Gender equity calls for bridging the gender gap, whereas equality aims to create a level-playing

field for both men and women, ignoring the historical disadvantages women have inherited.
Programmes and policies implemented with gender equity as their primary driving force have the
potential to enhance the socioeconomic well-being of women. Critically examine the reasons for
perpetuation of inequity and what can be done for promote equity using evidence and examples
from a country/ region of your choice. (5+10)

Gender equality refers to the equal enjoyment of rights, opportunities, and resources across all
genders. Gender equity, however, acknowledges the historical and social disadvantages that have
skewed these opportunities, particularly against women, and seeks to implement measures to
correct these imbalances. In case of equity there is a differential treatment between men and
women in order to account for these historical and social disadvantages that prevent women from
sharing a level playing field like men. For instance, providing leadership training for women or
providing quotas for women in decision making positions to achieve the state of gender equality.

Programs and policies that are implemented with gender equity as their primary aim enhance
socioeconomic well-being of women:

Legal and Political Frameworks

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) is
highlighted as a critical legal instrument that commits signatory states to take appropriate measures,
including legislation, to ensure women enjoy all human rights and fundamental freedoms. The
implementation of CEDAW provisions is legally binding for ratifying countries, which is a significant
step towards gender equity as it provides a framework for creating and enforcing laws that protect
women's rights and promote their socioeconomic well-being.

Economic Empowerment:

The International Labour Organization (ILO) has adopted an integrated approach to gender equality
and decent work, which is crucial for enhancing women's economic opportunities. This approach
includes measures to improve women's access to education, skills training, and healthcare,
considering women's roles in the care economy. By implementing workplace incentives for childcare
and parental leave, the ILO aims to help workers balance work and family responsibilities, directly
impacting women's ability to participate in the workforce and improve their economic status.

Long-Term Socioeconomic Benefits:

Policies that raise women's bargaining power within households, reduce fertility rates, and decrease
dependency ratios can lead to an increase in female labor force participation. This, in turn, fosters
investments in children's health and education, affecting the long-run productivity of the labor force.
Such policies not only improve the immediate economic standing of women but also contribute to
the overall economic growth and development of a country.
Material Well-being Inequality:

Gender systems that are hierarchical in nature influence the distribution of material resources and
opportunities, often to the detriment of women. By recognizing and challenging these systems,
policies can be formulated to ensure more equitable economic outcomes, such as income, wealth,
and access to education. Norms and stereotypes that legitimize unequal access to preferred jobs,
wealth, and power must be addressed to create a more level playing field.

Macro-Economic Policies:

The recognition that development and growth require gender-informed policies has been slow but is
gaining traction. The work of scholars like Boserup has highlighted that development policies often
exhibit gender bias, and empirical findings support the theory that gender inequalities negatively
impact development and growth. Gender-informed macroeconomic policies are essential for
sustainable development that includes and benefits all members of society.

Cultural and Social Interventions:

Gender equity is not only an economic issue but also a cultural and social one. Programs that
challenge gender roles and stereotypes, and promote women's rights and agency, are vital. Agency,
as defined by Naila Kabeer, is a person's capacity to set goals and act upon them, which may involve
negotiation and resistance. Empowerment, therefore, is about expanding people's capacity to make
decisions and transform those decisions into desired outcomes.

REASONS FOR PERPETUATION OF INEQUITY:

The perpetuation of gender inequity is a complex issue which rooted in various of factors that
including historical, cultural, economic, and political domains. Historically, gender roles have
traditionally placed women in subordinate positions. These roles, deeply embedded in societal
norms and values, have created a foundation where inequalities are not only expected but often go
unchallenged.

Culturally, these stereotypes are reinforced through socialization processes from a young age, where
boys and girls are taught their 'place' in society. Girls are often encouraged to pursue nurturing roles,
while boys are pushed towards assertiveness and leadership. This early conditioning sets the stage
for later life, where women are expected to prioritize family over career, leading to a workforce that
undervalues and underutilizes the talents of half the population.

Economically, women face systemic barriers to accessing resources such as capital, land, and credit,
which are essential for economic independence and empowerment. Even as women's educational
attainment has increased, the labour market has been slow to reflect this in terms of equal pay and
opportunities. Women continue to earn less than men, even when they have the same level of
education and experience, a disparity that is starkly evident in certain sectors where pay gaps are
wide. This economic inequity is further exacerbated by the disproportionate amount of unpaid care
work that women are expected to perform, which limits their time and opportunities for paid labour.
Politically, women remain underrepresented in decision-making roles. This underrepresentation
means that policies and laws are often created without considering the unique challenges and
perspectives of women, perpetuating a cycle where women's needs and potential contributions to
society are overlooked. This lack of political empowerment is a significant barrier to enacting the
systemic changes needed to address gender inequity.

Moreover, Macrostructure influences decide the degree of this inequality and conflict over
distribution of resources exacerbated by the nature of the economic system. Unequal, unstable
systems provoke the emergence of hierarchies. Macrostructure: structure of production;
macroeconomic policies, social safety net, public expenditure, legal system, financial system, labour
market policies.

WAYS TO PROMOTE EQUITY:

Educational Equity: Ensuring equal access to education for girls and boys lays the foundation for
gender equity. In Rwanda, the Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) has been pivotal in
advocating for girls' education. They have implemented scholarship programs and provided material
support to keep girls in school, recognizing that education empowers women and equips them with
the skills needed for a more equitable future.

Economic Inclusion: Economic empowerment is key to achieving gender equity, as it allows women
to gain financial independence and decision-making power. The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh has
revolutionized women's economic participation through microfinance, offering small loans that
enable women to start businesses and improve their socioeconomic status.

Political Representation: Gender equity in political participation ensures that women's voices and
perspectives shape policy and governance. Nordic countries, like Norway, have adopted gender
quotas for boards of publicly listed companies, significantly increasing the number of women in
leadership and decision-making roles.

Legal Protections: Robust legal frameworks are essential for protecting women's rights and
promoting equity. Spain's Organic Act on Integrated Protection Measures against Gender Violence is
a comprehensive law that provides a range of supports for victims and works toward the prevention
of violence against women.

Healthcare Accessibility: Access to healthcare, particularly reproductive health services, is a

cornerstone of gender equity. Chile's reproductive health program, which offers comprehensive
sexuality education and free birth control, has empowered women by reducing teenage pregnancies
and allowing them to exercise their reproductive rights.

Workplace Equality: Achieving gender equity in the workplace involves ensuring equal pay and
opportunities for advancement. Iceland's Equal Pay Standard mandates that companies and
institutions provide equal pay for work of equal value, actively working to close the gender wage gap.

Cultural and Social Campaigns: Changing social norms and stereotypes is critical for gender equity.
The "HeForShe" campaign, supported by UN Women in Canada, engages men and boys as allies in
the fight for gender equality, challenging harmful stereotypes and encouraging proactive steps
towards a more equitable society.
2. India is now placed 127 out of 146 nations in terms of gender parity, up from 135 last year,
according to the annual Gender Gap Report, 2023. Critically examine why we are lagging behind
while Nordic countries are performing better as compared to other countries with special focus to
economic dimensions of development. (5+10)

India's position in the Gender Gap Report of 2023, where it stands at 127 out of 146 nations, reflects
the multifaceted challenges the country faces in achieving gender parity, especially in the economic
dimension. In contrast, Nordic countries consistently rank at the top of the index, thanks to their
robust policies and practices that support gender equality. To understand why India lags behind, we
need to examine the economic dimensions of development that contribute to this disparity.

Economic Participation and Opportunity:

India's economic landscape for women is marked by a stark contrast in labor force participation
when compared to Nordic countries. While cultural norms and socio-economic barriers significantly
contribute to the low participation rate of women in India's workforce, Nordic countries have
established a supportive infrastructure that encourages women's employment. For instance, in
Sweden, government policies facilitate a balance between work and family life, offering up to 480
days of paid parental leave which can be shared between both parents. This not only promotes
gender equality in child-rearing but also supports women's continuous participation in the labor
market.

Daily Time Use Analysis: An analysis of how women spend their time daily provides insight into the
economic value of their work. In India, a significant portion of women's workday is consumed by
unpaid care and domestic work, which is not accounted for in traditional economic indicators. Nordic
countries, on the other hand, have policies that aim to redistribute unpaid work more evenly
between genders, recognizing its economic value and allowing women more time to engage in the
formal labor market.

Monetization of Women’s Work: Monetizing women's work, particularly unpaid work, could have a
transformative impact on economic development. In India, if women's unpaid work were to be
monetized, it would add significantly to the GDP. Nordic countries have made strides in this area by
providing state-funded childcare and eldercare services, effectively monetizing what is traditionally
seen as women's unpaid work.

Output Method: The output method refers to the measurement of economic contribution in terms
of the output produced. In India, women's economic output is often undervalued, particularly in
agriculture and family businesses where their labor is not formally recognized. Nordic countries have
more comprehensive methods for measuring economic output, including the contributions of
women, which is reflected in their higher GDP per capita.

Wage Equality for Similar Work: The gender wage gap is a global issue, but its persistence in India is
particularly troubling. According to the Monster Salary Index, women in India earn 19% less than
men. This is not just a reflection of direct discrimination but also of the types of jobs that are
predominantly occupied by women, which are often lower paid. In contrast, Finland has
implemented policies that promote wage transparency and equality, which have been effective in
reducing the wage gap.

Access to Economic Resources: In India, women's access to economic resources is hindered by legal
and societal hurdles. Despite laws that support inheritance and land ownership for women, the
enforcement is weak, and women often relinquish their rights due to social pressure. In contrast,
Denmark has one of the highest rates of women's property ownership in the world, which is a direct
result of gender-sensitive policies and a strong legal framework that ensures women's rights to
economic resources.

Education and Skill Development: Education is a critical area where India needs to focus to bridge
the gender gap. While the country has made progress in increasing female literacy rates, there is still
a significant drop-off at higher levels of education, particularly in rural areas. The Nordic countries,
however, have some of the highest literacy rates for women globally, and they invest heavily in
ensuring that girls have the same opportunities for education and skill development as boys.

Entrepreneurship: Women in India face numerous challenges in entrepreneurship, including limited

access to finance and markets, as well as societal attitudes that can discourage them from pursuing
business ventures. In contrast, Iceland has been recognized for its efforts to support female
entrepreneurs, including through the provision of grants and loans specifically targeted at women-
owned businesses.

Political Will and Policy Implementation: The political will to address gender disparities is evident in
the Nordic countries, where gender equality is integrated into all aspects of public policy. In India,
while there are policies aimed at promoting gender equality, the gap between policy and practice
remains wide. The Nordic success is largely due to the consistent and effective implementation of
gender-sensitive policies.

Social Security and Protection: The Nordic social security model provides comprehensive protection
for all citizens, including women. This model includes unemployment insurance, parental leave, and
pension rights, which contribute to the economic security of women. In India, the social security
system is not as robust, and many women, especially those in informal employment, lack access to
social security benefits.

Workplace Harassment and Safety: Workplace safety is a critical issue for women in India, with
reports of harassment and violence being common. Nordic countries have strict laws and a culture
that does not tolerate harassment, creating a safer environment for women to work. For example,
Sweden's Discrimination Act requires employers to actively prevent harassment and take measures
to promote equal rights.

Representation in Leadership Roles: Women's representation in leadership roles is another area

where India lags behind. Despite having had a woman as a head of state, the overall representation
of women in leadership positions in India is low. In contrast, in Iceland, women hold around 40% of
the seats in parliament and there are laws that mandate gender balance on corporate boards.

The disparity between India and Nordic countries in terms of gender parity, particularly in the
economic dimension, is a result of a combination of factors. These include cultural norms, policy
implementation, and the political will to address gender disparities. To improve its ranking in the
Gender Gap Report, India must take a holistic approach that addresses these underlying issues. This
would involve not only creating and enforcing laws that promote gender equality but also changing
societal attitudes towards women's economic participation. By doing so, India can create a more
inclusive economy that benefits from the full participation of its female population, contributing to
overall development and prosperity.
Q6. Mention any three policies that promote gender equity or equality. Critically examine the
performance of any one of the policies that you have stated with examples and evidence from a
country/state of your choice.

Below mentioned are three major policies that promote gender equality/equity from across the
world.

1. The National Strategy on Gender Equity and Equality aims to address gender-based
violence, develop and strengthen national and global laws and policies, and invest in
advancing the rights and opportunities of women, girls, and LGBTQI+ persons. It is designed
to guide practice across U.S. government agencies, bridging domestic and global efforts. This
strategy underscores the U.S. government's commitment to eliminating gender-based
violence and advancing gender equality. The National Strategy on Gender Equity and
Equality outlines specific actions to address gender-based violence, including the following
measures:
 Preventing and responding to gender-based violence
 Promoting safety and fair treatment in justice and immigration systems
 Collecting gender-sensitive data

2. Iceland’s equal pay management standard: In 2017 the Icelandic Parliament introduced
the Equal Wage Management Standard (EWMS), based on a job evaluation tool. It is a certified
mandated standard and the result of tripartite working between employer associations, the
Government and trade unions. From 2018 Iceland became the first country to require companies to
prove they pay employees in the same roles equally, regardless of their gender, sexuality, or ethnicity.
From 2020 certification became a requirement with daily fines for organisations without
certification.

3. Mukhyamantri Kanya Utthaan Yojana - In 2018, the Government of Bihar launched an umbrella
scheme called Mukhyamantri Kanya Utthan Yojana (MKUY). The program provides financial support
and assistance via-a-vis 23 conditional cash transfers over a girl’s life course from birth to 21 years of
age. Specific objectives of the MKUY entail lowering the rates of underage marriage, female
foeticide, and child mortality, along with the betterment of girl's education/employment rates in
society. With financial support, it aims to improve girl's lives by encouraging them to seek higher
education.

I aim to critically analyse the performance and execution of the MKUY which was a significant step
forward for Bihar with the 2011 census delineating it as having the lowest female literacy rates in
India.

The Mukhyamantri Kanya Uthan Yojana is an umbrella scheme that combines programs from the
education, health, and social departments to incentivize girls to complete school/university
education, prevent early marriages, close the gender gap at birth, and provide financial assistance to
parents via periodic cash transfers. It would provide Rs.94,100 per girl child in instalments to 1.6
crore girls per year from birth to graduation. It covers the cost of sanitary pads and uniforms. These
are conditional payments to achieve goals like enhanced registration for births, complete
immunisation, enrolment and attendance until age of marriage. This is encouraged by the huge
increase in payment at the last stage. The money is paid directly to the parents' bank accounts to
ensure transparency and reduce corruption.

The policy requires direct training of frontline workers, which would improve the
policy implementation because Anganwadi centres - where the forms for this policy are filled out -
are the very first point of contact for villages, where their trust is placed. This will aid in achievement
of policy targets as villagers are more likely to listen to Angwadi workers, allowing for effective
reach. The policy is non-discriminatory, providing inclusive access to all girls below a specific income
threshold, regardless of their theological/cultural/caste backgrounds, making it suitable for Bihar's
diverse population. Since the implementation relies mainly on Anganwadi workers many women
have reported having help. In accordance with a study on the implementation of MKUY by ICDS, in
the International Journal of Novel Research - if a child’s birth weight was low, Anganwadi Sevika had
come to the mother’s house to give her advice on raising a low weight baby and to take documents
for the scheme from home. They have reported that during childbirth, the attendants took her
Aadhar, account details, and the hospital staff filled the Birth Certificate and MKUY form out .

MKUY effectively addresses key obstacles to female education in the state, such as menstrual
hygiene awareness, poverty, menstrual health management in education, and early marriages, by
offering financial support for sanitary products. UNICEF Bihar supports the Directorate of Social
Welfare in monitoring MKUY performance and assessing its long-term effectiveness. However,
certain challenges were identified in achieving MKUY's goals, including reaching married females,
engaging influential community members, involving law enforcement agencies, improving the
quality and reach of facilities and services, and utilizing media.

While the Mukhyamantri Kanya Utthaan Yojana intends to promote girl child education and birth, it
faces limitations in implementation, functionality, and coverage among economically disadvantaged
girls. Access to low-cost bank accounts is a major bottleneck that delays programme enrolment and
benefit disbursements. Large and repetitive documentation is required to enrol, and there are often
discrepancies in beneficiary information across documents, particularly for new mothers. Getting
Aadhaar cards for children is another major bottleneck. An eligibility criterion allowing only two girls
from the same household to apply contradicts the policy's goals of encouraging the birth of girl
children and enhancing female literacy. In the Gender, Youth, and Social Inclusion Analysis study in
Bihar (Engender Health, 2022), girls mentioned their awareness of government schemes but were
unsure about how their parents used the funds, which could potentially be diverted for other
purposes. Ensuring that the allocated funds are exclusively directed toward the welfare of the
beneficiaries is essential. To safeguard the intended use of funds, the government may set up
grievance redressal system or conduct regular audits and monitoring, including inspections, field
visits, and financial reviews to ensure proper utilisation. The government payment channels should
be fastened to attract more beneficiaries to this Scheme.

While cash transfers can improve access to education and resources, their impact remains superficial
without a shift in the collective mindset. Behavioural interventions are crucial as they tackle
ingrained societal norms and attitudes that impede girls' progress, even with financial support. Some
interventions are engaging female role models, revision of school curriculums to include gender-
based topics, parental engagement to reinforce positive gender norms, and leveraging social media
to propagate gender equality.
Q7. The significance of the role women in development had been recognized by the government
of India right from the first five-year plan (1951-1956). Critically examine the empowerment of
women through any two or three five-year plans in India of your choice.

The Constitution grants the State the power to enact laws that promote women's rights in addition
to guaranteeing their equality. Five-Year Plans (FYPs) are coordinated and integrated national
economic programmes. In the First Five Year Plan (1951-56) the development of women was a
subject of ‘Welfare.’ Later on in the subsequent five-year plans, the term’s approach has changed
from ‘Welfare’ to ‘Development’ and then to ‘Empowerment.’

Several women's welfare measures were envisaged in the First Five Year Plan. A few steps in this
direction were the establishment of the Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB), Mahila Mandals and
Community Development programmes. The Central Social Welfare Board’s primary goal was to
support volunteer organisations in planning welfare programmes for women, children, and
handicapped groups. In 1954, the Board formed State Social Welfare Boards around the nation in
cooperation with State Governments. In 1951, the National Family Planning Programme was
introduced, its main objective was to secure better health for the child and the mother. The first
Five-Year Plan in India did not have a specific focus on women's empowerment, but it included
measures aimed at improving the socio-economic conditions for women. It laid the foundation for
subsequent Five-Year Plans that implemented more targeted policies to empower women in India.

Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-1997)

Women's development programs in India's Five-Year Plans have often not benefited women, but
excluded them and development has often led to their further marginalization. The approach of the
8th Plan marked a shift from "development" to "empowerment" of women.

Initiatives introduced in the 8th Plan to empower women:

 Setting up the National Commission for Women (NCW) in 1992 to safeguard their rights and
interests.
 Setting up the Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) to meet the micro-credit needs of poor and
assetless women.
 Adopting the National Nutrition Policy (NNP) to improve the nutritional status of children,
adolescent girls, and expectant and nursing mothers.
 Launching the Mahila Samridhi Yojana (MSY) to promote thrift activities among women.
 Setting up the National Creche Fund (NCF) to provide crèche services to the children of
working mothers.
 Launching the Indira Mahila Yojana (IMY) to promote women empowerment through
women self-help groups (SHGs).
 Made the 73rd & 74th Amendment Acts to the Indian constitution to reserve seats for
women in local bodies.
 Established the Kasturba Gandhi Education Scheme in 1997 to establish girls' schools in
districts with low female literacy rates.

It focused on human development and aimed to ensure that women benefited from development in
all sectors, implemented special programs to complement general development programmes, and
monitored the flow of benefits to women. To provide "near full employment," govt. reset its
priorities to focus on employment and income generation activities for women, with the goal of
making them self-reliant and function as equal participants in India's development process.
The Indian government launched several women-specific employment and training programs,
including Work and Wage, Learn While You Earn, Credit for Entrepreneurial/Self-Employment
Ventures, Employment Guaranty, STEP (Support for Training and Employment), and TEPC (Training
cum Employment cum Production Centres). These programs were designed to help women gain the
skills and resources they need to find and maintain employment. Other programs, such as IRDP
(Integrated Rural Development Programme), TRYSEM, JRY (Jawahar Rozgar Yojana), NRY, PMRY
(Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana) extended 30 to 40% reservation of benefits for women. The
schemes of Hostels for Working Women, Crèches for Children of Working/Ailing Mothers, and Short
Stay Homes for Women and Girls extend support services for women.

Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002)

The 9th Plan made significant changes in the conventional strategy of planning for women. It
focused on empowering women and considered them agents of social change and development.

The plan emphasised the following strategies:

 Reservation of 1/3rd seats for women in parliament and state Legislative Assemblies
 Convergence of existing services, resources, infrastructure, and manpower in women-
specific/related sectors.
 Adoption of a women component plan (WCP) to ensure at least 30% of funds and benefits
flowed to women from other development sectors.
 Organising women self-help groups (SHGs)
 Priority to reproductive child health care
 Universalising supplementary feeding programs (Special Nutrition Programme)
 Ensuring easy and equal access to education for women and girls
 Elimination of gender bias in educational programs
 Free education for girls up to college level, including professional courses.
 Promoting skill development among women in modern upcoming trades
 Adoption of National Policy for Empowerment of Women

Special initiative/achievements for woman empowerment during the ninth plan:-

 Govt. adopted Bhagya Shree Bal Kalyan Policy (1998) to uplift girls' conditions and
Rajrajeswari Mahila Kalyan Yojana (1998) to provide insurance protection to women.
 Govt. adopted the Women’s Component Plan (WCP) to ensure that women benefited from
all development sectors.
 Launched the Swa-Shakti to empower women by setting up of self-reliant Self-Help Groups
and developing linkages with lending institutions to provide access to credit facilities (1998).
 Set up a Task Force on Women to review and suggest new/changes to women-specific and
related legislations.
 Introduced Gender Budgeting to target public expenditure more effectively and offset any
negative gender-specific consequences of previous budgetary measures (2000-01).
 Adopted National Policy for Empowerment of Women to eliminate all discrimination against
women, ensure gender justice, and empower women socio-economically (2001).
 Celebrated 2001 as Women's Empowerment Year to raise awareness, remove negative
thinking, and build confidence in women so they take their rightful place in the nation's
socio-political and economic life (2001).
  Launched Sadhar to extend rehabilitation services for ‘Women in Difficult Circumstances’;
(2001).
 Introduced Bill on Domestic Violence against Women (prevention) to eliminate all forms of
domestic violence against women and the girl child; (2002).

The ultimate goal of development is human development and hence to empower people and
expand their capabilities and choices. Governments and voluntary sectors must make policies to
empower women and translate strategies into action by removing inequalities in access to
resources, economic opportunities, power, rights, and political voice.

Gender inequality in the labour market, particularly in the context of developing nations,
is one area of concern that still poses a great challenge. Historically, women have been
denied many opportunities due to deep-rooted biases in the social system and this
eventually led to labour market inequality. Moreover, discrimination is not limited to the
domestic arena only but extends beyond the household. Critically examine the existing
gender inequality in labour market using arguments, evidence and reasons from a
country/region of your choice. (5+10)
Gender Inequality in the Labour Market: A Critical Examination with a Focus on Developing
Nations

Gender inequality in the labour market is a critical issue that undermines economic development
and social progress, particularly in developing nations. Despite various efforts to promote gender
equality, the labour market remains an area where discriminatory practices against women persist.
This essay critically examines the existing gender inequality in the labour market, using arguments,
evidence, and reasons with a focus on developing nations, particularly India.

Historical Context and Present Challenges : Historically, women have been relegated to roles that
reflect societal perceptions of their capabilities and place in the social hierarchy. In developing
nations, these perceptions are often influenced by traditional norms and practices that limit
women's participation in the labour market. For instance, in India, societal expectations often dictate
that women's primary responsibility is domestic care, which significantly reduces their ability to
engage in full-time employment.

Barriers to Entry and Advancement: Women face numerous barriers to entry and advancement in
the labour market. These include limited access to education and vocational training, gender biases
in hiring practices, and a lack of supportive workplace policies. In many developing countries, women
are also disproportionately affected by the lack of infrastructure, such as safe transportation and
adequate childcare, which hinders their ability to seek and maintain employment.

Wage Disparity and Job Segregation: The gender wage gap is a manifestation of the inequality that
pervades the labour market. Women are often paid less than men for the same work, and this
disparity is more pronounced in developing nations. Job segregation by gender further exacerbates
this issue, with women frequently finding employment in sectors that offer lower wages and less job
security, such as the informal sector or part-time work.
Impact on Economic Growth: Gender inequality in the labour market has a significant impact on
economic growth. By limiting women's participation in the workforce, economies fail to utilize the
full potential of their human capital. Studies have shown that increasing women's labour force
participation rates can lead to higher economic output and reduced poverty levels. For example, the
McKinsey Global Institute estimates that advancing women's equality could add $12 trillion to global
GDP by 2025.

In Tanzania, the specialization of work along gender lines has significant economic implications. A
study by Tibaijuka (1994) in the Kagera Region shows that improving gender equality in the
production of bananas and coffee for export would increase a village’s income by 10 percent, with
labor productivity rising by 15 percent and capital productivity by 44 percent. This example
underscores the economic benefits of gender parity in labor markets.

Similarly, Collier (1994) highlights how gender inequality constrained tea cultivation in Kenya,
particularly in areas with female-headed households, which were less likely to grow tea despite
women being the primary labor force on tea plantations. This indicates a loss of potential agricultural
output due to gender-based discrimination.

Policy Interventions and Social Change: Addressing gender inequality in the labour market requires
comprehensive policy interventions and social change. Governments must implement and enforce
laws that promote equal pay and prohibit discrimination in hiring and promotion practices.
Additionally, social programs aimed at increasing women's access to education and vocational
training can equip them with the skills needed to compete in the labour market.

The Role of International Organizations: International organizations play a crucial role in promoting
gender equality in the labour market. By providing funding, expertise, and a platform for sharing best
practices, these organizations can support the efforts of developing nations to create a more
equitable labour market. Partnerships between governments, civil society, and the private sector are
essential to drive change and ensure that women have equal opportunities to contribute to
economic development.

In conclusion, gender inequality in the labour market is a complex issue that requires a multifaceted
approach to address. Developing nations, in particular, face unique challenges that necessitate
targeted interventions. By promoting equal opportunities for women in the labour market, societies
can achieve greater economic growth, reduce poverty, and move towards a more equitable and just
world.
What is Gender Responsive Budgeting? Why is it significant and more so in a context like India?
Critically examine the measures taken by the Indian government to strengthen the gender
budgeting in India and highlight the inherent shortcomings in India’s approach to gender
responsive budgeting. (5+10)

Gender Responsive Budgeting (GRB) is a strategy to promote gender equality and women’s
empowerment through budgetary policies and processes.GRB IS A series of additional and analytical
instruments [that help] one to understand and make a judgment on the impact of government
budget programs in reducing the gender gap, thereby helping gender mainstreaming and ultimately
gender equality. The need for GRGB is clear, namely, persistent gender inequality in the labor market;
the macroeconomic implications of gender inequality, such as lower growth and weaker economic
stability; the effects on household spending on health and education, etc.

There are pre and post budgeting tools that are important for introduction of GRB.

 Pre budgeting tools include a gender cost-benefit analysis and emphasize a

participatory approach to budget preparation, reflecting the influence of
government expenditure on the female population.
 Post budgeting tools focus on the impact of government programs for the female
population and the contribution of such programs to improving gender equality;
these tools also influence future pre budgeting tools.

Gender budgeting should form part of the macro-fiscal framework of the economy, and its
microeconomic dimensions should encompass spending and revenues. The macro-fiscal aspect of
gender budgeting should address the effect of gender inequality on economic stability and its
ramifications for the labor and financial markets.

Significance of Gender responsive budgeting: -

Women in India lag behind men on key development indicators such as education, health, and
economic opportunities. Many of them are led into early marriage, pressured to conceive early,
and exposed to greater health risks. Despite accounting for 48.4 percent of India’s population,
women do not have proportionate numbers in decision-making bodies and are given little role in
policy-making structures and processes. Such inequities and underrepresentation have made it
more urgent to promote efficient gender-responsive budgeting. Recognising that gender
inequality poses a risk to the country’s balanced development, and seeking to bridge the gaps,
India has attempted to integrate gender concerns into its policymaking processes by including
focused measures towards the empowerment of women in its Five-Year Plans, starting with the
sixth plan of 1980-85. Though the Planning Commission would eventually be discontinued in
2014, those earlier efforts paved the way for the formal introduction of gender-responsive
budgeting (GRB) years before.

The government has also established the Gender Budgeting Cell (GBC) in the Ministry of Finance and
mandated the establishment of State/Union Territory (UT) Gender Budgeting Cells. These cells are
responsible for promoting gender-responsive budgeting practices, conducting gender analysis,
training officials, and monitoring the implementation of gender budgeting initiatives.
By adopting GRB, India can address these challenges systematically. It allows policymakers to analyze
the impact of budgetary decisions on men and women, identify gender-specific needs and priorities,
and allocate resources accordingly. It also helps in measuring progress towards gender equality,
holding the government accountable, and ensuring the effective utilization of funds to achieve
gender-related goals.

However, India’s approach to gender responsive budgeting has some inherent shortcomings:-

1) The current level of gender budgeting implementation in India is not uniform across all states and
union territories, resulting in uneven progress. Some states have made significant strides, while
others lag behind.

2) The allocation of funds for gender-specific initiatives is often inadequate and doesn’t align with
the identified needs and priorities. There is a lack of coordination between different government
departments, resulting in fragmented efforts and a limited impact on gender equality.

3) Gender budgeting in India primarily focuses on welfare-oriented schemes, often overlooking the
need for addressing systemic barriers and promoting structural changes to achieve gender equality.
This limits the transformative potential of gender budgeting and its ability to challenge and address
deep-rooted discrimination.

4) Gender Budget Statement (GBS) was first introduced in the Indian Budget in 2005-06. This GB
Statement comprises two parts–
o Part A reflects Women Specific Schemes, i.e. those which have 100%
allocation for women.
o Part B reflects Pro Women Schemes, i.e. those where at least 30% of the
allocation is for women.
Another concern is the skewed allocation of funds within the gender budget. Part B, receives more
attention than Part A, which should allocate 100% of funds for women. Part A has been decreasing in
allocation over time. There are also concerns regarding the inclusion and exclusion of schemes in the
gender budget. Some major schemes that benefit women are not included, raising questions about
the effectiveness and coverage of the budget. Furthermore, the methodology for determining the
allocation of funds for gender equality in different schemes lacks transparency. This results in
paradoxical allocations, where schemes that target women are placed in Part B instead of Part A

The measures taken by the Indian Government to strengthen the gender budgeting in India:

Despite its shortcomings, The Indian government has taken measures to strengthen gender
budgeting in India. Gender responsive budgeting is a strategy that aims to ensure that government
budgets address the specific needs and priorities of different genders.

 One measure taken by the Indian government to strengthen gender budgeting is the
introduction of the Gender Budget Statement (GBS) in 2005. The GBS provides a detailed
account of the budgetary allocations for women-centered programs and schemes. It helps in
identifying the extent of financial resources allocated for women and assessing their impact
on gender equality.
  Another measure is the establishment of the National Mission for Empowerment of Women
(NMEW) in 2010. NMEW serves as a nodal agency for the coordination of various programs
and schemes related to women’s welfare. It ensures that gender concerns are explicitly
addressed in the planning and execution of government schemes and programs.
 Furthermore, the government has also implemented the Mahila Shakti Kendra Scheme
(MSK) to empower rural women through community participation. Under this scheme,
women are provided with training and support to enable them to participate in decision-
making processes, access government schemes, and engage in self-employment activities.
MSK aims to strengthen the role of women in the development process and promote gender
equity.
 The establishment of a separate Gender Budgeting Cell in the Ministry of Finance. This cell is
responsible for guiding and coordinating gender budgeting efforts across different ministries
and departments. It provides technical support and capacity building to ensure that gender
perspectives are integrated into the budgetary process.
 The Indian government has also initiated the collection and analysis of gender-disaggregated
data. This data helps in identifying gender-specific needs and gaps in resource allocation. It
enables evidence-based decision-making and ensures that budgetary allocations are
targeted towards addressing gender inequalities.
 Additionally, the government has collaborated with civil society organizations and women’s
groups to promote gender budgeting. It has created platforms for dialogue and consultation
to increase awareness and understanding of gender-responsive budgeting among
policymakers and other stakeholders. These collaborations aim to ensure the active
participation of women in the budgetary process and to advocate for the prioritization of
gender-related issues.

Gender responsive budgeting is a crucial tool for promoting gender equality and addressing gender
disparities. In the case of India, it can play a significant role in addressing the country’s challenges
related to gender inequality. While the government has taken steps to strengthen gender budgeting,
there are shortcomings that need to be addressed to fully realize its potential for transformative
change.