane highways)
LCR right-side lateral clearance (multilane highways)
maximum service flow rate for level of service / (in
MSF,
pcphpl)
N number of lanes in one direction
NAPM number of access points per mile (multilane highways)
PHF peak-hour factor
SF service flow (in veh/h)
TLC total lateral clearance (multilane highways)
VP service flow rate for multilane highways (in pcphpl)
V hourly volume (in veh/h)
v15 highest 15-minute volume
v/c volume-to-capacity ratio

5.8 Pedestrian and Bicycle Facilities

5.8.1 Background

Pedestrian-flow models have been developed that bear a close resemblance to the
concepts discussed in connection with vehicular streams. The speed of a pedestrian
regime is, naturally, measured in units of distance divided by time, for example, feet per
second. Flow is given in terms of pedestrians per unit width of a walkway per unit time. It
is thus a point measurement in the same way as highway flow, where the point at which
flow is observed stretches across a number of lanes. Pedestrians, of course, are not
normally obliged to follow strictly any type of lane assignment, but pedestrian flow per
linear foot of walkway width is a tangible measure. Density is specified as the number of
pedestrians per unit area, for example, pedestrians per square foot. The reciprocal of
pedestrian density is called space and has units of surface area per pedestrian (e.g.,
square feet per pedestrian). Its vehicular stream equivalent is spacing. The fundamental
relationship q = uk has been found to apply in the case of pedestrians under generally
uninterrupted conditions.

5.8.2 Pedestrian-Flow Models

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6 INTERSECTION DESIGN

6.1 General

An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join or cross,
which includes the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movements in that area. An
intersection leg is that part of any one of the roadways radiating from an intersection
which is outside of the area of the intersection proper.

The efficiency of operation, safety, speed, cost of operation and capacity are directly
governed by the design. Since an intersection involves conflicts between traffic in
different directions, its scientific design can control accidents and delay and can lead to
orderly movement of traffic. Intersections are potentially dangerous locations, with over
half the fatal and serious road accidents in built-up areas occurring at junctions.

The following principles should be considered in a good design:

(i) The number of intersections should be kept a minimum.

(ii) The geometric layout should be so selected that hazardous movements by
drivers are eliminated.
(iii) The design should permit the driver to discern quickly either from the layout
or from traffic signs the path s/he should follow and the actions of merging
and diverging.
(iv) The layout should follow the natural vehicle paths.
(v) The number of conflict points should be minimized by separating some of the
many crossing (cutting), merging or diverging movements
(vi) Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross traffic stream should be
provided with adequate space at the junction.

6.2 Basic Forms of Intersections and Definition of Terms

6.2.1 T intersection

Unchannelized T-junctions are used for very light traffic and for minor and local roads.
Obviously, it is hazardous to use this in locations where speeds are high and turning
movements are large.

6.2.2 Staggered T-intersection

Many crossroads can be conveniently converted into a properly designed staggered T-

intersection. This will increase the safety.

6.2.3 Rotary Intersection (Roundabout)

A rotary intersection is a special form of at-grade intersection where traffic moves in one
direction round a central island. The vehicles from the converging areas are forced to
move around the central island in a clockwise direction in an orderly manner and weave
out of the rotary movement into their desired directions.

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6.2.4 At-grade and grade-separated Intersections

At-grade intersections are those where roadways join or cross at the same level, while
grade-separated intersections permit crossing manoeuvres at different levels.

The choice between the two depends on factors such as traffic, economy, safety,
aesthetics, delay etc.

6.2.5 At-grade intersections

The figure below shows the basic forms of at-grade intersections

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6.2.6 Grade Separated Junctions

Grade-separated junctions have a higher capital cost, and are justified as follows:

(i) On high type facilities such as expressways, freeways and motorways

(ii) At-grade intersections which have reached their maximum capacity and
where it is not possible to improve the capacity further by retaining the at-
grade crossing
(iii) At at-grade junctions with a history of bad accidents
(iv) Heavy volume junctions with delays economically justifying grade-separation
(v) Topographical situations where it is logical to provide a grade-separated
structure rather than an at-grade intersection, to minimise earthworks or
acquisition of land

Typical basic forms of grade separated intersections are shown below

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6.3 Alignment and Vertical Profile

The horizontal alignment and vertical profile of the intersecting roads should permit the
drivers to discern danger and make the manoeuvres necessary for safety. The
alignment should preferably be as straight and gradients as low as practicable.

It is desirable that the intersecting roads meet at or nearly at right angles. Hence it may
be necessary to modify the alignment as shown below.

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 Fig. 7.32. Modification in alignment of intersecting roads to give a nearly right-angle
crossing.

6.4 The Design Vehicle

6.4.1 Definition

A Design Vehicle is a selected motor vehicle whose weight, dimensions and operating
characteristics are used to establish highway design controls. The dimensions and
operating characteristics of a vehicle influence the geometric design aspects such as
radii, pavement width, clearances, parking geometry, etc. The axle weight and gross
vehicle weight affect the structural design of the pavement and structures, and operating
characteristics of vehicles on grades.

Therefore, the standardization of dimensions and weights of design vehicles is the first
step in formulating geometric design standards.

In Kenya this is specified in the Road Design Manual (MoRPW, 1984). AASHTO
standards represent American practice. In U.K., the Ministry of Transport Regulations
govern the features of the design vehicle.

6.4.2 Types of design vehicles

The AASHTO Standard (adopted in Kenya) classifies the following types of design
vehicles:

1 Passenger Car P
2 Single Unit Truck SU
3 Single Unit Bus BUS
4 Semi-trailer combination, intermediate WB-12
5 Semi-trailer combination, large WB-15
6 Semi-trailer-full trailer combination WB-18

The Kenya Standard contains only commercial vehicles of the following types:
 Single unit truck
 Semi-trailer
 Truck-trailer combination

6.4.3 Summary of Standards for Dimensions of Vehicles

Table 11-4 gives a summary of standards of dimensions for design vehicles for various
authorities

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 Table 11.4 Standards of Dimensions for Design Vehicles by Various Authorities (in
metres)

Authority Country Maximu Maximum Maximum Overall Length (m)

m Width Height Passenger Single Semi- Truck Single
Car Unit Truck Trailer Trailer Unit Bus
AASHTO 2.6 4.1 5.8 9.1 15.2-16.7 19.9 18.3
U.K. 2.5 4.87 (Bus) 5.5 11.0 13.0 18.0
Indian Road 2.5 3.8 – 4.2 - 11.0 16.0 18.0 12.0
Congress (Truck)

The turning radii for the various AASHTO design vehicles are given in Table 11-5.

Table 11.5 Turning Radii of AASHTO Vehicles

Design Vehicle Type Passenger Single Unit Semi-trailer Semi-trailer

Car Truck (large) full trailer
(P) (SU) (WB-15) (WB-18)
Minimum Turning Radius (Outside)(m) 7.3 12.8 13.7 13.7
Minimum Turning Radius (Inside) (m) 4.2 8.5 5.8 6.8

6.4.4 Axle loads and weights of vehicles

Examples of maximum axle loads of vehicles specified in some countries are given
below.

Single Axle (Tonnes) Tandem Axle (Tonnes)

AASHTO 9.0 14.5
U.K. 10.0 -
IRC (1983) 10.2 18.0
Kenya 8.16 14.0

The maximum weight of vehicles depends upon the number, configuration and spacing
of axles.

6.4.5 Selection of the design vehicle

The selection of the design vehicle is governed by the type and volume of traffic
expected to use the highway. Design of a superior facility such as a
motorway/expressway should be based on the largest design vehicle, while the
passenger car may be considered for streets and junctions in residential areas.

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 Example of design specification using the Semi-Trailer Combination Large (WB-50)

6.4.6 Design speed

(a) Speed as a design factor

The level of service of a highway is largely indicated by the speed, safety and
convenience provided by the facility for travel. Speed is important for economic
operation and has a great bearing on the safety of the highway. It plays a vital role in
determining the geometrical design.

(b) Design speed

The speeds adopted by different drivers and by different types of vehicles are varied.
Therefore, the speed value selected should accommodate nearly all demands with
reasonable adequacy while the design should not fail under the severe or extreme
condition. The speed adopted should satisfy nearly all drivers, except for few reckless
who drive at extremely high speed.

Design speed is a speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features
of a highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of a highway under favourable conditions, where
highway design features govern. The design speed should be correlated with terrain
highway classification.

The 95th percentile speed and 98th percentile speeds are frequently chosen as Design
Speed.

(c) Suggested design speeds

The table below gives suggested Design Speeds for Rural Highways in a
Commonwealth country. For Rural Highways, the recommendations contain two types of
design speeds:

Ruling design speed generally the guiding criterion for correlating design features; and

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 Minimum design speed adopted where site conditions or economics do not permit
using the ruling design speed.

Table 11.7 Suggested Design Speeds in India for Rural Highways (All values in K.P.H.)
Classification of Roads Plain Terrain Rolling Terrain Mountainous Steep Terrain
Terrain
Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.
1. National and State Highways 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
2. Major District Roads 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
3. Other District Roads 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
4. Village Roads 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20

For motorways the values adopted in U.K. are as below

 Rural motorways 120 KPH.
 Urban motorways 80 KPH.

For urban streets, the U.K. design speeds as below:

 Primary distributor (Urban motorway)  80 KPH

 Primary distributor (All-purpose)  65 KPH
 District distributor, local distributor,  50 KPH
access road

Reference should be made to the Kenya Road Design Manual specifications

6.5 Visibility at Intersections

The safety of traffic can be ensured only if the visibility is full and unimpeded along both
roads. Any obstructions should be clear of the minimum visibility triangle for a height of
1.2 metres above the roadway.

6.5.1 Rural road intersections

For rural road intersections, where intersecting roads are almost equal in importance
with no established priority (i.e. uncontrolled intersections) visibility should be provided
on the principle that a driver approaching the intersection on either highway must be
able to perceive a hazard and halt the vehicle, if necessary, before reaching the
intersection.

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The stopping distance, d1 and d2, appropriate for the design speeds of v1 and v2
respectively in the two intersecting highways have to be determined.

On priority intersections, traffic is controlled on the minor road by STOP or GIVE WAY
signs or road markings. The visibility provided should allow drivers approaching from the
minor road to see the vehicles on the major road in good time and judge if adequate
gaps in the main road stream are available for merging or safe crossing. The current
practice is to specify a visibility distance (e.g. 15 metres) on the minor road.

The visibility needed on the major road at priority intersections depends on the time
required by the driver on the minor road to perceive the traffic conditions on the
intersection, evaluate the gaps in the vehicle stream, take a decision about the actual
crossing and finally accelerate the vehicle to complete the manoeuvre. A time of 8
seconds may be considered appropriate for this purpose. Table below gives examples of
the visibility distance along the major road

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 Table 7-35 Minimum visibility distances along major roads at priority intersections on
rural roads

Design speed of major road in K.P.H Minimum visibility distance along the major
road (metres)
100 200
80 180
65 145
50 110

6.5.2 Urban road intersections

Operating speeds are lower on urban intersections. Current U.K. practice is to limit the
visibility distance along the minor road in a priority intersection to about 4.5-9.0m. On the
major road, the visibility distance is provided as shown in Table 7.36.

Table 7.36 Visibility distance along major road on priority junction

Type of road Visibility distance (metres) along the major
road
1. All-purpose primary distributor 120 - 150
2. District or local distributor 90
3. Access Road 60

Example:

Figure E2.1 shows a local intersection. The obstruction is located 14m from the
centreline of the right lane of a local road and 20m from the centreline of the right lane of
an intersecting road.

Figure E2.1 Minimum Sight Triangle at a No-Control or Yield-Control Intersection Cases

A and C

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Table 7.7 Suggested lengths and adjustments of Sight-Triangle Leg Case A – No Traffic

If the maximum speed limit on the intersecting road is 56 km/h, what should the speed
limit on the local road be such that the minimum sight distance is provided to allow the
drivers of approaching vehicles to avoid imminent collision by adjusting their speeds?
Approach grades are 2%.

Solution:

Step 1: Determine the distance on the local road at which the driver first sees
traffic on the intersecting road.

d a
=
d d −b
Re-arranging.
d
d =a
d −b

Speed limit on intersecting road = 56 km/h

Distance required on intersecting road (da) = 50 m (from Table 7.7)

Using the geometric property of triangles to calculate the distance available on local
road as follows:

Re-arranging.

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 d 50
d =a = 20 ∗ = 28m
d −b 50 − 14

Step 2: Determine the maximum speed allowable on the local road.

The maximum speed allowable on local road is 32 km/h (from Table 7.7), and no
correction is required for the approach grade as it is less than 3%.

6.6 Radii of Curves

The design of intersection curves influences speed. Curve radii are, therefore, selected
to control speed and ensure safety of operation. Generally, design of curves falls into the
following categories:

(i) Design of curves for a minimum speed and sharpest turn

(ii) Design of curves to permit different operating speeds.

6.6.1 Sharpest turn curves for minimum speed

When it is necessary to provide for turning vehicles within minimum space, the design
vehicle selected will govern the turning radius. Compound curves, which are generally
three-centred, are provided.

Table 7.37 Minimum edge of pavement designs for turns at Intersections - AASHTO

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AASHO Design Angle of Turn Radius of Simple 3-centred compound curve 3-centred compound curve asymmetric
Vehicle (degrees) curve (m) symmetric
Radii (m) Offset (m) Radii (m) Offset (m)
P 30 18 .
SU 30 - - - -
WB-40 45 - - - -
WB-50 60 - - - -
P 45 15 ^^ -
SU 23 - - - -
WB-40 36 - - - -
WB-50 52 60-30-60 0.9 - -
P 60 12 - - - -
SU 18 - - - -
WB-40 27 - - - -
WB-50 - 60-23-60 1.7 60-23-84 0.6-1.8
P 75 10.5 30-7.5-30 0.6 - -
SU 17 36-14-36 0.6 - -
WB-40 26 36-14-36 1.5 36-14-60 0.6-2.0
WB-50 - 45-15-45 1.8 46-15-70 0.6-3.0
P 90 9 30-6-30 0.75 - -
SU 15 36-12-36 0.9 - -
WB-40 - 36-12-36 1.5 36-12-60 0.6-1.8
WB-50 - 55-18-55 1.8 36-12-60 0.6-3.0
P 105 - 30-6-30 0.75
SU - 30-10.5-30 0.9
WB-40 - 30-10.5-30 2.5 30-10.5-60 0.6-2.5
WB-50 - 55-14-55 2.5 45-12-64 0.6-3.0
P 120 - 30-6-30 0-6
SU - 30-9-30 0-9
WB-40 - 36-9-36 1.8 30-9-55 0.6-2.7
WB-50 - 55-15-55 2.6 45-10.5-67 0.6-3.7
P 135 - 30-6-30 0.45
SU - 30-9-30 1.2
WB-40 - 36-9-36 2.0 30-7.5-55 0.9-4.0
WB-50 - 50-10.5-50 2.7 40-9-57 0.9-4.3
P 150 - 23-5.5-23 0.6 - -
SU - 30-9-30 1.2 - -
WB-40 - 30-9-30 1.8 27-7.5-50 0.9-3.4
WB-50 - 50-10.5-50 2.1 36-6-55 0.9-4.3
P 180 - 15-4.5-15 0.15 - -
SU - 30-9-30 0.45 - -
WB-40 - 30-6-30 2.9 26-6—45 1.8-4.0
WB-50 - 40-7.5-40 2.9 30-7.5-55 1.8-4.0

Sharpest turns are usually provided for unchannelized intersections and for curbs of
urban streets intersections. In residential streets, the minimum curb radius should be
6m, though 3-4.5m radii are satisfactory. For junctions used by commercial vehicles, a
radius of 10.5 metres will suffice.

6.6.2 Minimum design for turning roadways

Where the inner edges of pavement for left turns at intersections are designed to
accommodate semi-trailer combinations, or where the design permits passenger
vehicles to turn at speeds ≥25Kph, the pavement area at the intersections may be too
large for proper control of traffic. This is mitigated by a corner island provided to form a
separate turning roadway, i.e. a connecting roadway for traffic turning between two
intersection legs.

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 Fig. 7-36. Turning Roadway.

Table 7-38 Minimum design for turning roadways - AASHTO

Angle of turn (degrees) 3-centered Width of lane (m) Approx. island size
compound Curve (m2)
Radii (m) Offset (m)
75 A 45-22.5-45 1.1 4.25 5.5
B 45-22.5-45 1.5 5.5 4.5
C 55-27.5-55 1.1 6.0 4.5
90 A 45-15-45 0.9 4.25 4.5
B 45-15-45 1.5 5.5 7.5
C 55-20-55 1.8 6.0 11.5
105 A 36-12-36 0.6 4.5 6.5
B 30-11-30 1.5 6.5 4.5
C 55-14-55 2.5 9.6 5.5
120 A 30-9-30 0.75 5.0 11.0
B 30-9-30 1.5 7.5 8.5
C 55-12-55 2.6 10.5 20.0
135 A 30-9-30 0.75 5.0 43.0
B 30-9-30 1.5 8.0 34.0
C 50-11-50 2.75 11.0 60.0
150 A 30-9-20 0.75 5.0 130.0
B 30-9-30 1.8 9.0 110.0
C 50-11-50 2.2 11.5 160.0

A Primarily passenger vehicles: permits occasional design single units trucks to

turn with restricted clearances
B Provides adequately for SU; permits occasional WB-50 to turn with slight
encroachment on adjacent traffic lanes.
C Provides fully for WB-50

6.6.3 Curves designed for different speeds

The speeds for which intersections curves should be designed depend largely upon the
vehicle speeds on the approach legs, type of intersection, and volumes of through and
turning traffic. Generally, a desirable turning speed for design is the average running
speed, which may be roughly taken as 0.7 of the design speeds. Design at such speeds
offers little hindrance to smooth flow of traffic and may be justified on some intersections
for certain movements involving little or no-conflict with pedestrians or other vehicular
traffic.

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 Table 7-39 Minimum radii for intersection curves for various turning speeds - AASHTO

Design turning speed (K.P.H.) 25 30 40 50 60 65

Side friction factor, f 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16
Assumed minimum superelevation, e 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.09
Total e+f 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.25
Calculated min R (.m), 14 28 47 70 96 129
R=V2/[127(e+f)]
Suggested minimum, R (m) 15 27 45 70 95 130

6.6.4 Speed change lanes

Drivers entering into or leaving an intersection have to change their speeds. In the
former case, they will reduce the speed to a safe value at which the intersection can be
negotiated. In the latter case, they will increase the speed until the desired open
highway speed is reached. Such deceleration or acceleration on the highway disrupts
traffic and may cause a hazard. Speed change lanes are normally provided on superior
facilities such as expressways and other main highways.

Speed-change lanes are either acceleration lanes or deceleration lanes and are usually
provided with a taper. The length of a deceleration lane depends upon the manoeuvring
speed and the deceleration characteristics. The length of an acceleration lane depends
upon the speed at which the drivers merge with through traffic and the acceleration
characteristics.

Table 7 41 Design lengths of deceleration and acceleration lanes (Grade: 2 per

cent or less) - AASHTO

Design speed of turning Stop 25 30 40 50 60 65 75 80

roadway curve, K.P.H. condition
Minimum curve radius (m) 15 27 45 79 95 130 170 210
-Design speed Length of Total length of deceleration lane, including taper (m)
of highway Taper (m)
(K.P.H.)
65 60 100 90 85 75 60 - - - -
80 70 130 120 115 110 100 85 - - -
100 80 150 150 145 140 130 120 100 90 -
110 90 165 165 160 150 145 140 115 100 -
Design speed Length of Total length of acceleration lane, including taper (m)
of highway Taper (m)
(K.P.H.)
65 60 - 100 75 70 - - - - -
80 70 - 210 190 180 150 120 - - -
100 80 - 340 320 300 270 210 180 120 -
110 90 - 465 450 420 400 370 300 250 175

The width of speed change lane should not be less than a normal traffic lane, i.e. 3.75
metres.

6.6.5 Right-turn (Storage) lanes

Storage lanes for right-turning traffic enable the vehicle to slow down to the necessary
turning speed without impeding the flow of through traffic and for waiting when signals
are provided. The length of such right turn lanes as per current U.K. practice is given
below.
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 Design speed of major road (K.P.H.) 80 65 50
Length of right-turn lane, including 30m taper 120 100 80
(m)

6.6.6 Widths of carriageways in junctions

The carriageway width needs to be increased in curves. The following values of

carriageway widths are as per U.K. practice.

Table 7.40 Width of carriageways at intersections

Inner Radius Single lane width Two lane-width for one- or
(m) (m) two-way traffic
(m)
10.5 5.5 11.5
15 5.2 10.6
20 5.0 10.0
30 4.6 9.1
40 4.5 8.7
50 4.5 8.4
75 4.5 8.4
100 4.5 8.0
125 4.5 7.8
150 4.5 7.6
Straight 4.5 7.3

6.7 Channelization

7.2.4 Channelization of At-Grade Intersections

AASHTO defines channelization as the separation of conflicting traffic movements into

definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings to facilitate the safe and
orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians.

A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes that is used to regulate the
movement of vehicles or to serve as a pedestrian refuge. Vehicular traffic is excluded
from the island area. A properly channelized intersection will result in increased
capacity, enhanced safety, and increased driver confidence. On the other hand, an
intersection that is not properly channelized may have the opposite effect. Care should
always be taken to avoid over channelization since this frequently creates confusion for
the motorist and may even result in a lower operating level than that for an intersection
without any channelization. When islands are used for channelization, they should be
designed and located at the intersection without creating an undue hazard to vehicles; at
the same time, they should be commanding enough to prevent motorists from driving
over them.

Channelization at an intersection is normally used to achieve one or more of the

following objectives:
1. Direct the paths of vehicles so that not more than two paths cross at any one point.
2. Control the merging, diverging, or crossing angle of vehicles.
3. Decrease vehicle wander and the area of conflict among vehicles by reducing the
amount of paved area.
4. Provide a clear indication of the proper path for different movements.
5. Give priority to the predominant movements.

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6. Provide pedestrian refuge.
7. Provide separate storage lanes for turning vehicles, thereby creating space away
from the path of through vehicles for turning vehicles to wait.
8. Provide space for traffic control devices so that they can be readily seen.
9. Control prohibited turns.
10. Separate different traffic movements at signalized intersections with multiple-phase
signals.
11. Restrict the speeds of vehicles.

The factors that influence the design of a channelized intersection are availability of right
of way, terrain, type of design vehicle, expected vehicular and pedestrian volumes, cross
sections of crossing roads, approach speeds, bus-stop requirements, and the location
and type of traffic-control device. For example, factors such as right of way, terrain,
bus-stop requirements, and vehicular and pedestrian volumes influence the extent to
which channelization can be undertaken at a given location while factors such as type of
design vehicle and approach speeds influence the design of the edge of pavement.

The design of a channelized intersection should always be governed by the following

principles:
1. Motorists should not be required to make more than one decision at a time.
2. Sharp reverse curves and turning paths greater than 90° should be avoided.
3. Merging and weaving areas should be as wide as possible, but other areas of conflict
between vehicles should be reduced to a minimum.
4. Crossing traffic streams that do not weave or merge should intersect at 90° although
a range of 60 to 120° is acceptable.
5. The intersecting angle of merging streams should be such that adequate sight
distance is provided.
6. Refuge areas for turning vehicles should not interfere with the movement of through
vehicles.
7. Prohibited turns should be blocked wherever possible.
8. Decisions on the location of essential traffic control devices should be a component
of the design process.

General Characteristics of Traffic Islands

The definition given for traffic islands in the previous section clearly indicates that they
are not all of one physical type. These islands can be formed by using raised curbs,
pavement markings, or the pavement edges as shown in Figure 7.11.

Curbed Traffic Islands. A curbed island is usually formed by the construction of a

concrete curb that delineates the area of the island, as shown in Figure 7.11a. Curbs are
generally classified as mountable or barrier. Mountable curbs are constructed with their
faces inclined at an angle of 45 degrees or less so that vehicles may mount them
without difficulty if necessary. The faces of barrier curbs are usually vertical. Specific
designs for different types of curbs are presented in Chapter 16. It should be noted,
however, that because of glare, curbed islands may be difficult to see at night which
makes it necessary that intersections with curbed islands have fixed-source lighting.
Curbed islands are used mainly in urban highways where approach speed is not
excessively high and pedestrian volume is relatively high.

Traffic Islands Formed by Pavement Markings. This type of island is sometimes

referred to as a flushed island because it is flushed with the pavement, as shown in
Figure 7.11b. Flushed islands are formed by pavement markings that delineate the area
of the island. Markers include paint, thermoplastic striping, and raised retroreflective
markers. Flushed islands are preferred over curbed islands at intersections where
approach speeds are relatively high, pedestrian traffic is low, and signals or sign
mountings are not located on the island.

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Islands Formed by Pavement Edges. These islands are usually unpaved and are
mainly used at rural intersections where there is space for large intersection curves.

(a) Curbed island at an intersection

(b) Island formed by pavement markings (flushed island)

Figure 7.11 Examples of Traffic Islands

SOURCE: (a) Photograph by Chase Buchanan, University of Virginia. Used with
permission, (b) Photograph
by Lewis Woodson. Virginia Transportation Research Council. Charlottesville. VA. Used
with permission.

Functions of Traffic Islands

Traffic islands also can be classified into three categories based on their functions:
channelized, divisional, and refuge. Channelized islands are mainly used to control and
direct traffic. Divisional islands are mainly used to divide opposing or same-directional
traffic streams. Refuge islands are used primarily to provide refuge for pedestrians.

In most cases, however, traffic islands perform two or more of these functions rather
than a single function, although each island may have a primary function.

Channelized Islands. The objective of channelized islands is to eliminate confusion to

motorists at intersections with different traffic movements by guiding them into the
correct lane for their intended movement. This is achieved by converting excess space
at the intersection into islands in a manner that leaves little to the discretion of the
motorist. A channelized island may take one of many shapes (f. e. d of Figure 7.12b),
depending on its specific purpose. For example, a triangularly-shaped channelized
island is often used to separate right-turning traffic from through traffic (see Figure
7.12a) whereas a curved, central island is frequently used to guide turning vehicles (see
Figure 7.12b). In any case, the outlines of a channelized island should be nearly parallel
to the lines of traffic it is channelling. Where the island is used to separate turning traffic
133
from through traffic, the radii of the curved sections must be equal to or greater than the
minimum radius required for the expected turning speed.

The number of islands used for channelization at an intersection should be kept to a

practical minimum, since the presence of several islands may cause confusion to the
motorist. For example, the use of a set of islands to delineate several one-way lanes
may cause unfamiliar drivers to enter the intersection in the wrong lane.

Figure 7.12 Examples of Channelized Islands

SOURCE: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, American
Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington. D.C. 2004. p. 624. Used with permission.

Figure 7.13 Examples of Divisional Islands

SOURCE: A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. American
Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington. D.C. 2004. p. 626. Used with permission.

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Divisional Islands. These are frequently used at intersections of undivided high- ways
to alert drivers that they are approaching an intersection and to control traffic at the
intersection. They also can be used effectively to control left turns at skewed inter-
sections. Examples of divisional islands are shown in Figure 7.13. When it is necessary
to widen a road at an intersection so that a divisional island can be included, every effort
should be made to ensure that the path a driver is expected to take is made quite clear.
The alignment also should be designed so that the driver can traverse the inter- section
easily without any excessive steering.

It is sometimes necessary to use reverse curves (two simple curves with opposite
curvature, forming a compound curve) when divisional islands are introduced,
particularly when the location is at a tangent. At locations where speeds tend to be high,
particularly in rural areas, it is recommended that the reversal in curvature be no greater
than 1 degree. Sharper curves can be used when speeds are relatively low. but a
maximum of 2 degrees is recommended.

Refuge Islands. Refuge islands, sometimes referred to as pedestrian islands, are used
mainly at urban intersections to serve as refuge areas for wheelchairs and pedestrians
crossing wide intersections. They also may be used for loading and unloading transit
passengers. Figure 7.14 on the next page shows examples of islands that pro- vide
refuge as well as function as channelized islands.

Figure 7.14 Examples of Refuge Islands at Wide Intersections

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SOURCE: Photographs by Lewis Woodson. Virginia Transportation Research Council.
Charlottesville. VA.
Used with permission.

Minimum Sizes of Islands

It is essential that islands be large enough to command the necessary attention by
drivers. To achieve this. AASHTO recommends that curbed islands have a minimum
area of 4.5 m2 for urban intersections and 7 m2 for rural intersections, although 9 m2 is
preferable for both. The minimum side lengths recommended are 3.6 m (but preferably
4.5 m) for triangular islands after the rounding of corners. 6 m to 7.5 m for elongated or
divisional islands, and 30 m (but preferably several hundred m) for curbed divisional
islands that are located at isolated intersections on high-speed highways. It is not
advisable to introduce curbed divisional islands at isolated intersections on high-speed
roads since this may create a hazardous situation unless the island is made visible
enough to attract the attention of the driver.

Islands having side lengths near the minimum are small islands whereas those with side
lengths of 30 m or greater are large. Those with side lengths less than those for large
islands but greater than the minimum are considered to be intermediate islands.

In general, the width of elongated islands should not be less than 1.2 m, although this
dimension can be reduced to an absolute minimum of 0.6 m in special cases when
space is limited. In cases where signs are located on the island, the width of the sign
must be considered in selecting the width of the island to ensure that the sign does not
extend beyond the limits of the island.

Location and Treatment of Approach Ends of Curbed Islands

The location of a curbed island at an intersection is dictated by the edge of the through
traffic lanes and the turning roadways. Figures 7.15 on page 292 and 7.16 on page 293
show design details of curbed islands at urban and rural intersections without and with
shoulders, respectively. Figures 7.15 and 7.16. respectively, illustrate the condition
where the curbed island edge is located on one approach by providing an offset to the
through traffic lane, and where it is located outside a shoulder that is carried through the
intersection. The offset from the through traffic lane should be 0.6 to 1 m, depending on
factors such as the type of edge treatment, island contrast, length of taper or auxiliary
pavement preceding the curbed island, and traffic speed. This offset is required for the
sides of curbed islands adjacent to the through traffic lanes for both barrier and
mountable curbs, and for the sides of barrier curbs adjacent to turning roadways.
However, it is not necessary to offset the side of a mountable curb adjacent to a turning
roadway except as needed to provide additional protection for the island. In cases where
there are no shoulders (Figure 7.15), an offset of 0.6 to 1 m should be maintained when
there are no curbs on the approach pavement. When there is a mountable curb on the
approach pavement, a similar curb can be used on the curbed island at the edge of the
through lane. However, this requires that the length of the curbed island be adequate to
obtain a gradual taper from the nose offset. AASHTO recommends that the offset of the
approach nose of a curbed island from the travel lane should normally be about 0.6 m
greater than that of the side of the island from the travel lane. However, for median
curbed islands, an offset of at least 0.6 m but preferably 1.2 m of the approach nose
from the normal median edge of pavement is recommended. It should be emphasized
that to prevent the perception of lateral constraint by drivers, the required offset from the
edge of through pavement lanes should always be used when barrier curbed islands are
introduced. When uncurbed large or intermediate islands are used, the required offsets
may be eliminated, although it is still preferable to provide the offsets.

At intersections with approach shoulders but without deceleration or turn lanes, the
offset of curbed islands from the through travel lane should be equal to the width of the
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 shoulder. When a deceleration lane precedes the curbed island, or when a gradually
widened auxiliary pavement exists and speeds are within the intermediate-to-high range,
it is desirable to increase the offset of the nose by an additional 0.6 m to 1.2 m.

The end treatments for curbed islands are also shown in Figures 7.15 and 7.16. These
figures show that the approach noses for intermediate and large curbed islands are
rounded using curves of radii 0.6 to 1 m.

6.7.1 Median openings

(a) Minimum design

Where nearly all the traffic travels on the divided highway and volume is below capacity,
an occasional vehicle may use the median opening either to come to the through road
from the cross-road or to go to the cross-road from the through road. A simple median
opening designed for the minimum turning path is provided. The length of the opening
depends upon the width of the median.

Table 7 43 Minimum length of median opening for SU Design vehicles - AASHTO

Median width M (.in metres) L= Minimum length of median openings (in

metres) (Bullet nose ends)
1.2 30
1.8 23
2.5 21
3.0 19
3.6 18
4.3 16
5.0 15
6.0 13
7.2 and above 12 min

(b) Design for U-turns

Median openings designed only to accommodate vehicles making U-turns are needed
on expressways at the following locations:

1. Near to all terminal junctions

2. At regular intervals, of say 1.5km, between junctions to facilitate maintenance
operations, policing, repair of stalled vehicles etc.
3. Beyond important intersections to enable drivers unfamiliar with the locality to
correct any mistake in manoeuvring
4. For accommodating minor turning movements.

A minimum width of 9 m is needed but reduced to 6m for passenger vehicles only. The
accommodations for U-turns provided by minimum design are summarised below

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 Table 7 44 Median opening for U-turn design - AASHTO
Median Type of manoeuvre accommodated on 4 lane AASHTO design vehicle
width divided highway provided for
(m)
18 Permits nearly all vehicles to U- turn from inner to inner lane All vehicles.
12 Permits all passenger vehicles to U-turn from inner to inner P and SU
lane; permits some trucks to turn from outer to outer lane, with
large trucks partially encroaching on shoulders.
10 Permits passenger vehicles to U-turn from inner to inner lane; P and SU
permits all trucks to U-turns with encroachment on shoulders
6 Permits passenger vehicles to U-turn from inner to outer lane; P only
U-turn impossible for large trucks without backing

(c) Gap in median at junctions

To allow large vehicles to turn right without difficulty to/from a major road, the gap in the
median should normally extend 3m beyond the continuation of both kerb lines of the
minor road to the edge of the major road and should also be determined by 12-15m
radius control circles tangential both to the centre line of the minor road (or to the sides
of any refuge or Island) and the side of the central reserve away from the minor road.

Gap in median at junction.

6.8 Roundabouts (Rotary Intersections)

6.8.1 Definition of terms

A sketch of the rotary along with some of its elements is given below

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 Fig. 7.68. Rotary Elements

The definitions of some of the common terms in rotary design; are given below:

Diverging: The dividing of a single stream of traffic into separate streams.

Merging: The converging of separate streams of traffic into a single stream.
Weaving: The combined movement of merging and diverging of traffic streams
moving in the same general direction.
Weaving Length: The length of a section of a rotary in which weaving occurs.

6.8.2 Advantages of rotary intersections

The advantages of rotary intersections are:

(i) Rotary one-way movement provides an orderly and regimented traffic flow
(ii) Normally, all traffic proceeds simultaneously and continuously at fairly
uniform, 'though low, speed
(iii) Weaving movements replace the usual angular crossings typical at grade
intersections
(iv) All turns can be made with ease, although little extra travel distance is
required
(v) A rotary is especially suited for intersections with five or more intersection
legs, and/or where there are heavy right-turning movements
(vi) For moderate traffic, rotaries are self-governing and need no control by police
or traffic signals

6.8.3 Disadvantages of rotary intersections

(i) As the flow increases and reaches the capacity, the rotary may 'lock up'.
(ii) A rotary can have the same capacity as a properly designed channelized layout
(iii) A rotary requires more land and may not be feasible in built-up locations.

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 (iv) Topography limits use of rotaries as they require large and relatively flat land
area
(v) Where pedestrian traffic is large, a rotary by itself is not sufficient to control traffic
and has to be supplemented by traffic police
(vi) Where used on high-speed roads, rotaries require extremely large size.
(vii) Where the angle of intersection between two roads is too acute, it becomes
difficult to provide adequate weaving length
(viii) They impede traffic flow when provided at close intervals
(ix) Traffic turning right has to travel a little extra distance
(x) A rotary requires many warning and directional signs for safety
(xi) The rotary is not readily adaptable to stage development. Attempts at stage
development generally result in some over-design when viewed from immediate
traffic needs.

6.8.4 Guidelines for selecting a rotary type of intersection

Considering some of the above advantages and disadvantages, the following general
guidelines may be kept in view when selecting a rotary type of intersection:

(i) Rotaries are most appropriate where volumes entering from different intersection
legs are approximately equal.
(ii) The maximum practical capacity for high type rotaries is about 3000 veh/hr
entering from all the intersection legs
(iii) A rotary design is most appropriate when the proportion of turning traffic is very
high
(iv) A rotary is a good choice when there are more than four approaches to the
junction.
(v) When the approach widths are restricted and it is impossible to provide separate
lanes for through and turning traffic, a rotary may be desirable.
(vi) Rotaries are not generally warranted for intersections carrying very light traffic -
the lowest traffic volume for which a rotary design should be considered is about
500 vph
(vii) Rotaries could be a good choice for moderately busy intersections in urban and
suburban areas, in place of complicated channelized layouts or traffic signals.

6.8.5 Shape of Rotary Island

The shape and layout of the rotary island depends upon the layout of the intersecting
roads and the traffic flow pattern.

Circular Equilateral
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 Elliptical Rectangular

Irregular

Type Remarks
1. Circular Suited where roads of equal importance carrying approximately
equal volumes intersect at nearly equal angles.
2. Squarish with rounded Suited for predominantly straight ahead flows.
edges
3. Elliptical, elongated, oval Intended to favour through traffic. They may be provided to suit
or rectangular the geometry of the intersecting legs or to provide long weaving
lengths. Elongated central island will be appropriate for a
scissor’s junction.
4. Irregular Shape is dictated by the existence of a large number of
approaches.

6.8.6 Mini roundabouts

A serious drawback of the conventional roundabout is that very often the traffic locks
itself. The conventional roundabout is thus not exactly self-regulatory at all times.

A major change in the approach to roundabout design was the introduction of the
“offside priority” rule in 1966. This rule was intended to get over the drawback of locked
roundabouts, but other advantages came with it. The absence of 'weaving' under the

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new rule made possible a drastic reduction in the size of the central island and an
availability of greater-carriageway space within the existing layout. The entry width could
be increased, rendering a multi-vehicle flow into the roundabout.

Experiments initiated at the TRRL demonstrated that using small diameter islands could
bring in higher capacities. This formed the basis of current U.K. practice.

Typical mini roundabout as per U.K. practice.

The basic principles of design of a mini roundabout illustrated above are:

(i) Provision of small diameter island, about 1/3 of a hypothetical circle inscribed
within the outer carriageway boundaries, but normally not less than 8 m.
(ii) An increase in the number of lanes at the Give-Way line.
(iii) A minimum stopping distance of 25 m between the Give-Way line and the point
of conflict with a vehicle from the left. This is the dimension X in figure above
(iv) A width between traffic islands and the roundabout which is not less than the
total lane width at the entry preceding it, i.e. dimension shown as. Z
(v) An entry taper (about 1 in 6) that is about twice as sharp as the exit taper (about
1 in 12).
(vi) A deflection island (shown as B) intended to ensure that straight-through
movements do not occur.
(vii) To maintain junction capacity, a single lane approach should be tapered to give
at least three lanes at the junction and a 2-lane approach tapered to at least four
lanes at the junction. At the exits, the merge should normally be from four lanes
to two lanes and two lanes to one lane.

The capacity of a mini roundabout is expressed with a general equation as follows:

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 q = K(w+a1/2), where

q = total entry volume in PCU/hour

w = sum of the basic road width used by traffic in both directions, in metres.
a = area of the junction widening, i.e., the area within the intersection outline
(including islands) which lies outside the area of the basic crossroads, in sq. m.
K = efficiency coefficient which depends upon site conditions.
.
Typical values are:

K values (PCU/hr)
3-way junction 80
4-way junction 70
5-way junction 65

The practical capacity is about 80 per cent of that given by above equation.

(a) Advantages of Mini roundabouts

(i) Increased capacity: Wherever mini roundabouts have replaced large

diameter roundabouts, a general increase in the capacity has been noted. As
compared to signalised junctions too, mini roundabouts can bring about
higher capacities.
(ii) Accident rates. A trend of decrease in the number of fatal and serious injury
accidents has been noticed after conversion of junction into mini
roundabouts.

(b) Limitations for use

As indicated earlier, mini roundabouts are the result of the introduction of the "offside
priority" rule. They can be introduced only where such rules are in force and are strictly
followed. Non-observance of this rule can lead to chaos and serious accidents.

Mini roundabouts require careful consideration on the design speed. High standard
pavement markings and road signing, and great care in provision of guide islands,
alignment of the kerbs and location of the central island are necessary for the
satisfactory functioning.

Adequate visibility to the approaching drivers is of prime importance.

6.9 Grade Separated Intersections

6.9.1 Criteria for provision

The general criteria for providing grade separation across streets and highways are as
follows:

Urban streets. Grade separation to be provided if the estimated traffic volumes within
the next 5 years are in excess of the capacity of the intersection; when traffic projections
show that volumes within the next 20 years will exceed the capacity of an at-grade

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 intersection, the need for a grade separated facility should be kept in view for future
construction.

Rural highway. Grade separation should be provided at intersections of divided rural

highway if the ADT (fast vehicles only) on the crossroad within the next 5 years exceeds
5000. Where this figure will be reached within the next 20 years, the need for such
facilities should be kept in view.

Grade-separation is of great importance across railway lines. As a general guide Indian

practice for rural highways requires grade-separation to be provided across existing
railway lines if the product of ADT (fast vehicles only) and the number of trains per day
exceeds 50,000 with the next 5 years. For new constructions such as bypasses, grade
separations should be provided when this figure is greater than 25,000.

6.9.2 Types of grade-separated intersections

Basically, two types are met with:

(i) Grade-separated intersections without interchange

(ii) Grade-separated intersections with interchange.

Interchange is a system whereby facility is provided for movement of traffic between two
or more roadways at different levels in the grade-separated junction. A structure without
interchange is an over-bridge or underpass or flyover, whereby the traffic at different
levels moves separately without a provision for an interchange between them.

The different forms of a grade-separated junction can be considered under the number
of legs the intersection serves. Thus, the interchanges can be classified as three-leg,
four-leg and multi-leg, and these in turn can be subdivided into various types as below:

A. Three-leg interchange. B. Four-leg interchange C. Multi-leg interchange

1. T interchange.
2. Y interchange.
3. A partial rotary
interchange
1. Diamond interchange. 1. Rotary interchange.
2. Half cloverleaf
interchange.
3. Clover leaf interchange.
4. Rotary interchange.
5. Directional interchange.

These types will be discussed in detail.

(a) Three-leg interchange

If one of the intersection legs meets a highway at approximately a right angle but does
not cross it, and if the junction is provided with interchanging facility, the junction is
called a T interchange. If the intersection angle is acute or obtuse, the junction is called
a Y interchange. A widely used form of a T or Y interchange is "trumpet".

144
Fig. 7.79. Trumpet interchange.

Fig. 7-80. Y-shaped interchange

A design convertible to full clover when the junction is likely to become four-leg, is
indicated below

Fig. 7-81. Three-leg interchange that can be converted to a clover

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 An alternative to the arrangement is a partial bridged rotary intersection shown below

(b) Diamond interchange

A popular form of interchange in urban locations involving a major-minor crossing is a

diamond interchange. It can be designed for a relatively narrow right-of-way of the
major road.

(c) Half Cloverleaf interchanges

When a major road crosses a minor road (not more than 2 lanes) it is possible to provide
a partial cloverleaf.

(d) Cloverleaf interchange

The cloverleaf interchange is a 4-leg interchange with a single structure and is very
popular. It is used when two high volume and high-speed facilities intersect each other.
146
 Some of its advantages are:
(i) Through traffic on both roads is unimpeded.
(ii) Only one structure is required
(iii) Left-turning traffic has a direct path
(iv) It is very simple to use and does not confuse the drivers.

The disadvantages are:

(i) Relatively large area is needed.
(ii) The carriageway area required is also higher than a rotary interchange
(iii) Weaving manoeuvres are involved, some of them on the roadway of the
structure and some underneath the structure
(iv) The weaving capacity is limited to about 1200 PCUs/hour but may be
increased by providing an ancillary lane.
(v) The U-turns are long and operationally difficult.
(vi) Loop design speeds have to be low, and speeds above 50 K.P.H. are likely
to increase the cost.
(vii) Right-turning traffic has to travel extra distance.
(viii) The capacity of the loop is also restricted.

A capacity of 800 - 1200 veh per hour is almost the limit. Figure below gives the layout
of cloverleaf interchange.

(e) Rotary interchange

A rotary interchange is another form of 4-leg interchange popular in some countries,

especially in U.K. It can also be used for multi-leg interchange.

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 The advantages claimed for this type of interchange are:
(i) It occupies relatively less land area
(ii) The carriageway area is also less than many other types
(iii) U- turns are easy
(iv) Suitable for most sites.

The advantages are:

(i) The capacity is limited by the capacity of the roundabout itself
(ii) The straight through traffic on one road is required to weave with turning traffic
from the other road

A 2-level interchange can be improved to a 3-levels rotary interchange, where through

traffic on each road is unimpeded and the weaving takes place in the rotary only for the
turning traffic. The number of structures required is five.

Fig. 7.89. Three-level rotary

(f) Directional interchange

An interchange which gives direct or semi direct connections for the major right-turning
movements is called a directional interchange. These interchanges are rather complex
and involve complicated multi-level structures
148
6.9.3 Design considerations

(i) Radii of curves on ramps

(ii) Sight distance on ramps
(iii) Gradients on ramps. Guidelines are:
(a) Ramp gradients should desirably be limited to 6 per cent in areas subject to
snow and ice
(b) Where heavy truck tram; is likely, the upward gradient should be limited to 4
per cent.
(c) In exceptional cases, grades may be as steep as 10 per cent, on minor
ramps and low volume ramps.
(iv) Width of ramps
(v) Capacity.

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7 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT

7.1 Introduction

Congestion of traffic in cities is a serious problem. Medium- and long-term solutions like
widening roads, providing elevated flyovers and constructing bypasses and urban
expressways are costly. Simple and inexpensive solutions can mitigate the crisis for
some time. Transportation System Management (TSM) is a package of short-term
measures to, make the most productive and cost-effective use of existing transportation
facilities, services and modes (Ref.10). TSM also embraces Travel Demand
Management (TDM).

7.2 Travel Demand Management

TDM techniques are aimed at reducing the traffic flows, especially during the peak hour.
Some of the techniques commonly adopted are:

1. Car-pooling and other ride-sharing programs

2. Peripheral parking schemes
3. Chartered buses (Institutional buses) to serve areas of trip origins to common
workplace
4. Staggering of office hours and flexible time of work.
5. Internal shuttle service in the CBD
6. Parking restraint
7. Road pricing
8. Entry fee
9. Priority for buses in traffic.

7.3 Traffic Management

7.3.1 Scope of Traffic Management Measures

Many of the urban streets carry traffic volumes for which they were not simply designed.
The inevitable result is delay, congestion and accidents. The resultant ills can be got
over to some extent by controlling the traffic, imposing regulatory measures and
enforcing management techniques, so as to make the most economic use of the streets.
Traffic control measures include traffic signals, and these have been already
considered. Regulatory measures include restrictions on speed, parking, and size of
vehicles and so on, and these also have been discussed separately. The third of the set
of measures available to the traffic engineer are collectively known as traffic
management measures. These measures also form part of TSM.

The fundamental approach in traffic management measures is to retain as much as

possible existing pattern of streets but to alter the pattern of traffic movement on these,
so that the most efficient use is made of the system. In doing so, minor alternations to
traffic lanes, islands, curbs etc. are inevitable, and are part of the management
measures. The general aim is to reorient the traffic pattern on the existing streets so that
the conflict between vehicles and pedestrians is reduced.

Some of the well-known traffic management measures are:

150
 (i) Restrictions on turning movements
(ii) One-way streets
(iii) Tidal-flow operations
(iv) Exclusive Bus-lanes
(v) Closing side-streets.

7.3.2 Restrictions of turning movements

(a) The problem posed by turning traffic

At a junction, the turning traffic includes left-turners and right-turners. Left-turning traffic
does not usually obstruct traffic flows through the junctions, but right-turning traffic can
cause serious loss of capacity. At times, right-turning traffic can lock the flow and bring
the entire flow to a halt. One way of dealing with heavy right-turning traffic is to
incorporate a separate right-turning phase in the signal scheme, or to introduce an early
cut-off or late start arrangement. These schemes have their limitations and result in a
long signal cycle. Another solution is to ban the turning movement altogether.

(b) Prohibited right-turning movement

Prohibition of right-turning movement can be established only if the existing street

system is capable of accommodating an alternative routing. Three methods are
available

i. Diversion of the right-turning traffic to an alternative intersection further along the

road where there is more capacity for dealing with a right-turn. The right turn gets
shifted to a minor-minor junction. It is often useful for dealing with a difficult right
turn from a minor road into a major road.

Fig. 1. Prohibited right turning schemes.

ii. Diversion of the right-turning traffic to the left before the junction, the G-turn. A
right-turn from a major road is converted to a left turn from the major road and a
straight-over movement at the original junction.

iii. Diversion of the right-turning traffic beyond the junction, the Q-turn. It involves
three left turns, with the driver travelling twice through the original junction. It
increases the total volume of traffic handled by the junction but is considered the
least obstructive since only left turns are involved.

Prohibition of right-turning movement increases saturation flow and capacity of a

junction. However, prohibition of a right turn at a junction may compound problems at
other junctions.
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(c) Prohibited left-turning movements

Left-turning movement is not obstructive to traffic and is rarely prohibited. However, it

may be needed to provide a safe crossing for pedestrians, especially when the
pedestrian traffic across the minor road is heavy.

7.3.3 One-way Streets

One-way streets are those where traffic movement is permitted in only one direction.
They provide an immediate and cheaper method of alleviating the traffic conditions in a
busy area. In combination with other methods such as banned turning movements,
installation of signals and restrictions on loading and waiting, the one-way street system
achieves great improvement in traffic conditions of congested areas.

(a) Advantages of one-way streets

i. A reduction in the points of conflict.

ii. Increased capacity. The removal of opposing traffic and the reduction of
intersection points of conflict results in a marked increase in the capacity of a
one-way street.
iii. Increased speed. Since the opposing traffic is eliminated, drivers can operate at
higher speeds.
iv. Facilitating the operation of a progressive signal system.
v. Improvement in parking facilities
vi. Elimination of dazzle and head-on collision.
vii.

Fig. 2. Vehicular points of conflict with 2-way streets and one-way streets.

152
 Fig. 3. Conflict points between pedestrians and vehicles.

(b) Disadvantages of one-way street working

A number of disadvantages are associated with one-way street working. Some of these
are:

i. Actual distances to be covered by drivers increase.

ii. Where buses operate on the streets, the stops will have to be relocated and in
many instances the passengers will have to walk extra distances.
iii. Increased speeds in one-way operation may be a hazard
iv. If located in a residential district, it may result in loss of amenity if traffic is heavy
v. Introduction of one-way streets could adversely affect the business of the area
vi. The existing street patterns may not accommodate a one-way street system
vii. Emergency vehicles (fire services, ambulances etc.) may be blocked at
intersections

(c) Need for proper signing

When a one-way street system is introduced, proper signs should be put up to foster
safe and efficient traffic. 'No entry' signs are needed at all terminal points of, the one-
way streets. At the entrances and exits of all intersections within the scheme, 'one-way'
and/or 'two-way' traffic signs should be displayed. It may be necessary to put up 'No left
turn' and 'No right turn' signs at some junctions.

7.3.4 Tidal flow operation

Traffic flow on any street leading to the city centre is imbalanced in directional
distribution during the peak hours. For instance, the morning peak results in a heavy
flow towards the city centre, while the evening peak causes heavier flow away from the
city centre. In each case, the street space provided for the opposing traffic is excessive.
This phenomenon is commonly termed as "tidal flow". One method of dealing with this
problem is to allot more than half the lanes for one direction during the peak hours, in a
system known as "tidal flow operation", or "reverse flow operation".

(a) Methods

The principle of tidal flow operation can be translated into practice in two ways:

153
 i. The first is to apportion a greater number of lanes in a multi-lane street to the in-
bound traffic during the morning peak and similarly a great number of lanes to
the out-bound traffic during the evening peak.
ii. The second requires the existence of two separate streets parallel to each other
and close to each other, so that the wider of the two can be set apart for the
heavier traffic both during the morning peak and the evening peak. In this case,
the two streets will operate as one-way streets-

(b) Favourable conditions for operation

For undivided streets, tidal flow operation is best done with the number of traffic lanes
allocated to the two directions roughly corresponding with the directional split in traffic
flow. Generally, tidal flow operation is justified where 65 per cent or more of traffic
moves in one direction during peak periods. It is also necessary that the remaining lanes
for the lighter flow are adequate for that traffic.

1. With a three-lane street, two lanes can be reserved for heavier flow and one lane
for the smaller flow.
2. With a four-lane street, a 3-lane to 1-lane distribution may not correspond with
the directional split in traffic flow. In such cases, it may be more prudent to
allocate the entire street to one direction and designate a parallel street nearly to
be opposing traffic.
3. With a five-lane road, a 3-lane to 2-lane distribution becomes very convenient.
During off-peak hours a 5-lane facility can be worked with 2 lanes for each
direction, with no traffic allowed in the central lane.
4. On a 6-lane street, 4-lane to 2-lane distribution is convenient. A six-lane facility
can be worked with 3 lanes for each direction during off-peak period.

(c) Special measures needed

With a tidal flow operation, special signing and additional control devices are needed.
The assignment of traffic to proper lanes can be achieved by placing overhead signs.
Better results are possible with signals to regulate the flow in each lane. If these signals
are properly designed, an additional advantage can be gained by the progressive timing.

It is desirable to restrict parking on the side of the major flow during the peak periods.
Direct right-turns by traffic in the major direction should be forbidden at important
intersections.

Stanchions or traffic cones are desirable to separate the opposing traffic. 'No right turn'
and "Keep Left' signs on pedestals and stanchions are also necessary.

7.3.5 Closing Side-streets

A main street may have a number of lightly trafficked side-streets. It may be possible to
close some of these side-streets without adversely affecting traffic, and still get the
benefits of improved traffic flow.

(a) Advantages

The following are some of the advantages of closing side-streets:

(i) Since interference from the traffic from side streets is eliminated, the speed increases
and journey time reduces.
(ii) Accidents also get reduced.
(iii) It allows the formulation of a progressive signal system of signals
(iv) The closed side-streets can be utilized for parking
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 (v) The closed side-streets can also be pedestrianised to enhance safety, comfort and
convenience of pedestrians.

(b) Disadvantages

The disadvantages of closing the side-streets can be:

(i) Closing a number of cross-streets may increase the flow to and fro the remaining
cross-roads.
(ii) When a number of side-streets are closed, the immediate effect is an increase in the
parking of vehicles on the main street itself. Those vehicles which used to park on the
side streets are now deprived of their parking space and may create congestion on the
main road leading to delays and lower speeds.

7.3.6 Exclusive Bus Lanes

It is a traffic management practice where a lane of the carriageway is reserved

exclusively for bus traffic. This is only possible where the carriageway width is adequate
for a lane to be easily spared for the buses. There should be at least 3 lanes in each
direction. The exclusive lane must be adjacent to the curb for convenience of alighting
and embarking passengers.

Bus priority measures are a cheap and easy way to provide some aid to bus services.
The journey time can be considerably reduced, and bus journey made more attractive.
Regularity of the buses can be improved.

To be successful, the bus-lanes should be created for a good length of the road instead
of in small bits. 'Bus only' streets can also be established, prohibiting all traffic except
buses. This is usually enforced in shopping areas to facilitate pedestrians reach the
buses within short walking distances.

The width of the bus lane should be a minimum of 2.8 m and if possible 3.5 m.

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8 PARKING AND TERMINAL FACILITIES

8.1 Introduction

Parking and terminal facilities are an essential part of the total transportation system.
The planning and designing of these facilities demand an understanding of the
characteristics of vehicles, the behaviour of the drivers, the parking operation, and the
parking generating characteristics of different land uses served.

As one of the activities of the urban complex, parking is competing for space, both on-
street and off-street. Ideally, a motorist would like to be able to park right in front of his
or her door, to avoid the need for walking, but this luxury is not always possible. Street
space is more profitably used for moving traffic.

A systematic study of the parking characteristics, demand and regulatory measures for
controlling parking is vital to traffic engineers and town planners.

8.2 Ill-effects of Parking

1. Congestion: Loss of street space and attendant traffic congestion. Street capacity is
reduced, journey speeds drop while journey times and delay increase. Increase vehicle
operating costs result in economic loss to the community.

2 Accidents: The manoeuvres associated with parking and unparking are known to
cause road accidents.

3.Obstruction to fire-fighting operations: Parked cars obstruct the movement of fire-

fighting vehicles and greatly impede their operations, including access to hydrants and
buildings.

4. Environment: Vehicles deface the visual aesthetics in addition to emissions and noise

8.3 Parking Policies

The formulation of parking policies is one of the more difficult tasks with which a planner
has to contend. The difficulty lies in coordinating parking policies with several other
planning objectives. The following considerations may be taken into account:

1. To strike a compromise between the amount of curb space devoted to parking

spaces and that devoted to moving vehicles.
2. To make provision for parking of delivery vehicles and for short- and long-term
parkers.
3. To design parking lots and their approaches so that street traffic is not adversely
affected by the ingress and egress of vehicles.
4. To ensure that the interest of business establishments along the street is
enhanced by good parking arrangements.
5. To ensure that parking policies and public transit policies are complementary
example, car parking facilities adjacent to express bus route would enhance bus
ridership.
6. To preserve the character of the neighbourhood by restricting parking and
enforcing land-use controls.

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 7. To control parking supply and demand through the pricing mechanism;
encouraging short-term parking and discouraging long-term parking may serve to
enhance the central business district (CBD).

Pricing mechanism or supply mechanism strategies for on street and off-street parking
could be implemented as shown in Table 8-1.

TABLE 8-1 Parking Control

Parking
Control
On-Street Off-Street
 Install meters
Parking tax rate structure to
Price  Increase meter rates discourage long- term parkers
 Street parking permit with fee
 Freeze new parking
 Ban parking, partially or totally.
Reduce existing parking
 Ban parking, except specified
Supply  Control future parking
groups, such as residents
 Vary time of opening and
 Adjust meter rates
closing
Source: Ogden and Bennett, 1984.

8.4 Zoning and Parking Space Requirement Standards

On-street parking and its regulation is an important aspect of the overall parking policy
of a town. However, to ensure development of land-use and building activity adequately
takes care of future parking needs, zoning ordinances are promulgated whereby all new
or re-modelled buildings will be required to have within their cartilage a prescribed
parking space. Zoning and land-use controls are vital for fostering safe and efficient
traffic.

Parking demand is a function of the land-use, though variations can exist within the
same land-use. Notwithstanding the difficulties that arise in prescribing a uniform
parking space requirement standard for all communities, it is possible to prescribe
minimum standards based on extensive experience. Typical values given in Table 8-2.

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Table 8-2 Desirable Parking Space Standards for Different Land Use

Land use Parking space standard

1. Residential
(i) Detached, semi-detached row
houses
No private or community parking space is
Plot area up to 100 sq. m.
required.
Plot area from 101 to 200 sq. m. Only community parking space is required.
Plot area from 201 to 300 sq. m. Only community parking space is required.
Minimum one-third of the open area
Plot area from 301 to 500 sq. m.
earmarked for parking.
Plot area from 501 to 1000 sq. Minimum one-fourth of the open area
m. earmarked for parking.
Minimum one-sixth of the open area
Plot area 1001 sq. m. and above
earmarked for parking.
One space for every two flats of 50 to 99
(ii) Flats.
sq. m. or more of floor area.
One space for every flat of 50 to 100 sq. m.
of floor area. One and a half spaces for
(Hi) Special, costly developed area. every flat of 100 to 150 sq. m. of floor area.
Two spaces for every flat of above 150 sq.
m. of floor area.
One space for every four dwellings except
(iv) Multi-storeyed group-housing
in cities like Calcutta and Bombay where
schemes.
the demand may be more.
One space for every 70 sq. m. of floor
2. Offices
area.
One space for up to 200 sq. m. of initial
floor area. Additional spaces at the rate of
3. Industrial premises
one for every subsequent 200 sq. m. of
fraction thereof.
One space for every 80 sq. m. of floor
4. Shops and markets
area.
5. Restaurants One space for every 10 seats.
6. Theatres and cinemas One space for every 20 seats.
7. Hotels and motels
i) Five and four-star hotels One space for every 4 guest rooms.
(ii) Three-star hotels One space for every 8 guest rooms.
(iii) Two-star hotels One space for every 10 guest rooms.
(iv) Motels One space for each guest room.
8. Hospitals One space for every 10 beds.

When applying the above standards, the parking space requirement of a car can be
considered as 3m x 6m when individual parking space is required and 2.5 x 5m when
community parking is envisaged. For two-wheelers, a stall 0.8m x 2.5m is desirable.

For loading and unloading of commercial vehicles, the requirements given in Table 8-3
are recommended.

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 Table 8-3 Commercial Vehicle Loading and Unloading Space Standards

Description Loading and unloading space standard

All kinds of
One berth for initial 500-1500 sq. m. of floor area.
developments excepting
Additional berths at the rate of one for every subsequent
residential warehouses
1000 sq. m. or part thereof.
and go downs.
Two berths for initial 500 to 1500 sq., m. of floor area.
For warehouses and go
Additional berths at the rate of one for every subsequent
downs.
500 sq. m. or part thereof.

The space requirement for one commercial vehicle is 3.75 m x 7.5 m. The parking area
required per bicycle is 1.4 – 1.8 sq. m.

8.5 On-street Parking Facilities

8.5.1 Common methods of on-street parking

These are:
(i) Parallel parking
(ii) 30° angle parking
(iii) 45° angle parking
(iv) 60° angle parking
(v) Right angle parking.

Parallel parking consumes the maximum curb length which decreases as the angle of
parking increases. The minimum curb length is consumed by right angle parking, which
accommodates nearly 2 times the number of vehicles as parallel parking.

Parallel parking consumes the least street width and fits well for in narrow streets. As
the parking angle increases the width of street used also increases.

Considering manoeuvrability, angle parking is better than parallel parking which usually
involves a backing motion. Delay to traffic is minimum with angle parking.

As regards safety, it has been noticed that angle parking is more hazardous than
parallel parking.

Considering the above, it is recommended that in general parallel parking should be

favoured on streets. On exceptionally wide (wider than 20 m) and low volume streets,
consideration might be given for angle parking.

The figure below gives some of the typical layouts and dimensions for on-street parking
stalls.

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 Figure 8-1 Typical Layout of on-street parking

8.5.2 Traffic Regulatory Measures for On-street Parking

Appropriate traffic management measures mitigate on some ill-effects of on-street

parking. They range from waiting restrictions in a street to the comprehensive control
over an extended area, including restrictions on park areas, waiting time and parking
charges.

The regulatory measures are generally of two types:

 one where the use of parking space is authorized for certain periods free or for
payment,
 where parking is prohibited but which allows waiting for picking up or setting
down goods and passengers.

When a controlled parking scheme is planned, the zone boundaries should be clearly
delineated and suitable traffic signs installed. Natural boundaries such as a river or a
railway line could be adopted. The carriageways should be adequately marked.

(a) Prohibited parking

It is desirable to prohibit parking at certain locations and for a period to ensure safety
and convenience. Such locations include:
 Near intersections.
 Narrow streets.

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  Pedestrian crossings.
 Structures.
 Entrance driveways

The period for which the parking is to be prohibited should be determined by a careful
analysis of the traffic conditions. Normally the period can be from 8am or 9am to 6pm or
7pm, with relaxations on Sunday or such other closed days.

(b) Free parking for limited periods

Under the scheme, free parking is allowed in designated stalls for a limited period. The
enforcement is done by traffic police or wardens. The conditions which favour the
adoption of this scheme are the availability of sufficient parking spaces to meet the
demand and the knowledge that the parkers usually leave their vehicles for a time which
is less than the posted time limits.

(c) Parking meters

Under the parking meter scheme a controlled zone is established within which, during
specified days and hours, parking may only take placé at a metered parking bay, but
within which, unless specifically prohibited by signs or markings, stopping for the
purpose of picking up or setting down passengers or collecting or delivering goods is
permitted anywhere without charge, including at metered parking bays for the time being
unoccupied. The controlled zone is distinctly marked by traffic signs to alert the drivers.

The meters are of two general types, i.e. manual and automatic.

The manual meter is operated by inserting the appropriate coin(s) and working handle
or lever. This activates the clockwork mechanism of the meter. The automatic meter is
wound up periodically (say once a week) by an attendant. Upon the insertion of the
coin(s) a needle shows in the time scale the time bought and it will start moving across
the time scale on the face of the meter until the period of time bought has expired.
Thereupon a flag or other indication will appear on the meter and the excess charge
period comes into operation. When the excess charge period has also expired, another
flag, usually red, appears on the meter face, denoting that the motorist is liable to
prosecution and the vehicle may be towed away at the owner's expense.

The meters can be of two general types, i.e. the "cancelling" or "non-cumulative" type
and the "cumulative" type. In the former, any unexpired time remaining on the meter is
cancelled out by the insertion of the next coin, with the next motorist getting no more
time than he actually pays for. With the latter type, the unexpired time left is added to
the time paid for by the next motorist, the total time being limited to the maximum which
the scheme allows to be purchased.

8.6 Off-street Parking Facilities

The types of off-street facilities commonly considered are:

(i) Surface car parks
(ii) Multi-storey car parks
(iii) Roof parks
(iv) Mechanical car parks
(v) Underground car parks.

There are certain basic considerations which govern the location of these facilities.
Since these facilities are costly to provide and maintain, a comprehensive study should
be done before hand to help determine the location, types and size of these facilities.

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 Obviously, the prime consideration should be the nearness to the place of usage by the
prospective customers. The facility should be served by good access streets. It is
desirable to locate the facility such that no exit or entrance is within a distance of at least
50 m from an intersection.

8.6.1 Surface car parks

Surface car parks are very popular with the motorists. Great care is needed in their
design and operation. The overall aesthetics of the area should receive due attention.

Figure 8-2 Typical Arrangement of Shrubs on Surface parking

A stall size of 2.5 m x 5 m is probably adequate for most conditions, predominated by

small-size cars, whereas for American conditions 2.6 m x 5.5 m is recommended.
Typical layouts are illustrated in Fig. 8-3

Fig. 8-2 Typical layouts of parking areas

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 If the surface park is to be operated with a fee-charging system, there should be
arrangement for collecting the money. This can be either manually by stationing an
attendant in a kiosk at the entrance or by installing an automatic ticket vending machine
designed to raise a barrier rail upon insertion of a coin.

8.6.2 Multi-storey car parks

Multi-storey car parks provide a good alternative when land is costly and have become
common and popular in many cities.

Multi-storey car parks are designed for a capacity of about 400 to 500 cars. Larger
capacity tends to increase the time for unparking a car. About five floors is also the
upper limit for the same reason.

Figure 8-4 Illustration of multi-storey car park

Some of the desirable standards for designing of the multi-storey car parks are:
(i) Gradient of the ramp: 1 in 10 generally and 1 in 8 for very short ramps.
(ii) Clear height between floors: 2.1 m
(iii) Parking stall dimensions: 2.5 m x 5 m
(iv) Inside radius of curves: 7 m
(v) Width of traffic lane on ramps and entrances: 3.75 m
(vi) Gradient of sloping floors: Not steeper than 1 in 20
(vii) Loading standards: 400 kg/m2.

The arrangement of the floors and the access ramps needs careful thought and a large
number of alternatives are available. Ramps are preferably made one-way. If two-way,
they should be divided. A simple arrangement is to have level floors and direct floor to
floor ramps. Another arrangement could be with parking floors themselves continuously
sloping to gain access from one level to another. Horizontal floors with separate helical
entrance and exit ramps have been found to be efficient.

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 Figure 8-5 Typical Arrangement of Ramps

The car parking floors, the ramps, the entrance and the exits should be well lighted. If
the garage is without external walls, as is often the case, there is no need for artificial
means for ventilation. Otherwise, mechanical ventilators should be provided.

The operation of the multi-storey car parks can be with customer parking or attendant
parking or a combination of the two.

8.6.3 Roof parks

Avery popular method of solving the parking problems adopted in many cities is to park
the vehicles on roof tops.

Figure 8-6 Rooftop parking

Access ramps or mechanical lifts provide the necessary access to the roofs. To access
ramp, in addition to the ramps, extra cost is involved in designing the rooftops and the
structural elements for the parking load.

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8.6.4 Mechanical car parks

Mechanical car parks provide for lifting of the cars from floor to floor by means of a lift
and transfer of cars to and from the parking stall by means of wheeling or mechanically
operated transfer dollies or cradles.

Figure 8-7 Vehicles in a mechanical parking unit

Since the ramps and aisles are eliminated in this system, it is more economical in space
as compared to the ramped system, multi-storey garages. The disadvantages are the
higher maintenance costs and the possibility of breakdown due to mechanical or power
failure.

8.6.5 Underground car parks

The great advantage of underground car parks is the least intrusion they cause to the
aesthetics of a place.

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 Since the work involves large quantities of excavation, construction of retaining walls,
ventilation and lighting, such car parks tend to be very costly. Underground car parks
can be single-storeyed or multi-storeyed though the latter tend to be very costly.

8.7 Peripheral Parking Schemes

Since the centre of the town is the worst hit by the parking problem, it is natural to think
in terms of providing parking facilities at the periphery of the town and induce the
motorists to park there and travel to the busy town centre by some other mode. There
are a number of schemes which have been devised to secure the desired objectives.
They are:
(i) Park and walk
(ii) Park and ride
(iii) Kiss and ride.

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8.8 Loading and Unloading Facilities

8.8.1 Bus-bays

Properly designed bus-bays recessed into the curb facilitate loading and unloading of
passengers without the vehicles blocking the stream of traffic on the carriageway.

The following are the guidelines for the location of the bus-bays:
(i) The bus stops should not be located too close to the intersections. The bus
stops should be located preferably on the farther side of the intersection.
(ii) Bus stops should be as far as possible so located as to disembark the
passengers at safe places such as curbs or islands.
(iii) For buses intending to turn right at an intersection, the stop should be sufficiently
away from the intersection so that the bus can be manoeuvred from the curb to
the extreme right lane well before the intersection.

The length of the recess should be about 12-15 m for a single bus with an additional
length of 12-15 m for every additional bus. The taper on either side should be about 8:1,
the maximum value being 6:1.

8.8.2 Commercial traffic

Loading and unloading of goods by trucks on the roadside makes demands upon the
space reserved for pedestrians as well as for moving vehicles. The problem can be
controlled by permitting loading and unloading only between 6pm and 8pm, or by
permitting loading and unloading only at specified location. The long-term solution of the
problem is in providing adequately designed truck terminals outside the cities.

8.8.3 Truck Terminals

The factors justifying the provision of truck terminals include:

 The indiscriminate parking of trucks in the streets causes degradation of the
environment and the increased hazards to traffic.
 Security of the goods contained in the parked vehicles
 The need for truck drivers to take rest, toilet facilities and food
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 The right approach is to provide well designed truck terminals at the fringes of the cities.
The truck terminals should be located on important arterial routes and at the confluence
of a number of such routes, and preferably close to major generators of commercial
activity.

The length of truck berths depends upon the type of trucks to be handled. Truck-trailer
combinations obviously need longer lengths than single unit trucks. For single unit
trucks a space of 3.75 m x 7.5 m per vehicle is adequate. For truck-trailer combinations
lengths up to 15 m may be needed. The width of the loading platforms should be 3.5 to
4.5 m. About 600-750 trucks can be accommodated in a parking area of one hectare.
The area required for the entrance forecourt, hotel, resting place and ancillary facilities
(weigh bridge, fuelling facilities, workshop) is in addition to the parking area requirement.

8.8.4 Long Distance Bus Terminals

In a town, it is desirable to provide a properly designed bus terminal to handle

exclusively long-distance bus traffic. Such terminals should preferably be outside the
congested portions of the town. If a town has ring road, the ideal location in many cases
is on the ring road itself. The terminal should be planned such that one-way circulation
of buses is achieved. The entrances and exits should be located with this in view.
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 The platforms where pedestrians wait should be raised. Parking facilities for cars, taxis,
cycles, scooters, etc. should be liberally provided. The terminals should be planned for
the anticipated future traffic in the design year.

8.9 Parking Surveys

8.9.1 Parking Space Inventory

Purpose is to collect data on the amount, type and location of space actually or
potentially available for parking in an area.
1. The area to be surveyed should first be delineated and subdivided on a street-by-
street basis and the sub-divisions marked on a map.
2. Sketch plans of the streets are then prepared in advance.
3. The data on parking facilities should be recorded on the sketch plans using suitable
symbols.
4. The items to be recorded for each street include kerb lengths, number of parking
spaces, Street width, Location of physical features (bus bays, pedestrian crossings,
fire hydrants etc) that may effect on street parking, Traffic management measures in
force, Number and type of traffic signs for regulation of parking, Private streets,
service and rear-access alleys and Vacant or unused land suitable for temporary or
permanent parking space.
5. Off-street parking facilities should be recorded separately, indicating the type,
capacity, parking charges, parking pattern, entrances and exits.

8.9.2 Parking Usage Survey

The purpose is to obtain data on the extent of usage of parking spaces.

The survey can be for on-street and off-street parking and includes counts of parked
vehicles at regular intervals through a period, covering both the morning and evening
peak period, and the parking accumulation and turn-over.

 The method consists of making periodic observations of parked vehicles on each

patrol. (For off-street observations, the entire parking space can be patrolled or,
alternatively, the entrances and exits may be observed continuously.)
 Mapping: The first step is to prepare a street map and data forms, clearly
showing the direction of travel by the patrolman and the side(s) where
observations are to be recorded (by arrows).
 Frequency of patrol: A frequency of ½ an hour is considered to be satisfactory
for on-street parking, while a frequency of 1 hour could be used for off-street
parking.
 Method of observation: Usually patrols are by foot, but where vehicles are not
parked, too close to one another a moving car may also be used.
 Timing of survey: The survey should be done on a typical weekday. The period
of the survey is usually 10 to 12 hours.
 Equipment and form of recording: Each observer will be equipped with a watch,
a pencil, a supply of forms, a map of the street and a board.

8.9.3 Questionnaire Type Parking Usage Survey

It involves interviews with the drivers who use the parking facilities.

 The survey can either be made on car owners living in the vicinity of the survey
area or drivers of cars seen to park in the area at the time of the survey.

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  Normally one interviewer is required to cover about fifteen spaces. All the
parkers in 8- or 10-hours period are interviewed.
 The duration of the survey may be a single day (working day) or may be spread
over a number of days.

8.9.4 Cordon Count

The area to be surveyed is demarcated by a cordon line which is crossed by the roads
emanating from the area.
 Counting stations are established at these crossing points and a count is made
of all the vehicles entering and leaving the area.
 The difference between the top traffic gives the number of vehicles parked or in
motion in the area.
 The counting can be manual or automatic.

8.10 Parking Design for Automobiles

There are generally two types of parking facilities available for the automobile: curb
parking and off-street parking. Engineers usually use a set of design standards and
operating criteria to determine the best arrangements possible under specific site
conditions.

8.10.1 Terminology used in Parking Design

Some of the terms commonly used in connection with parking studies and design are as
follows:

 Parking accumulation: the number of parked vehicles in a parking facility (or

study area) at a specified time (Figure 8-8)

Figure 8-8 Accumulation Curve for a Local Hospital.

 Parking load: the area under the accumulation curve between two specific times
(Figure 8-8)
 Parking duration: the length of time a particular vehicle is parked in a specified
parking space (generally specified as an average)
 Parking efficiency: theoretical duration/actual duration
 Parking turnover: the rate at which a parking space is used (e.g., the number of
vehicles that park in a given space during an average day)

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  Parking volume: the number of vehicles using a parking facility during a specified
time (e.g., 24 hours)
 Parking space hour: the use of a single parking space during a unit of time (e.g.,
1 hour)
 Parking deficiency: the extent to which parking demand exceeds supply, ex-
pressed in number of parking spaces

Example 8.1
An office has the following characteristics: hours of operation 6 a.m. to 8 p.m. (14
hours), number of parking spaces in the garage are 500, 80% are commuters with
average parking duration of 8 hours, 10% are visitors parking for an average of 2 hours,
and the balance are shoppers parking for an average of 3 hours. However, observations
made at the garage indicate that 15% of visitors during peak hours (10 to 12 noon and 1
to 3 p.m.) do not find parking. How many additional spaces should be added to the
garage to meet the demand?

Solution

Space hours demanded:

Commuters: 80% X 500 X 8 = 3200
Visitors: 10% X 500 x 2 = 100
Shoppers: 10% X 500 X 3 = 150

Demand not served: 15% X 500 X 4 = 300

Total space-hours demanded = 3750

Total space-hours served = 3450
Balance space-hours = 300

Since additional demand is during 4 hours,

The number of additional spaces needed = 300/4 = 75 spaces.

Discussion
Although 75 additional spaces are needed only during the 4 peak hours, it is open to
debate whether the garage owner should expend money to meet this demand, because
for the rest of the operating time (14 - 4 = 10 hours), it is likely that the 75 spaces may
not be occupied.

8.10.2 Curb Parking

Depending on parking duration, turnover, space occupancy and the distribution of

vehicle size, it is possible to determine curb parking geometry. Figure 8-9 shows the
geometric requirements for parking stalls. Although angle parking may allow more
spaces per linear foot of curb, it restricts traffic movement on the street more than
parallel parking. Tandem parallel parking reduces parking manoeuvre and is
recommended for major streets with heavy traffic. Safety considerations should be
considered in all curb parking arrangements, and this factor is closely tied with volume
and speed of traffic on the street concerned.

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 Figure 8-9 Curb Parking Geometry (Carter and Homburger. 1978).

8.10.3 Off-Street Parking

Many cities and their suburbs have off-street parking that is open to public free of
charge. A significant proportion of off-street parking is either self-parking or attendant
parking. Self-parking facilities are fast becoming by far the most common method of
parking.

Typical layouts of self-parking lots are shown in Figure 8-10. Also, typical garage layouts
are shown in Figure 8-11. The maximum amount of storage capacity from the given
working area is what the engineer is looking for, consistent with the distribution of
automobile sizes and dimensions. The capacity and spacing of access points to parking
facilities must be sufficient to accommodate incoming vehicles without a backup on the
surface streets. In the same context, the discharge of outgoing vehicles should pose no
problems. This last concern is particularly important in cases where the approaches are
close to street intersections.

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Figure 8-10 Typical Sell-Parking Dimensions (Carter and Homburger, 1978).

Figure 8-11 Typical Garage Layouts (Whiteside. 1961).

173
 Figure 8-11 (continued).

8.11 Characteristics of Parking Supply and Demand

Free parking is part of the American way of life. It is said that 3 out of 4 cars driven to
work are parked free in employer-provided spaces. If to these figures, one adds other
free parking available on streets and lots, 93% of all commuters park free. If free parking
were to be reduced by 25%, commuters who currently drive to work alone would
obviously reconsider changing their car occupancy.

Based on a comprehensive national inventory of parking facilities for urban areas

ranging in size from 10,000 to over 1 million, the following was found:
 The percentage of total spaces supplied at the curb decreases from 43% to 14%.
 The percentage of spaces in lots ranges between 55% and 64%.
 The percentage of spaces in garages steadily increases from 0% to 31%.
 The proportion of off-street spaces provided in public facilities increases and the
proportion provided in private facilities decreases for lots (HRB, 1971).

Tables 8-4, 8-5, and 8-6 provide information regarding the use of different types of
parking, classification by trip purpose, and duration of parking, all as a function of city
size, respectively (HRB, 1971).

TABLE 8-4 Use of Facilities Classified by Type

Population Group of Location of Parking Spaces (%)
Urbanized Area Curb Lot Garage
10,000-25,000 79 21 0
25,000-50,000 74 24 2
50,000-100,000 68 31 1
100,000-250,000 52 42 6
250,000-500,000 54 34 12
500,000-1,000,000 33 39 28
Over 1,000,000 30 54 16
Source: HRB, 1971.

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 TABLE 8-5 Parking Classified by Trip Purpose
Trip Purpose of Parkers (%)
Population Group of
Personal
Urbanized Area Shopping Work Other
Business
10,000-25,000 38 23 21 18
25,000-50.000 27 35 21 17
50,000-100.000 24 31 20 25
100,000-250,000 21 34 26 19
250,000-500,000 19 33 30 18
500.000-1,000,000 13 25 47 15
Over 1,000,000 10 30 41 19
Source: HRB. 1971

TABLE 8-6 Length of Time Parked Classified by Trip Purpose

Trip Purpose (hr)
Population Group of Average All
Personal
Urbanized Area Shopping Work Trips (hr)
Business
10,000-25,000 0.5 0.4 3.5 1.3
25,000-50,000 0.6 0.5 3.7 1.2
50,000-100,000 0.6 0.8 3.3 1.2
100,000-250,000 1.3 0.9 4.3 2.1
250,000-500,000 1.3 1.0 5.0 2.7
500,000-1,000,000 1.5 1.7 5.9 3.0
Over 1,000,000 1.1 1.1 5.6 3.0
Source: HRB, 1971.

8.11.1 Forecasting Parking Demands

Parking-demand analysis is a difficult task because the various factors affecting demand
are interrelated. Some significant factors are the following:
 Growth in population and motor vehicle registration
 Trends in CBD growth such as floor space and retail sales
 Public policies regarding parking supply, public transit, and parking pricing
structure

Figure 8-12 provides a simplified flowchart of parking analysis for a small shopping area
parking project.

175
 Figure 8-12 Main Steps in Forecasting Parking Requirements (Black, 1981. Reprinted
with the permission of Croom Helm Ltd., Kent, UK).

The supply of parking is derived by assessing potential supply for parking facilities,
including the possibilities of utilizing any on-street parking. The demand for parking can
be conveniently derived from trip ends to relevant zones derived from the urban travel
demand model. A detailed account of parking demand analysis is given in the
Transportation Planning and Traffic Engineering Handbooks (Edwards, 1992; Pline,
1992).

8.11.2 Analysis of Parking Facilities

The average duration that a vehicle is parked in a facility and the number of arriving
vehicles per unit time are indicators of the traffic load placed on the facility. If
A = traffic load
Q = number of vehicles arriving per unit time
Td = mean parking duration in time units

Then A = QTd

For example, if Td = 50 min and Q = 120 veh/hr,

A = 50 x 120/60 = 100

The Erlang formula is the basic rationale for parking analysis. The probability that a
patron will find a parking space is given by the expression

176
 A
P = M!
A A
1 + A + 2 + … + M!

where
PL = probability of rejection
A = traffic load
M = number of bays

The value of PL increases with traffic load and decreases with the number of parking
spaces. Table 8-7 gives values of PL for selected values of A and M. Use of the Erlang
formula is a good method of evaluating the adequacy of a parking facility. Say, for
example, in the calculation above that the number of parking spaces is 50, then A = 100
and M = 50, and therefore the probability of a randomly arrived patron finding no parking
would be 51%. If the number of spaces were increased to 100, this rejection probability
would reduce to 8%.

TABLE 8-7 Probability of Rejection for Selected Traffic Loads and Parking Spaces
Traffic Load, Number of Parking Spaces
A M=1 M = 5 M = 10 M = 50 M = 100
1 0.50 0.00 0 0 0
2 0.67 0.04 0 0 0
3 0.75 0.11 0 0 0
4 0.80 0.20 0 0 0
5 0.83 0.28 0.02 0 0
10 0.91 0.56 0.21 0 0
50 0.98 0.90 0.80 0.10 0
100 0.99 0.95 0.90 0.51 0.08
Source: Black, 1981. Reprinted with the permission of Croom Helm, Ltd., Kent, UK.

8.11.3 Parking Accumulation Analysis

Especially in small urban areas, one of the feasible solutions to relieve congestion is the
removal of curb parking to provide additional lanes. Because curb parking is an element
of parking supply, it is often necessary to estimate the demand for parking and to check
the balance between supply and demand. If demand exceeds supply, additional off-
street parking may have to be provided. The method consists of several basic steps:

1. Determine the number of auto-driver trip destinations to the study area.

 The study area may be a single parking facility (shopping center) or a
group of parking facilities; a traffic analysis zone (TAZ) or group of TAZs;
or an entire study area.
 Auto-driver trip destinations are stratified as long-term (work trips) or
short- term (home-based shop, home-based other, and non-home-
based).
 The number of auto-driver trip destinations is usually determined as the
output of the four-step transportation planning procedure. The results are
usually expressed as 24-hour values.

2. Determine the proportion of 24-hour trips that arrive during the daytime hours. A
default value of 0.70 can be used, or a more precise value can be estimated by
future analysis.

3. Determine the total daytime auto-driver trip destinations = parking demand = (24-
hour auto-driver trip destination) X proportion of 24 hours during daytime hours).
177
4. Determine the number of parkers accumulated during different periods of the
day.
 Long-term parkers (working trips) tend to arrive early and have a long
parking duration.
 Short-term trips tend to have dispersed arrivals and relatively short
duration.
 Default values for accumulation factors are given on the computation
form shown in Table 8-8.
 Accumulation factors are used to estimate the parking accumulation by
period. The nature of these factors is illustrated in hypothetical examples
in Tables 8-9 and 8-10.

The total number of daytime long-term parkers is 200, the same as the number
of daytime short-term parkers. Seventy-five percent of the long-term parkers
arrive the first hour, and the remaining 25% the second hour. All stay for a 9-hour
period. Short-term parkers arrive more uniformly throughout the day, remaining
for a 2-hour period.

5. Adjust the accumulation to determine practical capacity space requirement. The

resulting value is the number of parking spaces that are required to
accommodate each type of anticipated parking demand. The actual capacity
requirements are greater than the estimated demand because of the following:
 Time is wasted in parking and unparking manoeuvres as the available
unused supply of spaces approaches zero.
 Parkers do not have complete knowledge of space availability.

Practical capacity is normally defined as 85% of the available supply of parking

spaces.

6. Compare space requirements to available parking supply.

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 TABLE 8-8 Parking Accumulation Worksheet
Home-Based Work Home-Based Shop Home-Based Other Non-Home-Based
Daily study area
Auto trip destinations
Daytime/total daily
Travel proportions
Daytime study area
Auto trip destinations
Parkers Short-term
Accumulation Parkers
Accumulation (Long- term Accumulation Parkers Accumulati Parkers Accumulation Parkers Accumulated Total Parkers
Factor Parkers) Factor Accumulation on Factor Accumulation Factor Accumulation Col. 4 + Col. Accumulated Col.
Time Period (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) 6 + Col. 8 (9) 2 + Col. 9 (10)
9-10 1 (0.728) (0.041) (0.121) (0.098)
10-10:30 2 (0.754) (0.067) (0.131) (0.112)
10:30-11 3 (0.752) (0.073) (0.122) (0.108)
11-11:30 4 (0.754) (0.125) (0.136) (0.132)
11:30-12 5 (0.746) (0.103) (0.159) (0.142)
12-12:30 6 (0.754) (0.109) (0.195) (0.170)
12:30-1 7 (0.778) (0.113) (0.193) (0.170)
1-1:30 8 (0.762) (0.132) (0.175) (0.163)
1:30-2 9 (0.762) (0.154) (0.179) (0.171)
2-2:30 10 (0.788) (0.183) (0.173) (0.175)
2:30-3 11 (0.765) (0.145) (0.147) (0.146)
3-3:30 12 (0.750) (0.133) (0.160) (0.152)
3:30-4 13 (0.736) (0.103) (0.149) (0.138)
4:00-6:00 14 0 0 0 0

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 TABLE 8-9 Long-Term Trips
Accumulation
Period Arrivals Departures Accumulation
Factor3
7-8 150 0 150 0.750
8-9 50 0 200 1.000
9-10 0 0 200 1.000
10-11 0 0 200 1.000
11-12 0 0 200 1.000
12-1 0 0 200 1.000
1-2 0 0 200 1.000
2-3 0 0 200 1.000
3-4 0 0 200 1.000
4-5 0 150 50 0.250
5-6 0 50 0 0.000
Total 200 200
"Accumulation factor = accumulation/total number of parkers.

TABLE 8-10 Short-Term Trips

Accumulation
Period Arrivals Departures Accumulation
Factor
8-9 10 0 10 0.005
9-10 15 0 25 0.125
10-11 20 10 35 0.175
11-12 20 15 40 0.200
12-1 25 20 45 0.225
1-2 25 20 50 0.250
2-3 30 25 55 0.275
3-4 20 25 50 0.250
4-5 20 30 40 0.200
5-6 15 20 35 0.175
6-7 0 20 15 0.125
7-8 0 15 0 0.000
Total 200 200

8.12 Benefits of Good Parking Management

Parking is an economic commodity that is subject to the basic laws of economics.

Hence, if a parking policy is enforced that reduces the parking spaces in downtown, an
equilibrium point will be established, resulting in a higher price to make a trip. Also, due
to a higher parking price, the probability of making a trip by automobile to downtown
would decrease. In short, parking policy affects energy consumption, traffic congestion
and transit usage.

Good parking management has been tried in many cities with startling results. Some of
these are an increase in automobile occupation levels; a decrease in probing trips;
faster travel times; an increase in transit usage; and most important, a decrease in
street congestion.

It has been suggested over the years that street congestion cannot be solved by simply
adding highway lanes. On the contrary, it has been argued that if motorists were subject
to paying for a congestion price, the problem of congestion could possibly be mitigated.
Parking pricing can also be considered as congestion pricing, and this has been used in
Singapore (Khisty, 1980).

180
9 TRAFFIC SIGNALS

9.1 Introduction

The use of traffic signals for control of conflicting streams of vehicular and pedestrian
traffic is extensive in most of the towns and cities. The first traffic signal is reported to
have been used in London as early as in 1868 and was of the semaphore-arm type with
red and green lamps for night use. During the hundred years since then traffic signals
have been developed to a high degree of sophistication.

9.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Traffic Signals

Traffic signals, when properly designed, located and operated, have one or more of the
following advantages:

(i) They provide for an orderly movement of traffic,

(ii) When proper geometric layouts and control measures are employed, they can
increase the traffic-handling capacity of the intersection.
(iii) They reduce the frequency of certain types of accidents, especially the right-
angle type and pedestrian accidents.
(iv) Under favourable conditions, they can be co-ordinated to provide for continuous
or nearly continuous movement of traffic at a definite speed along a given route.
(v) They can be used to interrupt heavy traffic at intervals to permit other traffic-
vehicular or pedestrians-to cross.
(vi) Traffic signals dispense with police control and can thus be economical.
(vii) If properly designed and set, they can assign right-of-way impartially to traffic,
unlike manual controls which can stop and interrupt traffic streams at the
personal whim of the traffic controller.

Their disadvantages include the following, especially if the signals are installed
improperly:

(i) Excessive delay to vehicles may be caused, particularly during off-peak hours.
(ii) Unwarranted signal installations tend to encourage the disobedience of the
signal indications.
(iii) Drivers may be induced to use less adequate and less safe routes to avoid
delays at signals.
(iv) Accident frequency, especially of the rear-end type, may increase.
(v) When the installations break down, due to any fault in the system, total and
widespread confusion and difficulties can result.

9.3 Definitions

9.3.1 Types of signals

The types, meaning and sequence of signal indications vary in different countries.

(A) British practice.

In British practice, the signal sequence is red, red/amber shown together, green and
amber.

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 The common practice is to use circular red, amber and green signals, though in certain
circumstances green-arrow signals are also used. When the red signal is displayed, the
right of way is denied to the traffic from entering the intersection. The red/amber
signifies an alert to the drivers that the signal aspect is about to change to green so that
they can be in readiness to go. The green signal aspect denotes that the right of way is
given to the drivers to enter the intersection. The amber signal alerts the drivers that the
red signal aspect is about to commence shortly, and the green aspect is about to be
terminated. A green-arrow aspect permits the drivers to enter the intersection to make
the movement indicated by the arrow.

(B) American practice.

In American practice, the signal sequence is Red, Green and Yellow. Red indication
prohibits entry into the section, whereas the green permits entry. Yellow indication
warns the traffic that the related green movement is being terminated and the red
indication is about to commence. Thus, while allowing entry into the intersection, the
yellow aspect requires the traffic to clear the intersection before the yellow expires. In
addition to circular red, green and yellow, American practice permits red arrow, green
arrow and yellow arrow indications to control traffic in certain direction.

9.3.2 Pedestrian signals indications

In U.K. practice, the don't cross indication is given by a red standing man. The cross
indication is a green walking man, whereas a flashing green signifies don't start to cross.

Fig. 8-1. Pedestrian Signal Indications

9.3.3 Flashing amber.

A flashing amber signal is a hazard identification beacon is normally used to warn of

obstruction and intersections to supplement regulatory signs and to warn of midblock
crosswalks.

9.4 Components of a Signal System

9.4.1 Signal Face

The minimum number of lenses in a signal face is three-red, amber and green, and the
maximum number in American practice is five. The lenses in a signal face can be
arranged in a vertical or horizontal straight line. The relative positions (top to bottom or
left to right) are red, amber and green.

182
Fig. 8-2. Signal face.

The lenses are normally of two sizes, viz., 200 mm and 300 mm diameter. The larger
size is used where the 85th percentile approach speeds exceed 65 K.P.H., for special
problem locations, for all arrow indications, for intersections where signalization may be
unexpected and for intersections where drivers may view both traffic control and lane-
direction control signs simultaneously. The British Standard recommended a size of 200
mm for light signals intended for drivers, 300 mm for green arrow signals and 300 mm
for signals intended for pedestrians.

Fig. 15-3. Standard arrow

The arrows are pointed vertically upward to indicate a straight-through movement and in
a horizontal direction to indicate a turn at approximately right angles. When the angle of
the turn is substantially different from a right angle, the arrow can be positioned on an
upward angle approximately equal to that of the turn.

The arrow specified in the British Standard is given in Figure below.

Fig. 8-4. Some signals

A suggested layout of the signal post is given below.

183
 Fig. 8-5. Typical layout of traffic signal installations in U.K.

9.4.2 Illumination of the Signals

The American Practice requires that the signals should be so illuminated as to be visible
for a distance of at least 0.4km under normal atmospheric conditions. Detailed
specifications for the illumination of the lamps for signals are contained in relevant
country codes.

9.4.3 Number and Location of Signal Faces

The American Practice requires a minimum of two signal faces to be provided and be
visible from a point at least the "following distances in advance of and to the stop line:

184
 Table 8.1 Location of Signal Faces

85 percentile speed (K.P.H.) Minimum visibility (m)

30 30
40 55
50 75
60 100
65 120
75 145
80 170
90 190
100 210

A signal face is, however, permissible for control of an exclusive turn lane.

Normally one primary signal is installed at 0.9 m from the stop line and a second primary
signal is usually installed if there is a central island. A secondary signal is commonly
installed diagonally opposite the first primary signal on the back of the primary signal
intended for the opposing traffic. The typical layout of traffic signal installations as per
British practice is given in Fig. 8-5 above.

The height of the signals shall be such that when erected the centre of the amber
signals shall not be less than 2.4 m nor more than 4.0 m above the carriageway level.

9.5 Elements of a Signal Timing System

U.K. Practice: A typical example of signal indications in a two-phase signal as per U.K.
practice is shown below :

Fig. 8-6. Signal indications in a two-phase signal as per U.K. practice.

American practice: The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices recommends a

yellow interval of 3 to 6 seconds, longer intervals being appropriate to higher approach
speeds. Sometimes a short all-red clearance interval may be provided immediately after
the yellow period to permit the intersection to clear before cross traffic is released.

185
 Fig. 8-7. Signal indications in a two-phase signal as per American practice.

In Figs. 8-6 and 8-7 the cycle length is indicated. The cycle length is the time required
for one complete sequence of signal indications. Phase is defined as the sequence of
conditions applied to one or more streams of traffic which, during the cycle, receive
simultaneous identical signal indications.

9.6 Warrants for Signals

The following are warrants for traffic signals are considered by various agencies
 8-Hour Hourly vehicular volume
 4-Hour Hourly vehicular volume
 Peak hour
 Pedestrian volume
 School crossing
 Coordinated signal system
 Crash experience
 Roadway Network

In U.K., the installation of signals at a particular intersection is judged on the merits of

the situation, there being no laid down warrants. Generally, the Department of the
Environment have laid down certain criteria for deciding on signal installation.

The minimum traffic flows for which signals are considered justified as per current U.K.
practice are given below:

Table 15-5 Minimum Traffic Flows for Signal Installation (Ref. 7)

Type of Area Average hourly flow in V.P.H. to exceed

Total entering Contribution from side

intersection roads
Large Urban Area 500 150
Suburban and small urban 400 125
areas
Elsewhere 300 100

9.7 Timing Schemes: Fixed-Time Vs Vehicle-Actuated Signals

Fixed time signals are those in which the green periods, and hence the cycle lengths are
predetermined and of fixed duration. Vehicle actuated signals, on the other hand, are
those in which the green periods vary and are related to the actual demands made by
traffic. This is made possible by installing detectors on all the approaches. An
186
 intermediate type, semi-vehicle-actuated signals, is also available, in which the right of
way normally rests with the main road and detectors are located only on the side roads.

Vehicle-actuated signals are popular in U.K., whereas in the U.S.A. fixed time signals
are popular than vehicle-actuated types.

The advantages and disadvantages of the three types are briefly given below:

Type Advantages Disadvantages

(i) Inflexible and hence may cause
Fixed time (i) Simple in construction.
avoidable delay.
(ii) Relatively inexpensive. (ii) Require careful setting
(iii) Most successfully used in
linked systems requiring a fixed
cycle length for a given pattern and
speed of progression.
(i) They are flexible and are able to (i) Require costly equipment such
Vehicle-actuated. adjust to changing traffic conditions as detectors and sophisticated
automatically l controllers.
(ii) Delay is held to a minimum and
(ii) Cannot provide signal
maximum
coordination.
capacity is achieved.
Useful for junction of a side street They are believed to cause high
Semi-vehicle-
having low traffic volume with a accident rates at times of light
actuated
main street having heavy flow. traffic.

The amber period is standardised in U.K. as 3 seconds and the red/amber at 2 seconds.
The minimum inter-green period (i.e. the time from the end of the green period of the
phase losing right-of-way to the beginning of the green period of the phase gaining right-
of-way) is normally 4 second, but can be increased to suit particular needs such as
pedestrian crossing requirement.

Modern fixed time equipment is built for operation with different settings at certain
periods of the day, to cover different conditions. This is achieved by providing time
switches.

9.8 Signal Timing for Pre-timed Isolated Signals

Over the years, traffic engineers have used several methods for designing pre-timed
isolated signals. In more recent times, computer programs have been developed for
rapid design. Three manual methods of design are:
1. Homburger and Kell’s method
2. Webster’s method
3. Pignataro’s method, and

9.8.1 Homburger and Kell’s method

9.8.2 Webster’s Method

One of the important steps in designing a fixed time signal system is to determine the
cycle time. The British practice, which is easy and simple, is outlined here.

Main consideration in selecting the cycle time should be:

 least delay is caused to the traffic passing through the intersection

187
  proportion of the time lost (in the inter-green period and by starting delays) to the
cycle time.

If the cycle time is small, the proportion of the time lost to the cycle time will be high,
resulting in an inefficient signal operation and lengthy delays. On the other hand, if the
cycle is large, the proportion of the time lost to the cycle time will be small, and the
signal operation will be more efficient. If the cycle time is too large, there is a danger that
a good portion of the green time will be used by unsaturated flow of traffic, which again
leads to inefficiency. For each traffic flow volume there is an optimum cycle time which
results in the minimum delay to the vehicles.

The above subject was studied in the Road Research Laboratory (U.K.) by means of
computer simulation of flow at the traffic signals. Some examples of the variation of
delay with cycle time are shown in Fig. 8-9.

Fig. 8-9. Effect of variation of cycle time on delay.

It will be seen therein that for cycle times within the range of ¾ to 1½ times the optimum
value the delay is never more than 10-20 per cent above that given by the optimum
cycle time. The result could thus be used in determining the compromise cycle time that
would suit variations in flow during the day.

By differentiating the equation for the total delay for the intersection with respect to cycle
time, the following equation for the optimum cycle time has been obtained:

188
Fig. 15-10. Rate of flow against time.

The above figure shows that as soon as the green signal is given, the rate of discharge
begins to pick up and some time is lost before the flow reaches the maximum value
(saturation flow). Similarly, at the termination of the green phase, the flow tends to taper
off, involving a further lost time. The lost time for the phase would then be:

189
190
Table 15-2 Saturation Flow for Widths 3 to 5.5 m

Width w in metres 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5

s (PCU/hour) 1850 1890 1950 2250 2250 2900

When the approaches are in a gradient, the saturation flow needs some adjustment.
Approximately this can be done by decreasing the saturation flow by 3 per cent for each
1 per cent uphill gradient and increasing the saturation flow by 3 per cent for each 1 per
cent of downhill gradient.

The effect of composition of vehicles can be accounted for in measuring the flow and
saturation flow by converting into PCU equivalents as per values given in Table 15-3.

Table 15-3 PCU Equivalents for Traffic Signal Computations

Types of Vehicle PCU Equivalent
Heavy or medium goods 1.75
vehicles
Light goods vehicle 1.00
Bus 2.25
Motorcycle, moped or scooter 0.33
Pedal cycle 0.20

The effect of right-turning traffic on the saturation flow can be accounted for in the
following manner:
(i) No opposing flow, no exclusive right turning lanes. An overall figure of saturation
flow for the approach, irrespective of turning movements, can be obtained using
the rules given above.
(ii) No opposing flow, exclusive right turning lanes. The saturation flow of right
turning stream through a right angle should be obtained separately by the
following formula:
s= . /
PCU/hour for single file streams and

s= . /
PCU/hour for double file streams

where r is the radius of curvature (in metres) of the right turning stream through a
right angle.

(iii) Opposing flow, no exclusive right turning lanes. Three effects are possible under
these circumstances.
a. Due to opposing traffic, the right turners are themselves delayed and
consequently delay other non-right-turning vehicles in the same stream.
b. Their presence tends to inhibit the use of the off-side lane by straight ahead
vehicle.
c. The third effect pertains to the discharge of right turners through suitable gaps in
the opposing stream.

The first two effects can be allowed by assuming that on the average each right turning
vehicle is equivalent to 1.75 straight ahead vehicles.

The following equation gives the maximum number of right turning vehicles per cycle (n r)
that can take advantage of gaps in the opposing stream:
g −q
n =s ∗
s−𝑞
191
 sr = right turning saturation flow
g = green time
qc = flow in opposite arm
s = saturation flow for opposing arm

If g and c are in seconds in the above equation, s should be flow per second.

If the average number of right turners per cycle is more than nr, the difference between
the two (nw) will have to wait at the intersection at the termination of the green time. For
allowing all these nw vehicles to clear the intersection, the inter-green time can be made
equal to 2.5nw seconds, assuming each vehicle takes 2½ seconds to clear.

(iv) Opposing flow, exclusive right turning lanes. There will be no delay to the
straight-ahead traffic using the same approach as the right turners, but there will
be an effect on the cross-phase, and this should be calculated as outlined in (iii)
above.

The effect of left turners on the saturation flow can be disregarded if left turners are
<10%. If more, a correction is made for the excess over 10 per cent by assuming each
left turner is equivalent to 1.25 straight ahead vehicles.

The effect of site characteristics can be considered by applying the factors given in
Table 15-4.

Table 15-4 Effect of Site Characteristics on Saturation Flow (Réf. 1)

Percentage of
Site
Description standard
Designation
saturation flow
Dual carriageway. No interference from pedestrians,
parked vehicles, right-turning traffic, (either owing to
Good 120
their absence or because special provision is made for
them). Good visibility and adequate turning radii.
Average sites. Some characteristics of 'Good' and
Average 100
'Poor'.
Average speed low. Some interference from standing
vehicles, pedestrians, right turning traffic. Poor visibility
Poor 85
and/or poor alignment of intersection. Busy shopping
street.

The following examples illustrate the use of the approach described so far in
determining the settings of fixed time signals.

Example 1: A fixed time 2-phase signal is to be provided at an intersection having a

North-South and an East- West road where only straight-ahead traffic is permitted. The
design hour flows from the various arms and the saturation flows for these arms are
given in the following table:
North South East West
Design hour flow (q) in PCUs/hour 800 400 750 1000
Saturation flow (s) in PCUs/hour 2400 2000 3000 3000

Calculate the optimum cycle time and green times for the minimum overall delay. The
inter-green time should be the minimum necessary for efficient operation. The time lost
per phase due to starting delays can be assumed to be 2 seconds. The value of the
amber period is 2 seconds. Sketch the timing diagram for each phase.

Solution:

192
 N S E W
q 800 400 750 600
s 2400 2000 3000 3000
y =q/s 0.33 0.20 0.25 0.20
y (max) values 0.33 0.25

The timing diagram is indicated in Fig. 15-11.

Fig. 15-11. Timing Diagram.

193
Example 2: A three-phase traffic signal is to be installed at a right-angled crossing of two
city streets. The site is "average" and the approaches are 12 metres wide between
kerbs. The approaches are straight, and level and parking are prohibited on them. One
of the phases is to be a "pedestrian only" phase occurring at the end of each cycle.
Starting delay may be taken as 2 seconds. An "all-red" period of 4 seconds is to be
provided after each vehicle phase to allow clearance of right turning vehicles left over in
the crossing. The design hour traffic volumes in PCUs/hour are given in the following
table:

From N E S W
To E S W S W N W N E N E S
PCUs/hr 40 800 70 60 500 50 60 660 60 70 680 60

Calculate the optimum cycle time for a fixed time installation. Sketch the phasing
diagram for each phase. Draw a diagram showing the timings for all three aspects for a
complete cycle.
Make suitable assumptions for Amber and for the pedestrian interval.

Solution. The width roadway being 12 metres, the time taken for pedestrians to cross
the street is 10 seconds, with a speed of walk of 1.2 metres per second. Because of the
large width of the streets, it is desirable to have a central pedestrian refuge of at least 1
m width. The time that will be needed by a pedestrian to reach the pedestrian refuge
from the kerb will then be:

12 − 1 1
∗ = 4.6, say 5 sec
2 1.2

This will be the pedestrian clearance interval during which no signal is displayed to the
pedestrians and those who have just left the kerb or the central refuge before the
termination of the pedestrian green signal can reach safely the central refuge of the kerb
as the case may be. The American practice is to display the flashing "DONT WALK"
indication for this clearance interval. The pedestrian clearance interval is followed by
Amber of the next vehicular phase and by the Red signal in the pedestrian phase.

A total length of 13 seconds will be provided for the pedestrian phase as follows:
 Pedestrian green time = 8 seconds
 Pedestrian clearance interval = 5 seconds
 The width of the approach road from each direction is (12-1)/2 = 5.5m and this
will be used to calculate the saturation flow from the formula

s = 525W

Since the site is "average" and is level with parking prohibited, no corrections are
needed for the saturation flow obtained from the above formula.

The effect of left-turning traffic will be accounted for if it constitutes more than 10 per
cent of the traffic by counting each left turner as equivalent to 1.25 straight ahead
vehicles. Since no exclusive right turning lanes are provided, the effect of right turning
traffic will be accounted for by counting each right turner as equivalent to 1.75 straight
ahead vehicle.

The following tabulations indicate the sequence of calculations:

194
From N E S W
To E S W S w N W TV E N E S
Given flow
40 800 80 80 500 52 60 660 60 70 680 60
PUCs/hr
Correction for
left turners - - - +20 - - - - - - - -
Correction for
right turners - - +60 - - +39 - - + 45 - - +45
Total 40 800 140 100 500 91 60 660 105 70 680 105
Q 980 691 825 855
290 290 290 290
s = 525 W
0 0 0 0
y = q/s 0.34 0.24 0.28 0.29
y(max)
N-S 0.34
E-W 0.29

195
 g EW = 40 seconds

The phasing diagram is given in Fig. 15-13.

196
Fig. 15-13. Phase in diagram.

Example 3: An intersection controlled by traffic signals is formed by two roads running

North to South and East to West. There is a heavy turning movement of 500 vehicles
per hour from South to East. The flow from North to South is 800 vehicles per hour
through an approach width at stop line of 8 m. The cycle time is 70 seconds and the
effective green time for the flow from the North is 32 seconds. The effective right-turning
saturation flow is 450 vehicles per hour for an opposing flow of 800 vehicles per hour,
related to a minimum headway of 2½ seconds for the right-turning stream. Calculate the
early-cut-off period required to allow for the right-turning movement.

197
Thus, on an average, 9.72 – 2.88, i.e. 6.84 or 7 vehicles will be left over at the end of
the green period. These vehicles will take 7 x 2½ sec = 17-5 sec or 18 sec to discharge.

Thus, the early cut-off period should be 18 sec. The timing diagram is indicated in Fig.
15-14.

Fig. 15-14. Timing diagram.

Example 4: A dual carriageway runs North and South and is intersected by a single
carriageway running East and West. The layout of the junction has been designed such
that there are two straight through lanes of 3-50 m width and an exclusive right-turn lane
in each of the Northern and Southern approaches. The central reservation is reduced to
12m at the junction to accommodate the exclusive right-turning lane. The radius of the
right-turning stream is 15 m. The width of the East-West carriageway is 12 m. A fixed
cycle three-phase signal is to be installed with an exclusive phase for right-turners from
North and South. Assume lost time due to "starting up" and "tailing off to be 2 seconds.
Suitable values for the inter-green and amber times may be assumed. The traffic flow in
PCUs I hour are given in the following table:

From N E S W
To E S W S W N W N E N E S
Flow 55 1010 250 45 500 120 150 950 200 60 500 110
PUCs/Hour

Calculate the optimum cycle time and the actual green times to be set on the controller
for each phase. Draw the phasing diagram.

198
From N E S W
To E S W S W N W N E N E S
Given flow PCU/ hour 55 1010 250 45 500 120 150 950 200 60 500 110

Correction for left +38 +38

turners (+ 25%)
Correction for right +90 +83
turners (+-75%)

199
200
Fig. 15-15. Timing Diagram.

201
 Fig. 15.16. Phasing Timing.

9.8.3 Pignataro’s method

9.9 Vehicle-Actuated Signals

9.9.1 Differentiating between pre-timed and Vehicle-actuated signals

Now-a-days, controlling traffic congestion relies on having an efficient and well-
managed traffic signal control policy. Traffic signals operate in either pre-timed or
actuated mode or some combination of the two. Pre-timed control consists of a series of
intervals that are fixed in duration. They repeat a preset constant cycle. In contrast to
pre-timed signals, actuated signals have the capability to respond to the presence of
vehicles or pedestrians at the intersection. Actuated control consists of intervals that are
called and extended in response to vehicle detectors. The controllers are capable of not
only varying the cycle length & green times in response to detector actuation, but of
altering the order and sequence of phases. Adaptive or area traffic control systems
(ATCS) belong to the latest generation of signalized intersection control. ATCS
continuously detect vehicular traffic volume, compute optimal signal timings based on
this detected volume and simultaneously implement them. Reacting to these volume
variations generally results in reduced delays, shorter queues and decreased travel
times. Coordinating traffic signals along a single route so that vehicles get progressive
202
 green signal at each junction is another important aspect of ATCS. In the subsequent
pages, the operating principles and features of Vehicle-Actuated Signals & Area Traffic
Control Systems will be briefly discussed.

9.9.2 Vehicle-Actuated Signals

(a) Basic Principles

As stated earlier, Vehicle-Actuated Signals require actuation by a vehicle on one or
more approaches in order for certain phases or traffic movements to be serviced. They
are equipped with detectors and the necessary control logic to respond to the demands
placed on them. Vehicle-actuated control uses information on current demands and
operations, obtained from detectors within the intersection, to alter one or more aspects
of the signal timing on a cycle-by-cycle basis. Timing of the signals is controlled by
traffic demand. Actuated controllers may be programmed to accommodate:

 Variable phase sequences (e.g., optional protected LT phases)

 Variable green times for each phase
 Variable cycle length, caused by variable green times

Such variability allows the signal to allocate green time based on current demands and
operations. A proper clearance interval between the green & the red phases is also
ensured.

(b) Advantages of Actuated Signals

The various advantages of actuated signals are stated below:
 They can reduce delay (if properly timed).
 They are adaptable to short-term fluctuations in traffic flow.
 Usually increase capacity (by continually reapportioning green time).
 Provide continuous operation under low volume conditions.
 Especially effective at multiple phase intersections.

(c) Disadvantages of Actuated Signals

The main disadvantages are as following:
 If traffic demand pattern is very regular, the extra benefit of adding local actuation is
minimal, perhaps non-existent.
 Installation cost is two to three times the cost of a pre-timed signal installation.
 Actuated controllers are much more complicated than pre-timed controllers,
increasing maintenance costs.
 They require careful inspection & maintenance to ensure proper operation.

9.9.3 Types of Actuated Control

There are three basic types of actuated control, each using signal controllers that are
somewhat different in their design:
1. Semi-Actuated Control
2. Full-Actuated Control
3. Volume-Density Control

(a) Semi-Actuated Control

This type of controller is used at intersections where a major street having relatively
uniform flow is crossed by a minor street with low volumes. Detectors are placed only on
the minor street. The green is on the major street at all times unless a call on the side
street is noted. The number and duration of side-street green is limited by the signal
timing and can be restricted to times that do not interfere with progressive signal-timing
patterns along the major street.

(b) Full-Actuated Control

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 This type of controller is used at the intersections of streets or roads with relatively equal
volumes, but where the traffic distribution is varying. In full actuated operation, all lanes
of all approaches are monitored by detectors. The phase sequence, green allocations,
and cycle length are all subjected to variation. This form of control is effective for both
two-phase and multi-phase operations and can accommodate optional phases.

(c) Volume-Density Control

Volume-density control is basically the same as full actuated control with additional
demand-responsive features. It is designed for intersections of major traffic flows having
considerable unpredictable fluctuations.

9.9.4 Detection for Actuated Signalization

The various types of detectors used for detection of vehicles are as following:
 Inductive loop detectors
 Magnetometer detectors
 Magnetic detectors
 Pressure-sensitive detectors
 Radar detectors
 Sonic detectors
 Micro loop detectors etc.

The vast majority of actuated signal installations use inductive loops for detection
purpose. Now, the type of detection is of greater importance than the specific detection
device(s) used. There are two types of detection that influence the design and timing of
actuated controllers:
1. Passage or Point Detection: - In this type of detection, only the fact that the
detector has been disturbed is noted. The detector is installed at a point even though
the detector unit itself may involve a short length. It is the most common form of
detection.
2. Presence or Area Detection: - In this type of detection, a significant length (or
area) of an approach lane is included in the detection zone. Entries and exits of
vehicles into and out of the detection zone are remembered. Thus, the number of
vehicles stored in the detection zone is known. It is provided by using a long
induction loop, or a series of point detectors. These are generally used in
conjunction with volume-density controllers.

9.10 Coordinated Traffic Signals

9.10.1 Need for co-ordinated control

Need for co-ordinated control of signals arises on a main traffic route when it is
desirable to reduce delays and avoid main traffic from having to stop at every junction.
When a signal indicates a stop aspect at a junction, a queue of vehicles is formed
behind the stop line. When the signal changes to green, the vehicles start moving in a
platoon. If this platoon is made to meet a green aspect at the next junction no delay is
caused to the vehicles. This principle of linking adjacent signals so as to secure
maximum benefits to the flow of traffic is called co-ordinated control of signals.

The co-ordination of signals is sought for with the following objectives in view:
(i) To pass the maximum amount of traffic without enforced halts.
(ii) To have minimum overall delay to traffic streams, both in the main and side roads.
(iii) To prevent the queue of vehicles at one intersection from extending and reaching
the next intersection.

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9.10.2 Off-set

The offset is defined as the difference between the starts of green time at the
successive upstream and downstream signal. This is an important consideration in
planning a system of co-ordination. If the start of green at the downstream signal is
offset at a particular value such that the platoon, which starts at the upstream signal
upon a green indication there, arrives at the downstream signal just in time for the green
signal, the platoon has an unhindered movement).

Fig. 15-17. Off-set.

9.10.3 Time-and distance diagram

In planning a system of co-ordinated signal control, it is often expedient to indicate the

system diagrammatically by what is known as a "time-and-distance" or "time-and-space"
diagram. On this diagram, the time and signal settings are indicated along the horizontal
axis to a suitable scale, whereas the distance travelled along the major route is plotted
vertically to a suitable scale. A typical time-and-distance diagram for a one-way-street is
shown in Fig. 15-18 and one for a two-way-street in Fig. 15-19.

205
Fig. 15-18. Typical time-and-distance diagram for one-way streets with linked signals.

206
 Fig. 15-19. Typical time-and-distance diagram for a two-way street with linked signals.

9.10.4 Types of co-ordinated signal system

The four basic types of co-ordinated signal systems are:

(i) Simultaneous system, also known as synchronised system
(ii) Alternate system, or limited progressive system (Hi) Simple progressive system
(iv) Flexible progressive system.

These systems are described in detail below.

(a) Simultaneous system

Under this system, all the signals along a given street always display the same
indication to the same traffic stream at the same time. The division of the cycle time is
the same at all intersections. A master controller is employed to keep the series of
signals in step. The disadvantages of a simultaneous system are:
(i) It is not conductive to give continuous movement of all vehicles.
(ii) It encourages speeding of drivers between stops.
(iii) The overall speed is often reduced.
(iv) Because the division of the cycle time is the same at all the intersections,
inefficiency is inevitable at some intersection.

207
 (v) The simultaneous stoppage of a continuous line of traffic at all intersections often
results in difficulty for the side street vehicles in turning into or crossing the main side
street.

(b) Alternate system (limited progressive system)

Under this system, consecutive signal installations along a given road show contrary
indications at the same time. This permits the vehicles to travel one block in half the
cycle time. This system operates efficiency where the blocks are of equal lengths. It also
brings about a certain measure of speed control since speeding drivers are stopped at
each signal. Some of the disadvantages of this system are:

(i) The green times for both the main and side streets have to be substantially equal,
resulting inefficiency at most of the intersections.
(ii) In situations where the block lengths are unequal, the system is not well suited.
(iii) Adjustments are difficult for changing traffic conditions.

(c) Simple progressive system

With this system, the various signals along a street display green aspects in accordance
with a time schedule to permit, as nearly as possible, continuous operation of platoons
of vehicles along the street at a planned rate of motion, which may vary in different parts
of the system.
The offset at each installation is determined so as to secure the best continuous
movement of platoons in both directions. These offsets are fixed and cannot be altered
at different periods of the day. Each signal installation may have a cycle division
different from the others, but that division remains fixed throughout the day.

(d) Flexible progressive system

This system is an improvement over the simple progressive system with the following
provisions:
(i) It is possible to vary the cycle time and division at each signal depending upon traffic.
(ii) It is possible to vary the offset, thus enabling two or more completely different plans.
(iii) It is possible to introduce flashing or shut down during off-peak hours.

Flexible progressive systems require a master controller which keeps the local
controllers at each intersection in step.

9.11 Signal Approach Dimensions

The approach dimensions have an influence on the design and performance of

intersections. One method of improving the efficiency of signalised intersections is to
modify the approach dimensions.

Since the signals permit traffic movement from any approach for only a proportion of the
time, it stands to reason that the approach roads in immediate vicinity of the intersection
should have a wider roadway than the normal. Thus, when planning an improvement in
the geometric layout of the existing intersections or planning for new facilities, it helps to
keep in view the improvement in flow conditions that can be achieved with wider
approaches.

Webster and Newby have proposed the following simple rules for determining the
approach dimensions:
(i) For two-phase cross-roads the approach widths should be proportional to the
square roots of the flows. If q1 and q2 are the maximum flows on phase 1 and 2

208
respectively, the green times (g1 and g2), lengths widened (d1 and d2) and widths (w1
and w2) are related in the following way, vide Fig. 15-20.

If the approach width deduced from the above rule is less than that of the feeder road, it
should be made equal to that of the feeder road and the green time made
correspondingly less. The extra green time thus allocated to the other phase results in
less widening being necessary on those approaches. The flow used should be the maxi-
mum flow on the two or more arms of the same phase.

(i) With multi-phase intersections the above rule itself can be extended as follows:

Fig. 15-20

(ii) For T-junctions with 2-phase control, the ratios of widths, green times and
lengths should be:
=

and = =

where the suffix 2 refers to the stem of the T-junction.

The examples given below illustrate the use of the above principles.

Example 5: A T-junction has a design year flow of 300 vehicles per hour on the south
arm and 2400 vehicles per hour on the east and west arms. What should be the ratio of
approach widths, lengths and green times of the arms?

Solution.

209
 The east-west arm should be made twice as wide as the south arm. The green time
apportioned to the east-west phase should be four times the green time apportioned to
the south phase. The east-west approach should be widened over a length which is four
times the length widened on the south arm.

Example 6: The following table gives the flows in the arms of an intersection where a
two-phase signal is to be designed. Arm. Flow (vehicle I hour)

North 4000
South 3800
East 1000
West 900
Determine the proportion of dimensions of the approaches and the green times for the
two phases.

Solution.
Selecting the maximum of the flows in each phase, and denoting N-S phase as Phase 1
and E-W phase as Phase 2; q1 =4000 and q2 = 1000

9.12 Area Traffic Control

9.12.1 Introduction

In an earlier section on co-ordinated signal systems, a description of simple linked

systems along a single road was given. Area traffic control is a further extension of the
same principles of co-ordination to include signals in a substantial area.

Area Traffic Control can be defined as a technique which provides for a centralised
control of numerous signal installations distributed throughout an urban area, such that
there is a planned co-ordination between signals at different junctions. The technique
invariably employs digital computers for achieving the desired objective.

The earliest known scheme of Area Traffic Control was in Toronto begun in a modest
scale in 1959. The success of the project prompted its application in many important
cities of the world. In U.K. controlled experiments were initiated in certain areas of
Glasgow and London to assess the amount of benefit that could be expected from
different system of centralised control. By now, nearly 100 cities have some form of
Area Traffic Control.

The subject has grown into a very interesting and promising field with extensive
literature. In this section only a general introduction is sought to be given.

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 The objectives in an Area Control System are one or more of the following:
(i) Minimising journey time for vehicles
(ii) Minimising stops, resulting in less noise, pollution and fuel consumption
(iii) Reducing accidents
(iv) Discouraging use of certain areas
(iv) Minimizing person-time.

Area Control System has proved to be a very efficient tool in tackling the serious
problem of congestion at signalised intersection.

9.12.2 Traffic control methods

The following are the main types of methods in general use:

1. Fixed time plans based on historical data and calculated offline by a computerised
optimizing technique. The information about vehicle movement is obtained manually or
through detectors and fed to the computer, which then determines the signal settings,
and transmits the settings to the signals. Examples of this type are the Combination
Method and TRANSYT (Traffic Analysis Study Tool), which will be described briefly
later.

2. Co-ordinated systems with local response at each signal. Example of this type are the
FLEXIPROG (Flexible Progressive) and EQUISAT (Equally Saturated).

3. Fully responsive systems such as S.P.G., (Signal Plan Generation) and PLIDENT
(Platoon Identification).

9.12.3 Combination method

This method has been developed by the Road Research Laboratory, UK and uses
delay/offset relationship to obtain the relative timings or off-sets of traffic signals in a
network. It applies a rigorous optimization process to a reasonable model of the traffic
and assumes that the cycle time, green times, flow and saturation flows are known and
then chooses the offsets of the signals to minimise delay over the whole network. The
technique can be applied on an area basis, subject to some restraints on the type of the
network. It suffers from a serious restriction in assuming that the delay between two
signals depends solely on the relative settings of the two signals, which is a good
approximation only in heavily loaded conditions.

9.12.4 TRANSYT method (Traffic Analysis Study Tool)

The TRANSYT, implemented by a digital computer programme, is a method of

automatically determining fixed time signal plans to meet known network conditions. It is
a widely used system, and as demonstrated by the Glasgow experiments, is an
improvement over the Combination Method. The traffic model makes allowance for flow
intersection between successive sections of roads and represents average traffic
behaviour more correctly than the Combination Method. It represents platoon dispersion
effectively. The solution time is short and good convergency on the optimum signal
settings is achieved by a "hill climbing" type of optimization procedure. The overall
impedance to traffic is measured by a "performance index" that can be chosen with any
desired balance between journey time and number of stops. The optimization procedure
minimizes the performance index by a altering the points within the signal cycle at which
each stage starts. Thus, both signal offsets and green times are included in the
optimization procedure.

9.12.5 FLEXIPROG (Flexible progressive)

211
 This is a vehicle-actuated progressive system and requires the use of detectors on the
approach arms. With a continuous stream of traffic all over the detectors, the signals
behave as a fixed time system. Under lighter traffic conditions, the signals can change
after detecting a suitable gap in the traffic. Stages are missed if there is no demand for
them. This system has not proved better than the combination method in the Glasgow
experiments.

9.12.6 EQUISAT (Equally Saturated)

Under this system, the cycle time and offset pattern are fixed. The allocation of green
time is varied to equalise the degree of saturation of each stage. Detectors on each
approach arm and computer logic are used to measure or deduce both flow and
saturation flow. This system too did not prove to be measurably better than the
Combination method in the Glasgow experiments.

9.12.7 PLIDENT (Platoon Identification)

This is a system developed by the Road Research Laboratory, U.K. The system
identifies platoons of vehicles and operates signals to allow unimpeded passage to them
on priority routes. The scheme has no fixed cycle or offsets but adjusts the length of
each stage to suit the various platoons. The effect of the scheme is to give the priority
streets just the amount of green they require at times which avoid delay to the
approaching platoons. This scheme, though successfully implemented in the Glasgow
experiment, produced the largest average journey times there.

9.12.8 SPG (Signal Plan Generation)

This is a fully responsive system and generates cycle times, splits and offsets online
using measured data on traffic conditions. This type of system is installed in Madrid and
Barcelona.

9.12.9 SCOOT (Split Cycle Offset Options Technique)

The SCOOT is a new entrant into the field of traffic signal-controlled network. It has
been developed in the U.K. by the Transport and Road Research Laboratory and the
British industry. A large number of detector loops are laid across the road which transmit
the data on traffic to the central control system which adjusts the signal plans according
to actual needs. Traffic delays can be substantially reduced (up to 12%) when compared
to fixed time plans. Delay at Signalised Intersections.

9.13 Delay at Signalised Intersections

An important consideration that has to be faced by an engineer in designing and

operating a signalised installation is the delay to traffic. An understanding of the delay
problem is important because the economic losses involved by vehicular delays at
signals can be enormous.

Webster's investigations on the subject at the Road Research Laboratory, U.K. are
based on queueing theory and computer simulation. The following formula has been
presented by him for the average delay per vehicle on a particular intersection arm:

where
d = average delay per vehicle on the particular arm
212
X = proportion of the cycle which is effectively green for the phase under consideration
(i.e. g/c)
x = the degree of saturation. This is ratio of the flow to the maximum possible flow under
the given settings of the signals and equals q/λs
c = cycle time
g = effective green time
q = flow
s = saturation flow.

In the above formula, if c is in seconds, q should be in vehicles per second and delay
will be obtained in seconds.

In order to simplify the calculations, ready-made tables are available. A nomogram for
the determination of delay based on the above equation has been presented.

213
10 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF TRANSPORTATION PLANS
10.1 Need for Economic Evaluation

For a given set of goals and policies, it is possible to formulate a number of alternative
transport plans. The cost of these plans may vary, and so also the benefits that are
likely to accrue from them. What then is the criterion for selecting a particular plan from
among the alternatives? Are there any accepted principles and procedures for
assessing the real cost to a community of using resources to achieve a desired
purpose? The answers to these questions will be the subject of this Chapter.

Most of the countries now follow some sort of economic project evaluation before any
development plan is taken up for implementation. International lending institutions, such
as the World Bank, require a project selected for funding to be economically and
technically sound, and be certified at top priority in relation to other possible projects,
while considering the overall development of the country concerned.

For any country, resources available are limited and insufficient to meet all the
demands. For a developing country it is prudent to carefully manage the scarce
resources and select the optimum plan from amongst those competing for resources.

Economic analysis is a procedure to select schemes that result in the greatest

benefit from the resources available.

The following are some of the specific objectives in

(i) Whether the plan under consideration is worth investment at all.
(ii) To rank schemes competing for scarce resources in order of priority.
(iii) To compare mutually exclusive schemes and select the most economic.
(iv) To assist in phasing the programme over a time period depending upon the
availability of resources.

10.2 Costs and Benefits of Transport Project

The basic principle behind any method of economic evaluation is to measure the costs
of the project, determine the benefits that are likely to accrue and compare the two.
Though the principle is simple, its actual application is not. The most difficult part of
economic evaluation of a transport plan is the identification and quantification of the
impact of the transport plan. The two components, the costs and benefits, are dealt with
separately.

10.2.1 Cost.

The costs can be considered broadly under the following categories:

(i) Capital cost of initial construction
(ii) Costs of delays to vehicles during the period of construction
(iii) Maintenance costs.

The capital cost of providing transport facility should be estimated accurately and should
include land costs and ancillary costs. Cost of traffic control and lighting installations and
administration should also be included.

When a large programme of construction of a transport facility is undertaken, it is

inevitable that a good deal of disturbance is caused to the operation of vehicles. Any

214
 significant delays caused to the vehicles in this respect should be added to the capital
cost. If not, significant they may be ignored (Réf. 1).

The maintenance costs are of a recurrent nature and represent the expenditure to keep
the assets in a tolerably good condition in the future years. The impact of the new
scheme on the existing transport network should be evaluated in determining the
maintenance costs. For instance, the new proposals may siphon off a good amount of
traffic from the existing facility, which then may need less expenditure on maintenance.
It should also be ensured that future maintenance costs are discounted to the year in
which the calculations are being made.

10.2.2 Benefits

Benefits usually represent the difference between the cost of operating on a new
transport facility and the cost of operating on an existing facility. Thus, in order to
determine the benefits, it is necessary to determine the cost of operation.

Benefits can be grouped under the following heads:

(i) Benefits to the existing traffic by way of reducing operating costs, savings in travel
time and reduction in accidents.
(ii) Benefits to the generated traffic.
(iii) Benefits to traffic diverted from other routes.
(iv) Benefits to the traffic operating of other roads (and railways) where reduction in
traffic has been caused by the opening up of the new facility.

In addition, it is also necessary to consider the dis-benefits due to the scheme, such as
environmental effects (pollution, fumes, noise, vibration, visual intrusions, congestion,
loss of amenity, severance etc.). Other considerations are comfort and convenience and
some social benefits.

(a) Vehicle operating costs

The subject of vehicle operating costs has been studied very extensively because these
costs constitute a significant portion of the transport costs. Savings in operating costs
can be brought about if the transport plans are prepared carefully. Savings in vehicle
operating costs can be evaluated fairly accurately unlike some other kinds of benefits.

(b) Travel time savings

Improved highways bring about significant reduction in travel time, thus benefitting
passengers, vehicle crew, vehicle operators and consigners of goods.

(c) Accident costs

Bad roads cause high rate of accidents. Accidents involve costs to the economy. If
accidents can be prevented, benefits to the economy are possible.

(d) Benefits to Generated Traffic

It is proper to consider the full benefits from highway improvements when dealing with
traffic already using the highway. This follows from the reasoning that all those who
travelled before the improvements were carried out must have placed a value on the trip
at least equal to the cost of travel, and thus they benefit to the full extent when
improvements are made. Generated traffic pertains to journeys which were not
worthwhile before the improvements but are worthwhile after the improvements.
Benefits to generated traffic are usually assessed at one-half the change in user costs.

215
 Fig. 38-1. Benefits to Generated Traffic.

(e) Benefits to Diverted Traffic

Transport improvements attract traffic to the improved facilities from other routes
between the same origin and destination. The benefits derived by diverted traffic is
allowed for at the full extent of the change in user costs.

(f) Benefits to Traffic on other Roads

Improvements to a road may cause reduction in traffic on other roads (and railways),
thus resulting in lesser congestion. There may also be congestion on these roads as a
result of the new scheme. These effects should be evaluated.

(g) Environmental Effects

Traffic plans are likely to result in disbenefits caused by adverse effects on the
environment. On the other hand, certain improvement schemes might be planned with
the very objective of improving and preserving the environment. In all such cases, it is
necessary to evaluate in monetary terms the impact of the scheme on the environment.
The elements that need consideration are noise, fumes, vibration, loss of amenity,
severance, visual intrusion etc. Some of these are amenable to quantification in
monetary terms, while some are not.

Noise is now considered a significant factor in environmental quality. The annoyance

caused by noise is translated into noise costs by considering questions such as: "how
much is an individual affected by noise prepared to pay to get relief from it" or "how
much would the sufferer have to receive monetarily to reinstate his pre-noise level of
satisfaction". The disbenefits can also be assessed by changes in rents and property
values.

More research is needed before all the environmental effects can be considered in
monetary terms.

(h) Comfort and Convenience

216
 Comfort and convenience represent the quality of service offered by a transport facility
and are difficult to value. But yet they are important aspects since many road users are
prepared to use a longer route just to derive in comfort and relaxation. The AASTHO
guidelines (Ref. 9) recommended arbitrary values for the cost of discomfort and
inconvenience.

(i) Indirect Benefit

In addition to direct benefits to highway improvements there are many indirect effects.
The most important is the effect on property values. A good accessibility places a
premium on properties. Nevertheless, changes in property values are not included in an
economic evaluation of transport schemes, because their inclusion results in some
benefits being double counted.

There are some kinds of benefits which are passed on by the road user to the others.
The savings enjoyed by the vehicle owners may be transmitted to other sectors of the
community in various forms. Here also, the indirect benefits are excluded from the
economic evaluation in order to avoid duplicate accounting. The idea is to calculate the
total benefits to the community and not to assess how the benefits are distributed.

10.2.3 Taxes

In assessing the benefits for economic evaluation, the community as a whole is

considered. Indirect taxes, such as fuel tax, purchase tax on vehicles and licence fees
are therefore, excluded. These costs may represent a real cost to the individual road
user but not the community as a whole. They represent only a transfer within the
community and the revenue represented by these charges would have to be raised in
any case. Insurance premiums are also excluded from the economic evaluation
calculations, since savings in accidents already account for this element.

10.3 Time Horizon in Economic Assessment

An economic assessment is usually carried out for specific time horizon. For road
schemes, the evaluation period commonly selected is 20 to 30 years. Even though it
may be true that a scheme may have a life greater than this period, especially when
properly maintained, it is difficult to keep the economic forecasts within realistic limits.

For a railway line system, a higher time horizon is appropriate. A time period of 50 years
was adopted for the London Victoria line study.

At the end of the period selected for economic evaluation, the facility is likely to still
remain an asset with some residual value. It is then appropriate to take the residual
value into account duly discounting the same.

10.4 Basic Principles of Economic Evaluation

The fundamental principle on which all methods of economic evaluation are based is
that money earns income over a period of time. This leads to the necessity of devaluing
the future benefits and costs of schemes to the present time in order to determine their
present worth.

The following formulae are very useful in dealing with the problems in economic
evaluation:
1. The amount S to which Re. 1 will increase in n years with a compound interest rate of
r

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 Readymade tables giving the values of the above functions are available (Ref 23., 24)
and are handy to use.

10.5 Interest Rate

The rate of interest (or discount rate) is one of the most important elements in an
economic analysis. The selection or rejection of a particular project is to a great extent
dependent on the choice of an appropriate interest rate.

The choice of the interest rate is governed by a number of complex factors and is
dependent on the future availability of finance and the various opportunities for its use.
Will the current generation prefer to consume the resources now or conserve it for future
use by the current or future generation? The answer to this question will give the "social
time preference rate of interest", which will then determine the relative value that a
government assigns to present consumption as against future consumption. Another
approach is to find out the social yield that the resources employed by a marginal public
project would have otherwise generated. This determines the "social opportunity cost
rate of interest". In a truly competitive economy, the two rates of interest would be equal,
and investments and consumption would then be ideally allocated. Unfortunately, such
an ideal situation is hard to find. The situation is especially so in developing countries
where capital is very scarce.

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 The discount rate should be never less than the rate of borrowing or lending by the
Government, or the market rate of interest. Since the interest rate represents
opportunities forgone, the same is sometimes called the opportunity cost of capital.

A rate of 10 - 12% is often chosen when evaluating the transport sector schemes in
developing countries.

10.6 Methods of Economic Evaluation

After having determined the costs and benefits of a scheme, a method has to be
evolved for relating these two so as to arrive at an assessment of the soundness of a
scheme in economic terms. A number of methods have been developed and the
literature on them is voluminous. The following are the important methods:

A. Rate of return methods

1. Benefit cost (B/C) ratio method
2. First Year Rate of Return Method.

B. Discounting cash flow (DCF) methods

1. Net Present Value (NPV) method
2. Economic Internal Rate of Return (EIRR) method.

In the first group of methods, the benefits are expressed as the net benefits occurring in
a single reference year and the costs are expressed as a net annual cost. In the second
group of methods, the stream of costs and benefits over a period of time are compared
on the basis of discounted cash flow analysis.

10.6.1 Benefit-Cost Ratio Method

The benefit-cost ratio method is one of the widely used ones for evaluation of highway
projects and is the basis of AASTHO Road-user analysis (Ref. 9). In this method, the
ratio of the net annual benefits to the net annual costs is determined. The benefits are
evaluated for a single reference year, which for convenience can be the first year of
operation after construction or the median year of the analysis period. The costs are the
equivalent annual charge representing equal amortization and interest payment (at a
specified discount rate) spread over the economic life of the project. The benefit cost
ratio for a particular project would be:

The numerator of the B/C ratio represents the benefits, which are really the reduction in
user costs. The denominator represents the difference in annual highway costs between
the new facility and the existing facility, including maintenance.

If a number of projects are being considered, the B/C ratio for each of these is
determined in the same manner, comparing the conditions for the existing road with
those for the improved road. A ratio greater than 10 indicates that the extra cost
involved in the improvement is less than the benefits that are likely to accrue and the
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 project is economically justified. If several projects are being considered, the ratios
would enable them to be ranked in order of attractiveness, the one having the highest
B/C ratio being the most attractive. When several major alternatives are under
evaluation, a second analysis is then made, using the preferred alternative as the base
to determine whether an added increment of investment might yield a proportionately
larger increase in road user savings when compared with another alternative.

The following example illustrates the use of the benefit-cost ratio method.

Example: A single lane road 50 km long is to be widened to two lanes at a cost of Rs.
8.0 lakhs per km, including all improvements. The cost of operation of vehicles on the
single lane road is Rs. 1.20 per vehicle km, whereas it is Re. 1.00 per vehicle km on the
improved facility. The average traffic may be assumed 2500 vehicles per day over a
design period of 20years. The interest rate is 10per cent per annum. The cost of
maintenance is Rs. 5,000per km on the existing road and Rs. 10,000 per km on the
improved road. Is the investment in the improvement scheme worthwhile?

10.6.2 First Year Rate of Return

The first-year rate of return is the criterion followed by the Department of Environment,
U.K. (Réf. 1). In this simple method, the benefits accruing in the first year of the
scheme's operation alone are compared with the capital costs of construction. The
result, expressing the benefits accruing in the first year as a percentage of the costs, in
called the first-year rate of return.

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The first-year rate of return of a possible scheme gives an indication of its priority when
compared with other schemes, and thus assists the selection of the most advantageous
scheme. The priority for different schemes can also be decided on the basis of the first-
year rate of return.

The following example will make the principle clear.

Example: A new bypass is to be constructed at a busy town. The length of the bypass
will be 52 km, and the length of the road through the town is 54 km. The cost of the
project is likely to be Rs. 7,500,000. The speed of traffic through the town is 46.6 KPH.
The predicted traffic after completing the bypass is 7,600 vehicles/day, out of which 50%
will use the bypass. It is computed that if the bypass is not constructed the speed
through the town will further drop to 44.1 KPH due to increased traffic, and the speed
through the bypass is expected to be 77 KPH and that through the town will be 50.4
KPH. The travel costs at the three speeds are as below:

Speed Travel costs per

vehicle/KM
(K.P.H.) (Rs.)
44.1 1.14.
50.4 1.02
77.0 0.90

It is expected that the construction of the bypass will bring down the accident rate from
1.75 per million vehicle-km on the existing route to 0.60 per million vehicle-km on the
bypass. The cost of an accident can be taken as Rs. 15,000. The maintenance cost per
km is Rs. 10,000. Calculate the First Year Rate of Return.

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10.6.3 Net Present Value Method (NPV)

Net present value (present worth) method is based on the discounted cash flow (DCF)
technique. In this method, the stream of costs/benefits associated with the project over
an extended period of time is calculated and is discounted at a selected discount rate to
give the present value. Benefits are treated as positive and costs negative to compute
the net present value is found. Any project with a positive net present value is treated as
acceptable. In comparing more than one project, a project with the highest net present
value should be accepted.
The net present value is algebraically expressed as:

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Example. A section of road is at present having poor geometries. The cost of upgrading
this road is KSh. 100Million. The road user costs with and without the improvements, the
accident costs with and without the improvements and the extra maintenance costs with
the improvements are tabulated below for a 20-year period after the execution of the
improvement programme. Assuming a discount rate of 10% per annum, is the project
economically justified?

Solution. Table 38-3 gives the calculations in a convenient form.

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Table 10-3 (All Amounts in KSh Million)

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10.6.4 Internal Rate of Return Method

The internal rate of return is the discount rate which makes the discounted future
benefits equal to the initial outlay. In other words, it is the discount rate which makes the
stream of cash flows to zero. The NPV equation can thus be modified as below, if B Q is
zero:

Ct = Costs which occur in the year t

i = Internal rate of return
n = Number of years for which the analysis is done.

The solution to the above equation is rather tedious and is possible only by trial and
error. With a computer programme the work is rendered very simple.

If the rate of return calculated from the above formula is greater than the rate of interest
obtainable by investing the capital in the open market, the scheme is considered
acceptable.

10.6.5 Comparison of the Various Methods of Economic Evaluation

The four methods of economic evaluation described earlier have their own advantages
and disadvantages. Each one of them may be more appropriate than the other for a
given situation.

The benefit-cost ratio method, though widely used by highway engineers, suffers from
the following drawbacks:
(i) It requires an assumption of the rate of interest, which should be somewhat
related to the opportunity cost of capital. Unfortunately, the opportunity cost of
capital is very often not known or can be estimated only approximately.
(ii) The significance of the B/C ratio is ambiguous, and its relative value is difficult to
understand and interpret. For example, if there are two proposals, one with a B/C
ratio of 105 and the other with a ratio of 110, the difference is very difficult to
appreciate.
(iii) It is at times difficult to decide which items should be treated as costs and placed
in the denominator and which as negative benefits and placed in the numerator.

The net present value method also suffers from the disadvantage that a discount rate
has to be assumed initially. It is much simpler computationally when compared to the
internal rate of return method.

The internal rate of return avoids the necessity for selecting a discount rate initially. The
rate which is derived as a result of the computations can be easily compared with the
market rate of interest, with which economists and financial experts are familiar. Thus,
the method is considered to be more meaningful than the others. Its disadvantages are

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that the calculations are tedious, and a solution can only be found by trial and error, and
it may sometimes be misleading in comparing projects having different lives and
different streams of benefits.

The first-year rate of return method is quick to use but has obvious shortcomings. More
importantly, many projects may have attractive benefits initially but whose benefits taper
off abruptly thereafter, and this factor might become insignificant in the method.

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