Slopes and Excavations Design and Calculation Wietek 2022

Bernhard Wietek
Slopes and
Excavations
Design and Calculation
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Slopes and Excavations
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Bernhard Wietek
Slopes and Excavations

Design and Calculation
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Bernhard Wietek
Sistrans, Austria
This book is a translation of the original German edition “Böschungen und Baugruben” by Wietek,
Bernhard, published by Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH in 2020. The translation was done with
the help of artificial intelligence (machine translation by the service DeepL.com). A subsequent human
revision was done primarily in terms of content, so that the book will read stylistically differently from a
conventional translation. Springer Nature works continuously to further the development of tools for the
production of books and on the related technologies to support the authors.
ISBN 978-3-658-35852-5 ISBN 978-3-658-35853-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-35853-2
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Preface
Slopes as inclined earth surfaces occur everywhere. They are more or less worked by
man and thus the condition is changed. Thus, the effects of these changes should also be
considered and a certainty about the safety of the slopes should be obtained. Only with
this knowledge should changes be carried out in order to be able to estimate their effect
on people and the environment.
From my own experience, according to the practical necessity, the excavation pit
shoring is also treated. The usual construction methods and their calculation proofs are
shown. Artificial slopes for slope stabilization or also excavation pits are shown. Here
the differences in the calculations are indicated, whereby basically simple and compre-
hensible calculation methods are assumed.
As a special feature, the spatial conditions of excavations are also examined, whereby
this also concerns the spatial influences that lead to significant changes in relation to the
shoring. This applies in particular to spatial slope protections and also shafts.
I would like to thank all clients and construction companies for the good cooperation
that we have had on the most diverse construction sites over all the years and also that
we have been able to bring almost all problems to a reasonable solution together. It is
important that all parties involved know what is happening and that they trust each other,
without which we would not be able to build a structure to the satisfaction of our clients.
Furthermore, I would like to thank the publisher and his editor, Mr. Frieder Kumm, for
the quick and trouble-free cooperation, without which the book would not have reached
the reader so quickly.
A special need for me is to thank my dear wife Jutta, who always shows a lot of un-
derstanding for my activities and also suggest respects that I do not overwork me.
All calculations were performed with LibreOffice-Calc. LibreOffice is an open source

program that is available free of charge on the Internet and is constantly being further
developed. The calculations performed in Calc in this book can be requested from the
author (ibw-calc(at)gmx.net) with a donation.
Sistrans near Innsbruck, October 2021 Bernhard Wietek
V
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Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Slopes 7
2.1 Formation of slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Loose material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Rolling soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Soils with cohesive components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.3 Terrain fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.1 No fissure filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.2 Rolling fissure filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.3 Cohesive fissure filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.4 Spatial sphere presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4 Building in permafrost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4.1 Permafrost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4.2 Wurmkogel - Oetztal valley (Tyrol) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3 Excavations 63
3.1 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.1 Subsoil Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.2 Groundwater and slope water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.3 Neighbor buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.1.4 Construction cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.5 Short- and long-term fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.5.1 Short-term fuses - temporary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.5.2 Long-term fuses - permanent . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
VII
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VIII Contents
3.2 Coverage and networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

3.2.1 Free-hanging cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2.2 Rock cross-links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2.3 Rockfall nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3 Impact wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.4 Retaining wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.5 Stone walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.5.1 Raw stone wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.5.2 Mortared stone wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.6 Gabions (stone baskets) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.7 Cushion wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.8 Geocells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.9 Reinforced earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.10 Precast wall in front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.11 Timber anchor wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.12 Krainerwall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.13 Nailed shotcrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.13.1 Principle of production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.13.2 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.13.3 Execution with structural steel mesh reinforced shotcrete . . . . 162
3.13.4 Design with fiber concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.13.4.1 Steel fiber concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.13.4.2 Plastic fiber concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.14 Comparison of different types of securing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4 Securing spatial terrain slopes 181

4.1 Simple theoretical consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.2 Spatial slope stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.2.1 Road protection for parking lot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.2.2 Securing the excavation pit for a ski depot . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.2.3 High slope stabilization for a hotel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.3 Implications for practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
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Contents IX
5 Excavation Shoring 195

5.1 Sheet pile wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.2 Soldier pile wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.3 Pile wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5.4 Diaphragm wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
5.4.1 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.4.2 Open slit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.4.3 Vertical force transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.4.4 Horizontal forces and moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.4.4.1 Testing of diaphragm wall elements . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.4.4.2 Application examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.5 Cutting wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
6 Underpinning 243
6.1 Conventional concrete discs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.2 Nailed shotcrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
6.3 High-pressure soil grouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
7 Shaft structures 265

7.1 Spatial earth pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.2 Flat side walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.3 Curved side walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8 Anchors and soil nails 287

8.1 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.1.1 Small anchors or dowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.1.2 Medium load anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.1.3 Ground and rock anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.1.4 Heavy-duty anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.2 Soil nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.2.1 Solid bar nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.2.2 Hollow bar nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.2.3 GRP Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
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8.3 Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

8.3.1 Bar anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.3.2 Strand anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.4 Small pile - GEWI pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
8.5 Durability of anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
8.6 Monitoring of anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
8.6.1 Monitoring the load capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
8.6.1.1 Qualification test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
8.6.1.2 Acceptance test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.6.1.3 Lift-off test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
8.6.1.4 Load cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
8.6.2 Monitoring corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
8.6.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
8.6.2.2 Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
8.6.2.3 Types of corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
8.6.2.4 Potential measurement with electrodes . . . . . . . . 327
8.6.2.5 Polarization measurement with electrodes . . . . . . 333
8.6.3 For double corrosion-protected armatures . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.6.4 For simply corrosion-protected anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
8.7 Extending the service life of anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
8.7.1 general information on CCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
8.7.2 CCP for double corrosion protected anchors . . . . . . . . . . . 344
8.7.3 CCP for simply corrosion-protected anchors . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Appendix 347
List of Figures 349
Bibliography 367
Index 373
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1 Introduction
Getting started in geotechnical engineering - the field of which this book deals with -
is not quite easy. Thus, one should first read an introductory literature [52] in order to
get to know and to assign technical terms. Then one can work on theory and practical
examples [33], as well as [34]. The state of the art is taught with [35], [36] as well as
[37]. In the field of rock construction, on the other hand, [27] and [55] are recommended.
It is a world of its own this geotechnics. It is peppered with foreign words that only
experts understand (or not) and mathematical formulas [22], that make your hair stand
on end just by looking at them, and a lobbyism that is unparalleled. Sometimes one is
inclined to use comparisons in order to better understand how the interrelationships in
geotechnics work.
Imagine a vehicle whose four wheels are not round but hexagonal, a frame made of
massive steel girders, which transmit all shocks and vibrations. The cab is made of car-
bon with bucket seats and four-point seat belts and an engine from Formula 1 with about
800 horsepower. Now off into the race of the technology. You say that’s absurd, well in
geotechnical engineering not - here are the facts:
At a construction site, an excavation support is to be calculated. In the start-up a civil

engineer estimates the soil properties:
• Friction angle ±5 degrees
• Cohesion ±5 kN/m2
• E-modulus ±20 MN/m2
A soil analysis in the laboratory is not carried out for cost reasons, the engineer has
so much experience that he can estimate the soil properties well. A medium soil is as-
© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 1

B. Wietek, Slopes and Excavations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-35853-2_1
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2 1 Introduction
sumed, although three soil layers exist in nature. The inaccuracy of the soil properties
already generates a difference of approx. 25-50 percent in the numerical values! These
are the hexagonal wheels with the steel frame!
With these soil parameters, the calculations are now carried out with expensive EDV
programs (if possible finite elements with non-linear material laws) - the 800 hp engine -
are carried out. With the safety there are only the sophisticated partial safety calculations
- cab made of carbon with bucket seat and four-point safety device - which are improved
again and again. These are practical facts, not a fantasy from some Hollywood movie!
In my now already more than forty years of professional experience I estimate the
percentage of construction sites, not only those in which I have been involved, in which
the way as described was gone, with over 90 per cent. Not only small companies and
engineering offices but also global companies and university institutes work according
to this scheme. This must be changed!
If one calculates with estimated soil properties, simple calculation methods are com-
pletely sufficient and also with regard to safety a global factor depending on the calcu-
lation for the project is justifiable. One is aware the uncertainty according to the first
assumptions and would like to improve this also.
In my opinion, in order to go with the 800 hp engines, the ground characteristics must
be estimated much better and also made economically measurable. This is a demand to
our researchers, because here is a backlog that absolutely must be addressed. Also we in
the practice engineers and geotechnical engineers want to drive with racing tires in order
to make better use of the 800 hp better and to bring this power onto the road.
In the present book, the first step is to start from the existing possibilities (estimated
soil properties), the useful consideration of slopes and excavations. Relatively simple
and comprehensible methods are used, the accuracy of which is sufficient in most cases.
The consideration of the safety is thereby shaped by global safety factors and not by the
confusing use of partial safety factors, which often lead to the fact that one cannot rec-
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1 Introduction 3
ognize any more which partial safety factor already used and which is still to be applied.
However, the facts described above give rise to a problem for the construction site,
which is often the subject of dispute. It is the estimation of the subsoil risk for the
building-owner.
The subsoil risk is defined according to DIN 4020:

An unavoidable residual risk inherent in the nature of the thing, which, if the ground is
used unforeseeable effects or difficulties when the foundation soil is used, e.g. construc-
tion damage or construction delays, even though the party providing the foundation soil
who provides the subsoil, has fulfilled his obligation to investigate and describe the sub-
soil and groundwater conditions in accordance with the rules of technology, and even
though the person carrying out the construction has fulfilled his own obligation to in-
spect and provide information.
In practice, for cost reasons, the subsoil is only minimally investigated and the soil
properties are estimated. Now, as construction progresses, it turns out that the soil that at
least some of the soil properties have to be corrected, as individual soil layers have not
been identified or have not been estimated accurately enough. The geotechnical calcula-
tion with the improved soil properties must be with the improved soil properties in good
time before the damage occurs. This results in additional expenses during construction,
which were not previously foreseeable by all parties involved. Since this additional ex-
pense would also have been incurred if the correct soil properties had been known from
the outset, these additional expenses are actually to be allocated to the so-called "soil
properties" known from the beginning, these additional expenses are actually to be as-
signed to the so-called expenses of a project and are the responsibility of the builder.
The total expenditure is to be borne by the builder-owner, whether or not the first inter-
mediate step was insufficiently dimensioned. The main thing is that the rectification was
recognized before the damage occurred and that no damage has occurred.
If the situation is recognized too late and damage occurs, the designing engineer and
the executing construction company have not fulfilled their duty to inspect and warn.
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4 1 Introduction
This has resulted in a system error for which they are responsible. Therefore, it is ab-
solutely important on the construction site, the slightest cause that indicates a necessary
correction of the soil properties, it is absolutely important to inform the client and to
request and to demand a rectification of the soil properties in planning and execution.
This presentation is intended to be an aid to the engineers in practice to argue against

improper representations of the situation around the subsoil risk. In this respect, refer-
ence can only be made to the numerous literature concerning the subsoil risk ( [10], [4],
[13]).
And the moral of the story: you can’t work against nature!
Thus, any geotechnical treatment in the various projects should be:

Always work to the best of your knowledge and avoid unknown risks, because these
could have very unpleasant and expensive consequences. As a party involved in the
construction demand that the construction team works transparently and responsibly.
Nature has such a wide range of variations, so that you can learn something new every
day for years and never stop learning.
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1 Introduction 5
Fig. 1.1: such excavation situations may be avoided
Fig. 1.2: lack of geotechnical treatment leads to landslides
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2 Slopes
Slopes as inclined earth surfaces occur everywhere. They are man to a greater or lesser
extent, thus altering their condition. With this the effects of these changes should also
be considered and an certainty about the safety of the slopes. Only with this knowledge,
changes should be carried out in order to be able to assess their on people and the envi-
ronment.
Landslides on naturally grown slopes are a problem that has always been feared by
the population. It seems that here one is helplessly at the mercy of nature and it is hardly
possible to predict. This book shall try to approach the problem with technical knowl-
edge and help to control the danger a little better to control and thus damage from the
population.
From my own experience, according to the practical necessity the slopes are treated
first, whereby here between loose soil and rock is differentiated. Thereby the usual
calculation proofs are are shown. After that, artificial slopes for slope stabilization or
excavation are also excavation pit. Here the differences in the calculations are indicated,
whereby in principle simple and comprehensible calculation methods are assumed.
2.1 Formation of slopes
Natural embankments are formed by movements of the subsoil as a result of geolog-

ical processes . In most cases, water is the driving cause that leads to the formation of
slopes on the earth’s surface .

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8 2 Slopes
When a body of water flows over a subsurface , the current tears away individual
(grains) of a subsoil with it as a result of the drag force of the water. As a result of
this material transport , the watercourse digs itself deeper and deeper into a subsoil. In
extreme cases, this can lead to large erosion channels such as canyons . Examples of this
are the largest canyons such as the Fish River Canyon in Namibia or the Grand Canyon
in the USA.
Fig. 2.1: Fish River Canyon in Namibia
For a simple incipient slope, the principle sequence is shown below:
It is assumed that an embankment has already been created, the slope of which is
slightly above the unstable but still in a stable state under normal weather conditions.
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2.1 Formation of slopes 9
Fig. 2.2: Initial situation of a slope
A stream flows below an embankment. During a heavy rainfall a landslide in the

embankment because of the flow through the embankment (see Chapter 2.1 and 2.2).
Fig. 2.3: Situation after the landslide
The slipped material has landed in the area of the stream and dammed up. Only when
the creek overflows the material jam can the drag force transport the material away over
time. This is the natural process in pristine areas. In populated areas, the landslide
material (sediment ) must be removed as quickly as possible to prevent sudden failure
of the deposit area. This would in fact create a further danger (mudflow) in the lower
course of the stream.
Fig. 2.4: Appearance of the new embankment after removal of the deposit
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10 2 Slopes
If one looks at the new situation, one can see a relatively steep slope formed in the
incipient area of the landslide. This slope area is not able to cope with further landslide
danger due to the influence of rain and the associated slope flow. Thus, a further landslide
can be the consequence.
Fig. 2.5: Situation after renewed landsliding
Here, a repetition of the landslide takes place, whereby the slope edge and thus the
steep slope is shifted outward. The game of nature is repeated and again the landslide
material is moved during the sliding process along a relatively flat plane (sliding area)
to the stream. Only there does the sedimentation take place. This must now be removed
again either artificially by man through processing or naturally by the stream.
Fig. 2.6: Reversed slope caused by ongoing landsliding
The result of such a burial by water is very clearly visible in the picture of the Fish
River Canyon. There are different types of rock and soil and also soil types are present
in more or less horizontal bedding , but the system of the formation of the canyon as a
result of perpetual landslide events over very long periods of time cannot be doubted.
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2.1 Formation of slopes 11
This is probably a very beautiful example of nature. Also the branching and irregular-
ity of the resulting flanks are proof that the smallest differences in material can lead to
considerable effects in nature.
The previously described process for the formation of an erosion slope takes place
in the uninhabited area without any negative effects on buildings or other structures.
If, however, there is a risk that infrastructure or buildings will be affected, there are
constructional buildings, there are structural possibilities to stabilize the slope. In the
following, three examples are shown how such a stabilization can be implemented:
The first possibility to stop the progress of the erosion is to stabilize the slope is to fill
the resulting landslide depression with erosion-proof material. However, further deep-
ening of the stream would again lead to instability of the toe of the slope, which would
cause the erosion process to start again. In order to prevent this, the stream bottom and
the side slopes must be arranged.
Fig. 2.7: Filling the landslide depression with erosion-resistant material
The second option is to backfill with soil material the entire stream bed and the result-
ing erosion depression. This stabilizes the slope stabilized and a usable area that is not
endangered by material erosion is gained. In order to prevent further material transport
of the watercourse the brook will be caught in an artificial pipe and diverted from the
endangered area.
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12 2 Slopes
Fig. 2.8: Filling of the entire erosion endangered area
The third possibility to stabilize the slope is to construct a slope stabilization in the
area of the critical slope inclination. The so-called nail wall , consisting of a shotcrete
wall and earth nails or a , prevents the formation of another sliding joint where the
material can material can slip off again. In addition, this variant also requires the bottom
and the sides of the stream to prevent further deepening of the stream as described above.
Fig. 2.9: Building a nail wall to secure the embankment
However, before thinking about the securing of such slopes, the slopes must be the
slopes are to be stabilized according to the different materials such as materials such as
loose material (soil) or rock and to calculate the available safety should be calculated.
This makes it possible to see whether and how much the determined safety needs to be
improved by means of any support measures that may be required to comply with the
required safety levels. The standards in force in each country standards in each country
specify the minimum safety factors or partial safety factors to be partial safety factors
for the individual calculations.
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2.2 Loose material 13
2.2 Loose material
These slopes differ mainly in their geometric shape :
Fig. 2.10: Geometric shapes of slopes in unconsolidated material
From the geometric shape of slopes in unconsolidated material, it is already possible

conclusions can be drawn about the origin and also the safety of the slope.
• evenly sloping terrain: this surface was presumably artificially (agriculture, ar-
tificial slopes) or it is a slight inclination caused by fluvial slope that has been
formed by fluvial deposits. In most the stability is given and it is only necessary
to take care of changes and installations, attention must be paid to the stability of
the subsoil.
• graded terrain: Trails and animal trails can create such gradations or they are
displacements in the soil, which compress the subsoil like a bulge and thus create
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14 2 Slopes
this surface form. In this case, care must be taken and attention must be paid to
the dampness of the slope.
• Hollowed out or concave sloping terrain: this is of a former landslide; particular

attention should be paid to the water path in the upper part of the slope. The
uppermost part should be cut off (broken off) in order to avoid secondary fractures.
The stability of the upper part of the slope should be clarified and, if necessary,
improvement measures should be taken.
• Curved or convex sloping terrain: This indicates the end of a former landslide and,
except for the steepest part, and one can assume a stable slope. In the lowest area
all construction measures should be undertaken with caution, so that the former
landslide does not become active again as a result of water ingress.
In order to investigate the different types of slope, calculations are carried out with
sliding bodies that move along straight and also curved sliding lines. Theoretically, a 1.0
m wide element is cut out of the soil and its sliding surface is examined. This reduces
the calculation to a planar condition and a spatial curvature of the slope is therefore not
considered.
The slopes are divided into rolling and cohesive slopes according to the soil proper-
ties.The term rolling is used here deliberately, because it describes the properties of this
soil better than the negative term non cohesive. with the negative term non-cohesive. In
rolling soil , the individual parts roll through the splayed fingers, whereas in cohesive
soil the grains bind to each other and thus behave to each other and thus have a different
behavior.
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2.2.1 Rolling soils
Only slopes with a granular soil material are considered here, whose individual grain
size is above 0.6 mm.
Fig. 2.11: Slope in sand, gravel and stones <15cm
For the verification of the plane slip joint in rolling soils, the following approach is
made:
Fig. 2.12: Force approach for rolling slopes
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16 2 Slopes
It can be proved that the safety of the plane slope is the ratio of the friction angle ϕ of
the soil and the slope angle β .
tan(ϕ)
η= (2.1)
tan(β )
If water is in the slope, two cases are distinguished:
1. vertical seepage flow: in this case, the safety remains the same as in the case of
the slope without flow
2. slope-parallel water flow: the safety changes by the ratio of the volume weights
γw ∗ tan(ϕ)
η= (2.2)
γb ∗ tan(β )
γw .... water [10 kN/m3 ]

γb .... soil [20 kN/m3 ]
Inserting the two volume weights, safety 1 gives possible maximum angle of repose
of:
tan(ϕ)
tan(β ) = (2.3)
2
This relationship shows that slopes with a slope-parallel flow may only have half the
slope inclination of a wet slope. If they are steeper, they will slide. This slope-parallel
flow is often caused by impermeable clay layer s or also by rock surfaces.
It can be seen that during heavy persistent rain, the soil becomes saturated with water
and then the water flow becomes parallel to the slope. Exactly in this situation the land-
slide begins, because the soil is no longer able to absorb the drifting forces of the flow.
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This is the most frequent cause of debris flows.
Therefore, in most cases, the slope stability can already be verified with the simple
formulas formulas to get information about the general danger of a slope.
In order to prevent landslides, the slope-parallel flow of water seeping into the ground
must be prevented. This is done by means of near-surface drainage systems, which are
installed either across the slope or in the familiar Y-shape. The depth of the installed
drainage pipe should be slightly deeper than the local frost depth .
2.2.2 Soils with cohesive components
The cohesive portion in the soil causes a kind of bonding of the soil particles , which
has a favorable effect on stability. Normally, with steeper slopes may be possible with
these subsoil types.
Fig. 2.13: Slope with clayey fractions in the gravel
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18 2 Slopes
The computational verification of slope stability is not quite as simple as for the
slope with rolling soils. Here, the slope must be calculated with the geometric shape
as shown in Figure 2.11. The slope stability can be calculated using the following equa-
tion. Thereby also specify the loads (e.g. live loads) have to be given.
The geometrical quantities such as a, b and h are normally given, only the slip angle
Œ¥ has to be found so that the slip body can be calculated.
Slip planes under the slip angle Œ¥ are then assumed. For each of these slip angles,
the slip body is determined and thus the weight of the slip body G. If external loads are
to be taken into account, these must be added to the weight.
Fig. 2.14: Force approach for cohesive slopes
With this load, the forces perpendicular (N) to and parallel (T) to the slip plane are
calculated for each slip plane. The driving force T should now be be smaller than the
sum of the holding forces H.
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N = G ∗ cos(δ ) and T = G ∗ sin(δ ) (2.4)
N pushes on the sliding joint, thus producing a reaction force of the same magnitude,
but in the opposite direction:
N0 = N (2.5)
With this, the retaining forces can now be calculated with friction:
R = N ∗ tan(ϕ) = G ∗ cos(δ ) ∗ tan(ϕ) (2.6)
And with the cohesion c and the length of the sliding joint l, the cohesive force can be
determined:
C = c∗l (2.7)
And thus the holding forces result to:
H = R +C (2.8)
Now the two opposing forces can be compared.

The safety is then given by the formula:
Sa f ety η = H/T (shouldbe > 1) (2.9)
The utilization factor of the slope can also be determined:
Utilizationratio α = T /H (shouldbe < 1) (2.10)
In the following, a calculation is shown that was carried out with the spreadsheet pro-
gram Calc from LibreOffice:
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20 2 Slopes
Fig. 2.15: Calculation example of a slope with cohesive soil
A better view of the result is given by a graphical evaluation, where the calculated
safety is plotted as a function of the slip angle.
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Fig. 2.16: Graphical result of the slope calculation
A practical application for this calculation was carried out for the slope in Roppen
(Inn valley).
Fig. 2.17: Slope flattening from 60 degrees to 45 degrees in Roppen
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22 2 Slopes
It was decided to reduce the 60 degree slopes due to the risk of erosion and the asso-
ciated and the associated risk of slippage of the overall slope to a slope inclination of 45
degrees.
If the influence of the water is also considered for this system, then also here only an
inclined flow that reduces the safety of the slope. The influence is not as strong as in the
case of a rolling subsoil, but the influence should definitely be recalculated.
A flow that runs parallel to the slip plane creates a flow force, which is equidirectional
with the slip plane.
S = A ∗ sin(δ ) (2.11)
Thus, the flow force is the cross-sectional area traversed by water multiplied by the
hydraulic gradient that occurs at the slip plane.
This flow force S must be added to the driving force and so the comparison of the
driving and the holding forces can be carried out.
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2.2.3 Terrain fracture
For soils of all types (both rolling and cohesive), if the terrain geometry is not simple,
a different method must be used to determine the stability of the terrain. In this case,
the sliding circle method of Fellenius has proven itself in practice. Soil mechanics re-
finements such as those introduced by Bishop , are not considered here, because when
estimating the soil it makes sense not to calculate in a mathematically too complicated
way. Only the overview is taken away, because one pretends with the calculation meth-
ods an accuracy, which is by no means given in practice.
Fig. 2.18: Sliding circle in a terrain situation
In the given terrain situation a sliding circle is placed, for which the following criteria
are observed:
• Circle in the ground only: the slip circle must rest on subsoil and must not be
intersected by structural parts of a building. Structural parts are assumed to be
rigid and thus a sliding cannot pass through a structural member.
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24 2 Slopes
• Align the center point to the downhill side: this provides a clear glide direction
is given. The center point should be changed several times in order to determine
the circle with the least security.
• Vary the circle radius: this calculates several possibilities the radius with the
least security must be found. When you have chosen a circle, divide the area sep-
arated by the sliding circle (above the circle) into so-called lamellas.
Fig. 2.19: Sliding circle with lamella division
The following criteria apply to the division of the individual slats:
• Bends in the terrain: at each bend in the terrain and also at the beginning and
end of the component, slat boundaries must be fixed.
• Subsoil changes: at each change in the type of subsoil along the slip line, slat
boundaries are to be fixed.
• even division: the remaining areas are to be divided in such a way evenly; the
width of the slats should not vary too much.
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The lamellas are numbered and each lamella is calculated individually. Here, the nec-
essary details are explained for one lamella.
Fig. 2.20: Forces for a lamella
The lamella has a defined width b in which the load and the ground or the structure
is located. The contact area is simplified as a straight line with the inclination of the
tangent to the circle. The contact area has the angle of inclination Œ¥ with respect to the
horizontal.
In the calculation, it is assumed (simplification) that the left and right earth pressure on
one lamella side each cancel and thus contribute nothing to the sliding. This assumption
is quite reasonable, since the sliding body moves as a whole and internal movements do
not occur.
The vertical forces are now determined as the sum of the occurring bottom weights
and the acting load. The load is only calculated if it has an influence that is pushing in
the lamella.
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26 2 Slopes
G + P = Σ(A ∗ γ) + b ∗ p (2.12)
This is now converted according to the angle of inclination Œ¥ of the lamella into
a normal force N and the tangential force or pushing driving force T according to the
triangle of forces.
Fig. 2.21: Determination of the slip joint inclination of the lamellas
N = (G + P) ∗ cos(δ ) T = (G + P) ∗ sin(δ ) (2.13)

N presses on the slip joint, thus creating a reaction force of the same magnitude, but
in the opposite direction:
N0 = N (2.14)
For the calculation of the frictional and cohesive forces in the sliding joint only the
corresponding soil properties of the soil layer in which the slip joint is located. Other
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soil types lying above only have an influence on the lamella weight G see formula 2.12
and not on the shear properties.
Now the retaining forces can be calculated with the friction in the slip joint.
R = N ∗ tan(ϕ) = (G + P) ∗ cos(δ ) ∗ tan(ϕ) (2.15)
And with the cohesion c and the length of the slip joint l at the bottom of the Lamella,
the cohesive force can be determined:
C = c ∗ l = c ∗ b/cos(δ ) (2.16)
And thus the holding forces are obtained as:
H = R +C (2.17)
Now the pushing forces T and the holding forces H for each lamella can been calcu-
lated. Now the resulting moment from the holding and pushing forces with the radius R
as lever arm is calculated.
Mh = Σ(H + R) Mt = Σ(T ∗ R) (2.18)
Now, for the stability of the terrain quarry, the restraining moment Mh must be larger
than the pushing moment Mt . The safety is then calculated to:
Mh
η= (2.19)
Mt
This relation can be simplified, because in the numerator as well as in the denominator
the radius R is present, by which can be shortened.
Mh R ∗ Σ(H) Σ(H)
η= = = (2.20)
Mt R ∗ Σ(T ) Σ(T )
Thus, when determining the safety, the holding forces and the driving forces are
counted together and subsequently then divided with each other.
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28 2 Slopes
In the following table the slip circle calculation of the slip circle shown in the last
shown in the last figures.
Fig. 2.22: Table calculation of the slip circle
The result shows a safety of 1.18.
Fig. 2.23: Required safeties for terrain failure
In standards of each country, the required safety factors are dependent on the load
case and the safety class.
The safety factor determined in the example is to be compared with the permissible
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2.3 Rock 29
safety factors. In the present case, the safety factor is not sufficient, it should be 1.3, so
an improvement of the situation must be achieved. This can be achieved, for example,
with a deeper integration of the retaining wall. The slip circle must then be recalculated
so that the required safety is verified. In the situation shown in the example, several slip
circles with different radius and different center positions must be calculated to arrive at
the minimum safety. This is usually done by means of programs, whereby the criteria
for sliding circles must always be observed.
An example of an incipient landslide was in Navis (near Brenner) where a deeper

spreading of the sliding plane could be prevented by drainages.
Fig. 2.24: Landslide in slightly cohesive soil with drainages in Navis
2.3 Rock
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30 2 Slopes
In contrast to loose material, rock is not a uniform material, but is characterized by its
growth and geological history . Thus, in rock, the stratification as a result of the forma-
tion and the fracturing as a result of the load are, are characteristic features that dominate
the properties of the rock.
Fig. 2.25: Fissuring of rock: open - closed
Due to force action from geological forces (e.g. plate tectonics or weathering (frost
and ice)) the grown rock breaks into individual fractures, which can move more or less
with time. It remains structure, which have different properties in different spatial direc-
tions.
It is now the task when looking at rock slopes to recognize these spatial structures
and to select a replica (representation) according to the geometric form, with which the
calculation of the slope safety can be carried out. Special attention is to be paid to the
spatial direction of the fracture structures and their size.
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2.3 Rock 31
Fig. 2.26: Decomposition of rock: 5-20 cm range - < 2 cm range
The figures show that there are all possibilities between simple structures up to very
small and even more curved structures in nature. Thus, for the calculation, there is noth-
ing else to do than to simplify these occurring structures and then to prove the respective
safety with the possible approaches.
With the fractures there are from simple fractures up to mylonite zones, which are
represent a complete attrition of a whole zone, every kind of intermediate stations. A
good overview of the different types of fissures has been given by L. Mueller in his
book ’Der Felsbau’ [27]. Here one already sees that a simplification of the structure is
absolutely necessary for a calculation. The fissure is assumed to be an areal structure
separating the rock. Thus only plane surfaces with the most different properties are used
in the calculations.
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32 2 Slopes
Fig. 2.27: Classification of fissures according to L.Mueller
In the present book the fissures with the designation 1a to 5a (giant clefts to fracture
stripes) as clefts without filling the fissures with friability ( 1b to 5b) are called fissures
with rolling fissure filling and finally the fissures 1c to 5c as fissures with cohesive fis-
sure filling.
Another criterion is the position of the fissures in space and their classification. If one
assumes a cuboid-like structure in the simplest case, one can the sectional drawing can
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2.3 Rock 33
be used as a basis for a calculation, if they lie at right angles to the sectional plane.
Fig. 2.28: Different slope inclination according to the cleavage location
The slope verifications are relatively easy to do and will be worked out in the next
points.
If the fissures are not perpendicular to the image plane and are also at an oblique angle
to each other, the fracture system becomes more complicated. Then one often uses the
representation with the help of the position sphere, as it is explained under point 2.3.4 is
explained.
2.3.1 No fissure filling

The simplest form of rock next to an unfractured rock , which almost never occurs in
practice, is the regularly fissured rock without a fissure fill.
In this rock structure, the individual fissure bodies are represented with their fissure
inclination and are also introduced into a calculation according to their position. Similar
to the rolling slope, the force system is determined. The contact surface is used as a slid-
ing surface, and the force approach corresponds to that of an embankment with a rolling
base. Possible lateral forces from neighboring fissure bodies or from the inclined posi-
tion of the fissure bodies must also be taken into account. In general, however, nothing
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34 2 Slopes
changes in the approach compared to the force approach shown.
Fig. 2.29: Fissured rock without fissure filling at the Steinplatte (Tyrol)
The friction angle in fissures without filling is usually relatively high and is normally,
if no own investigation is available, with 40-45 degrees.
Fig. 2.30: Forces applied to a fissure body
A peculiarity of such structures is that at the transition to air there is always vegetation
on the outside of the fissure. The roots of the lateral growth lift the fissures by their
disruptive effect, so that often no friction can be transmitted. This is in structures with
steep rock faces.
In the following picture such a situation is shown, which is located in the immediate
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2.3 Rock 35
close to a building. For securing, anchors had to be used which prevented the rock bodies
from moving.
Fig. 2.31: Rock without fissure filling but with vegetation
The working of fissure systems without filling is often risky and can only be done with
the greatest caution.
Fig. 2.32: Working of rock without crevasse filling at Karlesjoch (Kaunertaler glacier)
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36 2 Slopes
2.3.2 Rolling fissure filling

Fissure filling usually results from the displacement of fissure bodies. Thereby rock
rubble is formed, which has a rolling structure.
Fig. 2.33: Rock with rolling fissure filling at Nebelhorn (Oberstdorf)
The calculation of the fissure bodies is carried out in the same way as for fissures with-
out filling. As friction angle in the fissure without investigation 30 degrees turned out to
be realistic. Higher friction angles are not recommended, because the fissure movement
creates a uniform rolling layer, which has hardly any wedging.
A peculiarity of fissures in high mountains is a fissure filling with ice. This would be
advantageous, because the two fissure bodies are connected with each other. However,
with increasing global warming, a melting of the permafrost occurs. In this process,
rolling material penetrates from above into the fissure between the rock body and the icy
fissure fill. As the ice continues to melt, additional voids are additional cavities, making
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2.3 Rock 37
these fissures relatively mechanically unsafe. This process is currently observed in many
high mountain regions and must therefore always be taken into consideration.
Fig. 2.34: Rock with rolling fissure fill and permafrost at Karlesjoch (Tyrol)
In the end, such crevasses have to be treated with great caution, a friction angle can
hardly be applied, as the melting ice water can create a kind of lubricating film and thus
completely reduce friction. This characteristic is especially expected in the summer and
autumn months.
2.3.3 Cohesive fissure filling
The calculation of the fracture bodies is carried out in the same way as for rolling fracture
fillings, only with the holding forces by the cohesion part, as it is also used for the plane
sliding joint. A representation of the forces will therefore be omitted here.
It should be noted, however, that the cohesion of cohesive (clayey) fissure fillings is
difficult to determine. Thus, investigations in the laboratory are not the material taken
from the fracture is disturbed to such an extent that the laboratory values do not show
the natural shear parameters. On-site tests can hardly be possible, because they are very
complex and therefore very expensive and therefore the engineer is forced to estimate
the parameters.
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38 2 Slopes
Cohesive fissure fillings have the characteristic that during rainy weather this fracture
filling can soften and thus the cohesion between the fracture bodies is is partially lost.
Particularly in mylonite zones on open slopes this property is often observed.
Fig. 2.35: Rock with mylonite zones as fissure filling in Kleinboden (Zillertal)
Particularly dangerous are slope-parallel fissures with cohesive fillings. Here rain can
create an overpressure of fissure water, which can lead to the complete the loamy layer
and thus exposes all frictional and cohesive forces.
Fig. 2.36: Rock with soaked clay as fissure filling in Weisbach near Lofer (Salzburg)
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2.3 Rock 39
2.3.4 Spatial sphere presentation
A common way of geotechnical processing of spatial cliffs is to represent the cliff using
to represent the surface of a hemisphere. The surface of a hemisphere is called layer
sphere, on which a mesh is applied (similar to the geographic net of the globe). The
points of the compass are indicated in a 10 degree graduation as lines through the center.
The latitude circles, also in 10 degrees division are indicated as concentric circles in the
normal net in pole view.
Fig. 2.37: Mapping of the position sphere to the plane mesh in pole view (Wittke)
If one now wants to represent a cleft (plane), this is measured with a geological com-
pass. Two angles are measured:
• α: this is the angle between the north direction and a contour line on the cleft
• β : this is the angle of the line of fall with respect to the horizontal.
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40 2 Slopes
An illustration of how the two angles are to be transferred is shown in the following
figure below. In the position sphere not only the gap can be entered as surface, there is
also the special feature of drawing the perpendicular to the to the cleft. Then there is
from the perpendicular to the cleft a piercing point on the sphere, which is called pole.
The peculiarity of the position sphere is that a spatial surface (cleft) can be represented
as a point.
Fig. 2.38: Entry of the cleft into the position sphere (Wittke)
Now a practical example of a rock fracture in the area of the station of the Kar-
lesjochbahn at the Kaunertal glacier (Tyrol) is demonstrated. In the course of the con-
struction of the top station of the lift installation an embankment had to be built into the
existing rock face in order to create enough space for the construction of the top station.
In the course of the construction of the slope a fissure system of three fissures became
visible, which led to a fracture within hours. The two pictures show the same situation
directly before and after the fracture.
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2.3 Rock 41
The geological compass directly to the right of the fracture was also in danger of
falling and had to be anchored for safety reasons. The securing was to be done with a
grid anchorage.
Fig. 2.39: Karlesjoch rockfall along 3 fissures
Here, the anchor type, depth and direction are decisive criteria, which had to be spec-
ified by the together with the geologist.
Fig. 2.40: Karlesjoch position sphere with 3 fissures
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42 2 Slopes
The three fissures were geologically measured and plotted in the position sphere. Al-
ready with this fracture entry the direction of the fracture intersections K3-K2 and K1-K2
is clearly recognizable. The respective fissure intersection has direction from the center
of the sphere to the intersection of the respective fractures. Thus, in the area of the fis-
sure bodies there is a tendency to slide north in the area of the fissure bodies.
Fig. 2.41: Karlesjoch site sphere with registered fissure intersections
In the fissure formation itself, these fissure bodies are stable, movement must be cre-
ated so that the rock masses can move along the fracture intersections. This freedom is
created with an open rock slope , where movement of the rock masses to the air side is
allowed.
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2.3 Rock 43
In the positional sphere, a slope represents a fissure that, as a special feature, has no
material on one side, so there is freedom of movement on the air side. If one now enters
the slope additionally in the position sphere, then one recognizes that the slope is steeper
than the cleft K2 and therefore also the two intersections emerge from the slope.
Fig. 2.42: Karlesjoch position sphere with registered fissures and the slope
As can also be seen in Figure 2.39, the slope is steeper than the fissure K2. Thus, a
movement of the fissure bodies along the two indicated fissure intersections or even in
between may be possible. This is an area that is open to the movement of the material is
possible. It must therefore be assumed that there is a risk for a rockfall here. In nature,
exactly rockfall has occurred in nature, continuing to the intersection of fissure K1 with
fissure 3.
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44 2 Slopes
It is now necessary to further investigate this area in which the possibility of move-
ment prevails. The role of friction in the rock fissures has not yet been plays in the rock
fractures. Under the assumption that rock abrasion in the fissures is the fissures as rolling
material, the assumption of an angle of friction of 30 degrees is quite justified. With an
additional interlocking of the fractures, a larger friction angle of up to 40 degrees would
also be possible. In Fig. 2.39, however, it can be seen quite clearly that the three crevices
are relatively smooth, a low friction angle is therefore reasonable. The shear angle of 30
degrees was chosen.
Fig. 2.43: Karlesjoch position sphere with possibility of movement of the fissure bodies
If one now enters the with the help of the great circles of the position sphere in the
poles of the individual fissures, the friction cone according to Talobre is obtained. This
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2.3 Rock 45
friction cone indicates those directions of force in the position sphere within which the
forces can be absorbed as seen from the origin. Forces which act outside, i.e. which have
an inclination which does not point into the circle, cannot be absorbed with the friction,
it comes to movement of the fissure body.
Fig. 2.44: Karlesjoch position sphere with entered fracture friction cones
In the representation of the friction cones it can be seen that the three friction cones
do not overlap. The fissure bodies are in the movement alone each by the next fissure.
In the transition between two adjacent fractures, one fracture body is influenced by both
friction cones. This leads to the fact that along the fissure intersections own friction areas
develop, which can transmit a larger range of forces. This comes from the bracing of the
fracture bodies in corner regions.
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46 2 Slopes
If we now look at the total friction areas of this fracture system with the three fissures,
it must be recognized that in the case of the dead weight of the entire slope, the friction
on the fissure surfaces does not contribute any help to the stability.
The dead weight is perpendicular and in the position sphere this force passes through
the center of the sphere. The areas in which forces can be absorbed by friction are about
30 degrees away from it. The friction offers therefore no help for the fissure bodies. It
had to come to the rockfall.
Fig. 2.45: Karlesjoch position sphere with registered friction areas
In order to secure the directly adjacent rock area on the now open slope, a system
anchorage was considered. The question now arose direction and inclination of the an-
chors, as well as the anchoring force and the mutual spacing of the anchors.
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2.3 Rock 47
Here, one has to proceed step by step: first the anchor direction and the anchor incli-
nation . These two direction values can be determined with the position sphere. If you
look at the position sphere, you can see that it would be favorable to right angle to the
slope. This would allow a force to be applied between the two friction cones of crevice
K2 and crevice K3, which would create a connection of the two friction cones.
Fig. 2.46: Karlesjoch position sphere with favorable anchor direction
Also for the inclination, the positive effect could be supported if the anchors with an
inclination of approx. α = 20 degrees falling with respect to the horizontal (direction of
fall). Thus an optimum anchor direction has been determined from the position sphere.
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48 2 Slopes
For further determination of the anchor force and anchor type, the critical section is
now drawn, which shows the weight ratios according to which the anchor lengths can
also be determined.
From the section of Figure 2.47, the cross-sectional area of the rock package to be se-
cured is F = 23.8 m2 . With a rock density of γ = 24 kN/m3 this results in a dead weight
to be supported of G = 571.2 kN. This weight is divided into its normal (perpendicular)
and tangential force with respect to the slip plane:
Fig. 2.47: Karlesjoch section of the rock situation
Gn = G ∗ sin(δ ) = 571, 2 ∗ sin(60) = 494, 7 [kN] (2.21)
Gt = G ∗ cos(δ ) = 571, 2 ∗ cos(60) = 285, 6 [kN] (2.22)
Now the type of anchor must be chosen. A type MAI R32S was chosen, because these
anchors had to be drilled in the rock face suspended from the rope with manual pneu-
matic driller. For this reason lightweight anchors were chosen, which could be extended
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2.3 Rock 49
quite easily with sleeves. This ensured that any anchor length could be produced. Now
this type of anchor has a steel cross-section of As = 5.0 cm2. Since the anchor is only
protected against corrosion by the normal cement coating with anchor grout a reduction
of the cross-section in the form of a rust surcharge must be calculated for long-term use.
Normally 1.0 mm would be sufficient in the given case, but in this case at an altitude of
3,300 m due to the possible influence of permafrost, the maximum of 2.0 mm is selected.
This reduces the usable cross-section of the anchor is reduced to As = 3.3 cm2. With
this steel cross-section and the steel grade BST 550/650, the permissible tensile force for
each anchor is A = 135 kN. This force can also be divided into a tangential and normal
portion on the sliding joint.
An = A ∗ cos(α) = 135 ∗ cos(20) = 126, 9 [kN] (2.23)
At = G ∗ sin(α) = 135 ∗ sin(20) = 46, 2 [kN] (2.24)
To determine the number of anchors a for the section, according to the force corner in
Figure 2.47, the following equations must be satisfied:
N = Gn + a ∗ An (2.25)
T = Gt + a ∗ At (2.26)
R = η ∗T (2.27)
The necessary safety for this case is set as η = 1,5. The increase compared to the
specification in Figure 2.23 is justified by the additional possibility of earthquake loading
and also of additional forces from the possible permafrost load case. However, the force
R must also satisfy the following relation:
R = N ∗ tan(ϕ) (2.28)
From these equations, the number of anchors can be determined to:
Gn ∗ tan(ϕ) − η ∗ Gt
a= = 1, 0 (2.29)
η ∗ At − tan(ϕ) ∗ An
With this value, the grid spacing of the anchors can be determined, where the shoring
height of h = 15 m is included:
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50 2 Slopes
√ √
e = a ∗ h = 1, 0 ∗ 15 = 3, 9 [m] (2.30)
The anchor length was determined to be l = 6 m, since at least an adhesion distance of

is required in the rock to introduce a force of 135 kN. The maximum slip joint spacing
is given as 2.8 m on average. Thus the necessary anchor length from the free spacing
length and the adhesion distance to:
l = f + h = 2, 8 + 3 = 5, 8 [m] (2.31)
This secured the slope adjacent to the rockfall shown.
Fig. 2.48: Karlesjoch grid-anchored rock slope
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2.4 Building in permafrost 51
2.4 Building in permafrost
2.4.1 Permafrost
In recent years, the term permafrost has been used more and more frequently, especially
in connection with global warming as a negative phenomenon in the high mountains
.The cause of rock and entire landslides in the glaciers is increasingly being attributed to
changes in the permafrost. Only a few terms on the topic, with special attention to the
effects of the changing permafrost on structures, will be explained.
Permafrost is defined as the area in the subsurface that remains the entire course of the
year below a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius. Permafrost is known in Norway, Finland,
Russian tundra, Canada and Alaska. Here in the Alps, this soil formation only occurs
above an altitude of 2,400 meters. It is typical that the permafrost mostly occurs in the
top of the mountains, where often on the northern flank of a more or less large glacier
supplements the glaciation of the mountain range.
Fig. 2.49: Permafrost in the summit area with glacier adjacent to the north
Due to the slope of the terrain, the ice (glacier) moves (flows) downhill. This move-
ment is relatively slow, so also the negative temperature at the glacier surface is shifted
downhill. This results in the glaciers reaching much further down the valley than the
permafrost in the directly neighboring mountain areas.
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52 2 Slopes
Due to the constant change in temperature of the air, this naturally also acts also into
the underground. Normally we speak of frost zone , which is formed in Central Europe
during winter and thaws in spring-early summer. An estimation of the icing depth due to
the negative temperatures can be determined with the help of the frost index according to
the relationship of Brown. Thus, the frost depths are also traceable with the temperature
data over the entire year.
In very high zones above about 2,400 m, the frost has penetrated so far into the rock,
that the warmth of the summer is no longer sufficient to thaw all the ice. Ice remains in
the subsoil (permafrost), which thaws again at its surface in summer-autumn and then
freezes again in winter. This freeze-thaw cycle can be roughly with the connection of
Brown.
Fig. 2.50: Temperature curve in the subsurface during permafrost
This change from water to ice and back has a decisive influence on the mountain
formations. Especially the property of water, which expands by about 10 percent dur-
ing the transition from liquid to ice, makes the situation so dangerous. Each crevasse
fills with water in the fall, which freezes during the winter. Thus, the crevasse widened
by 10 percent each winter. This process is repeated annually in the area of the thaw zone.
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If you look at rock areas that have been stored in permafrost for decades and now for
10-15 years because of the global warming now in the frost-thaw, you can see very well
in summer the fissures, which change annually.
Fig. 2.51: Rock formation with fissure movements due to freeze-thaw cycle
In the picture above these fissures are now free for about 10 years and already show
clear signs of movement. The rock parts lying above a fissure have already moved by
several cm.
If structures are affected, they must be additionally secured by suitable measures.
Such securing is done by two methods:
• filling fissures with cement mortar
• bolting boulders to each other
In addition, surface insulation can protect against from further water infiltration. How-
ever, this must be considered critical, because large-scale sealing the mountain against
precipitation cannot be considered as a solution, since the consequences for fauna and
flora are not foreseeable for a civil engineer . Even local waterproofing is not always
effective, since the three-dimensional fracturing always allows ways for the water.
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54 2 Slopes
In the next figure, the disruption caused by the freeze-thaw cycles over the centuries
is clearly visible. It leads to the complete dissolution of the rock structure and ends in a
granular structure as gravel soils are, in which no growth direction or even structure can
be recognized anymore.
Fig. 2.52: Rock formation with fissure movements completely destroyed
Here it is the transition from a rock formation to curl material, which geotechnically
has no any direction for material properties. One does not speak here also any more of a
fissuring, but only of a pore content which is given in volume percent. This pore content
increases constantly, up to the loosest storage, which is somewhere between 35 and 43
percent of the total volume. Every winter, ice and snow have a shaping force, so that
every year on the surface deformations of the individual rock bodies can be seen directly
on the surface.
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In general, for the foundation of structures in the area of permafrost, can only be
carried out if the following conditions are met:
• place foundation depth in the permafrost,
• do not introduce positive temperatures into the permafrost,
• if possible, avoid water ingress above the permafrost
• if permafrost recedes, place foundation correspondingly deeper
• close and stabilize open fissures in the foundation area
• check the structure by measurement during the year
2.4.2 Wurmkogel - Oetztal valley (Tyrol)
The idea of rebuilding an existing log cabin on the Wurmkogel at 3,080 m near the
Hochgurgler mountain cablecars in the Oetztal valley in Austria against a structure that
on the one hand takes over the function of the hut and on the other hand also the beauty
of the summit region in over 3,000 m to the center, is very impressive. It was this idea
into reality next to the mountain station of the Wurmkogelbahn.
Fig. 2.53: Structure on narrow rocky ridge
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56 2 Slopes
As a geotechnical engineer, you are definitely technically challenged on a project like

this. Here are a few points that illustrate this situation:
• Structure at 3,080 m
• Ridge for the foundation is only 6 m wide
• Structure must absorb wind forces of 200 km/h
• Rock ridge lies in permafrost area
• Permafrost dissolves with global warming
• Rock flanks are unstable due to permafrost changes
• Fissures are open up to 10 cm and only partially filled
These points force a good preparation of the foundation planning, not only loads from
the structure, but also changes in the permafrost must be taken into account.
Fig. 2.54: Structure with foundation elements
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An assessment was made of how deep a possible impact on the retreating permafrost
can reach. Stress comparison calculations show that from a depth of approx. 7 m below
the ground slab, a change in stress of less than 10 percent of the original stress results
from the residual stress of the ridge. The foundation down to this depth was founded
with steel piles.
Fig. 2.55: Construction of the base plate
In addition, this foundation achieved a connection of the rock blocks, which were
already in an unstable condition due to considerable fissures. Especially considering
that a receding permafrost layer is exposing these fissures, a coupling and fissure filling
is only advantageous. The result is solidified foundation area, which reacts as a whole
body.
The spatial arrangement of the piles, which had to be additionally adjusted due to the
constriction of the ridge, the overall structure is now embedded in the deeper subsoil
over a large area in the deeper subsoil of the overall ridge.
In the next picture, the overall situation on the Wurmkogel can be seen directly after
the restaurant (Top Mountain Star) and the ski slope leading in between, which was
secured by a wooden anchor wall. This terrain support in the following years because of
the regressing permafrost.
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58 2 Slopes
Originally, it was assumed that the wooden anchor wall was built on the rock, which
was located above the glacier area.
Fig. 2.56: Wurmkogel with cable station and Top Mountain Star 2006
However, it turned out with increasing melting of the permafrost, that the entire area
up to the ridge was covered with dissolving permafrost, which was collapsing due to the
constant melting of the permafrost, and slid along rock surfaces.
Fig. 2.57: Wurmkogel wooden tie wall 2008
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After two years, the first slides began in the area behind the wooden anchor wall,
which showed that the glacier melt was progressing extremely. In summer, the glacier
was only visible as far as the wooden anchor wall dissolution of the glacier.
In the following year the ice melted further and the foundation of the wooden anchor
wall was already exposed by about 2-2.5 m.
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60 2 Slopes
There was a slippage of the entire backfill at that time, so that an enormous cavity was
created. This was now secured by a shotcrete overlay and and covered with a wooden
planking, so that the ski slope had the required width.
The resulting cavity was secured by a timber construction in a carpentry manner con-
struction, so that the wooden anchor wall still fulfilled its function as a load-bearing.
In addition, the foundation anchors, which were still stuck approx. 3 m into the re-
maining were encased in concrete so that there was no danger of buckling of these com-
pression elements. Thus, the ski slope could be preserved for at least another season.
However, after repeated landslides in this area, it was decided to close the ski slope,
and to no longer use the area above the wooden anchor wall as a ski slope. Although the
cavities which always occurred during the smaller landslides were filled, but everyone
involved was aware that this was only a temporary emergency solution.
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Fig. 2.61: Wurmkogel landslide at wooden tie wall 2016
In early summer 2016, a major landslide occurred as a result of the ever-increasing

ice loss, which affected almost the entire area of the wooden anchor wall up to the ridge.
In the process, the rock flanks were exposed, where the overlying soil slipped.
The was thus only 0.5 to 1 m wide and it was no longer possible to go from the
top station to the Top Mountain Star (restaurant and viewing platform) without danger.
Due to the slippage of the disrupted material, it was not possible of restoring a slope
protection at the same place. A modified construction had to be planned here, which
could be carried out in a very short time, even in the fall.
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62 2 Slopes
Fig. 2.62: Wurmkogel refurbished wooden tie wall 2016
It was decided to erect a new wooden tie wall slightly higher on a concrete foundation.
In this way, it was possible to secure the rocky ridge. The ridge is important for the
connection between the ski lift mountain station and the Top Mountain Star restaurant.
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3 Excavations
Natural slopes have assumed a maximum inclination when they were formed. The
condition in which they were formed was in limit equilibrium (safety h = 1.0). Later, due
to external circumstances, the material characteristics may change or the water balance
in the subsoil (embankment ) may have changed to the advantage. Therefore, natural
slopes have a safety factor greater than 1.0. However, we do not know anything about
the slope situation and the affected subsoil , we know nothing about the existing safety.
Now, when working on slopes, the standard requires that the corresponding safety
factors be observed. This is where the problem begins. During the creation, only the
boundary safety was observed. Therefore, many natural slopes are too steep according
to the standard. Today they are near the limit equilibrium and do not have the reserves
required by the standards. One is in a dilemma. We cannot convert all slopes that are
too steep according to the standard slopes into a safe condition. The costs would be
prohibitive; or one would have to depopulate entire areas. This applies in particular for
all mountain areas on the whole earth.
One helps oneself with the fact that one shows situation plans with danger zones,
which show natural hazards. Thus there are danger zones for andslides, mudflows,
avalanches and floods. In the supplementary descriptions, more detailed the individ-
ual types of hazards and their impact on people are dealt with. In construction projects
(roads, bridges and buildings), for example, various conditions are imposed on the
builders in order to achieve general safety for life and limb. These hazard zone plans
are usually available offices (building authorities, municipal offices, etc.) and can be
inspected by anyone there.
If, in the course of a construction activity, it is found that the required safety of an

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64 3 Excavations
embankment is not met, all necessary measures must be taken to achieve this. In most
cases this means that by the safety required by the standards must be achieved by means
of artificial support (securing).
Fuse is used to secure terrain jumps. There are many types of safety devices and new
ones are being developed all the time. Here the inventive spirit a broad activity is made
possible. For this book only belays are shown that are frequently used in the Alpine
region.
3.1 Boundary conditions

When securing slopes, whether they are embankments or excavation pits, increased at-
tention must be paid to the respective conditions. This makes every construction site
unique, since the boundary conditions for the securing are almost always different.
3.1.1 Subsoil Investigation

A very decisive boundary condition is the structure of the subsoil. Only because we
cannot see transparently into the subsoil, we cannot do without the exploration of the
deeper subsoil. It happens all too often invisible from the surface, the type of soil changes
in the deeper subsoil and changes and thereby decisively the soil properties.
It is essential to refer here to the existing standardization, which specifies the type and
depth of the subsoil investigation. From our own experience to adhere to these specifi-
cations.
3.1.2 Groundwater and slope water

Water in the foundation soil is usually not visible from the surface. Also the depth of the
water from the surface and also the inclination of the water surface is not recognizable.
Also subsurface explorations such as trenches or boreholes can only provide limited
information.
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3.1 Boundary conditions 65
The surface of the water in the subsoil does not remain constant over the course of a
year. This depends on the following influences:
• Water level change of nearby water bodies (annual hydrographs)
• local precipitation
• delayed precipitation in the catchment area
• inclination of slope waters
• construction activity in the headwater area
A typical example of the influence of water is an embankment that was constructed

in the course of the new bypass road near Adelsheim in Germany. In the process the
subsoil was explored in detail, but any influence of water was not considered.
Fig. 3.1: New slope near Adelsheim, Germany
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66 3 Excavations
Here, a occurred about half a year later. The reason for this was persistent precipi-
tation, which caused a flow of water down the slope. The soil was not able to absorb
the thrust from the seepage water in the form of flow pressure, and the landslide shown
below occurred.
Fig. 3.2: Landslide at slope near Adelsheim
In the course of the newly constructed overall slope, several of these landslides slope
occured, it was clear that this was a fundamental problem on this new slope.
On the one hand, drainage pipes had to be laid in the slope and on the other hand the
foot of the slope had to be supported by an additional retaining structure to achieve an
appropriate level of safety for the entire slope.
For this purpose, a nailed shotcrete support was chosen, as will be explained later in
this chapter. The relevant calculation procedure will also be explained.
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3.1.3 Neighbor buildings
Neighbor buildings are a special feature in the shoring of terrain slopes. The shoring may
only be constructed in such a way that as few deformations as possible in the neighbor-
ing building. This is a particular challenge for planning and calculation, since all shoring
produces deformations in the subsoil. These deformations propagate into the immedi-
ately adjacent building and result in cracks there, which must of course be avoided.
For this reason, one does not necessarily have to resort to retaining wall methods such
as pile walls or diaphragm walls, which are considered to have very low deformation. If
used correctly, it is also possible to use what is known as soft shoring such as the nailed
shotcrete wall can also solve this challenge.
This method was chosen for the reconstruction of the Hotel Elisabeth in Ischgl, where
there are 3-4 story hotels on the neighboring ground, which had to be taken into account.
Fig. 3.3: Neighboring structures when excavation begins
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68 3 Excavations
With the nailed shotcrete is the least space consumption given and therefore a maxi-
mum space between the existing hotel and the ground. This has not been achieved by
any other securing method.
Fig. 3.4: Excavation pit begins to deepen, depth approx. 5m
Several s were installed at the top of the excavation to enable the deformation of the
shotcrete lining at any time and to detect deformations as early as possible.
The picture shows these measuring rods with an angle reaching to the shotcrete shell.
Here is a scale attached, which was monitored several times a day by the by the foreman
in order to be able to immediately inform all the persons in charge in case of any move-
ment. It was foreseen that in case of more than 2 cm of deformation, the construction
procedure would be reconsidered or an additional reinforcement would be installed.
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In addition, the entire shotcrete lining as well as the structures above it were structures
were included in a measurement program carried out by an independent surveying office
which recorded the actual movements on a weekly basis during the entire construction
period. The specified measurement accuracy was 1 mm.
Fig. 3.5: Construction progress at depths of 8m and 12m
The shotcrete shell consisted of fiber concrete with a thickness of 15 ‚Äì 20 cm. Syn-
thetic fibers were used, which were already delivered as a silo mix.
The anchors and soil nails used were type Mai nails with diameters of 32 and 38 mm
were installed. In order to keep the deformations as low as possible every 3rd row of
nails were prestressed. The prestressing force were to 80 percent of the calculated an-
chor force.
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70 3 Excavations
During production, tensile tests were carried out on the anchors in every second nail
row to ensure that the substrate is capable of bearing the loads.
Fig. 3.6: Final depth of 16.5m achieved
The deformations at the measuring rods were at a maximum of 1 cm, but could not be
read off more precisely. The survey yielded much more accurate values. The maximum
deformation within the entire shotcrete shell was 17 mm, although this was a peak value,
otherwise the values were between 8 and 14 mm.
The maximum movement on the overlying structures was measured at 7 mm. Only
minor cracks (mostly hairline cracks) appeared in the overlying structures. These could
be easily repaired with filler and paint.
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3.1.4 Construction cranes

Construction cranes are a challenge to everyone involved on any construction site . In
planning of a structure, the location of a construction crane is almost never taken into
account. So the construction company has to place the crane somewhere on the con-
struction site and, if possible, be able to serve the entire construction site with it.
A particularly drastic case occurred at a construction site in Going/Tyrol. Here, a large
crane with a 60 m outreach was erected and was the pride of the entire construction site
and the owner.
Fig. 3.7: Crane with 60m outrigger
The crane was just next to the excavation pit, which was secured with shotcrete, and
thus reached the entire construction site. The crane stood on 4 precast foundations these
in turn on a slab that was made of reinforced concrete.
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Fig. 3.8: Foundation of the crane
At first sight, the foundation looks quite good. The individual foundations are quite
close to the edge of the slab, but the slab as a whole will redirect the loads into a dis-
tributed load and therefore the foundation seems to be professional.
However, when operating the crane, a wobble soon became apparent, which was clas-
sified as a harmless movement of the slab.
One day, the crane tilted and with a loud roar (steel parts cracked), the crane fell over.
At first, it was assumed that the side slope had given way, but a closer look revealed that
a foundation failure had occurred under the foundation load. The reason for this was,
that the slab was too thin and also had no upper reinforcement. This meant that the slab
could not transfer the loads to the surface and, depending on the position of the crane,
the ground pressure was too high and was also one-sided.
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Fig. 3.9: Crane foundation failure with overturning
A foundation failure occurred under the slab, causing the slab to fracture, and it re-
vealed that no overlying reinforcement had been installed.
Fig. 3.10: Broken foundation of the crane
Without going into further detail here, this example can only serve as a caution to
correctly estimate the loads of a crane and then also to initiate correctly into the deeper
subsoil.
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74 3 Excavations
3.1.5 Short- and long-term fuses
In the application of components, the useful life or service life is important. Particu-
larly in the case of components that are used for load transmission it is important to be
clear about the service life.
Components that are only in use for a relatively short period are referred to as tempo-
rary components. According to the respective standard, these are now approved for up
to three years. All other components are considered to be permanent components that
are approved for a long time (>30 years).
3.1.5.1 Short-term fuses - temporary
Components in use for less than three years are classified as temporary. These are usually
components that are necessary in the as-built condition to protect these conditions. These
include assembly conditions or components that are only used during the construction
period, e.g. excavation shoring that becomes ineffective by the subsequent backfilling.
However, in the case of excavation shoring in particular, it must also be ensured that
after backfilling of the working space, the structure is also capable to absorb the entire
earth and water pressure with its structure. If this is not the case, the excavation shoring
must be classified as permanent.
Temporary components are only designed for a lifetime of three years, this means
that the building material must only meet the requirements for this time. After that, its
properties and load-bearing capacity may change. They have their own partial safety
factors, which are lower than those for long-term components.
Consequently, temporary components are generally less expensive and are therefore
used again and again.
3.1.5.2 Long-term fuses - permanent
Permanent structures with a life or service life of more than three years are classified as
permanent components. It applies to most components of a structure.
In this case, the partial safety factors are somewhat higher than for temporary compo-
nents and have additional requirements which are listed below as examples.
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3.2 Coverage and networking 75
• watertightness
• low deformation (as free as possible from cracks)
• no corrosion
• no detachment of parts on the surface
• defined surface quality (roughness, flatness)
3.2 Coverage and networking

Basically, there are three different systems of capping or cross-linking of slopes:
• free-hanging covers
• rock cross-links
• rock nets
Since these systems generally differ not only in their application, but also in their cal-
culation, they are dealt with separately here.
3.2.1 Free-hanging cover

Covers are usually used in excavation pits for temporary protection against falling soil
parts.
An excavation pit must be excavated down to the foundation level of the structure to
be built. Since this is below the natural ground surface, there are slopes at the edges,
which must be secured. If space is available an unsecured excavation is made with a free
slope. This slope must be safe against slipping soil and therefore requires a verification.
The proofs of slope stability are given in chapter 2.2.
Due to the local soil properties, a trench slope can be quite steep, but there are still
two natural phenomena to be considered which make the slope unsafe.
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• rainfall creates erosion gullies
• Solar radiation produces evaporation and thus drying out
In both cases, parts can detach from the embankment and fall down. This is a hazard
for workers, especially at the edge of the excavation, and must be avoided. To protect
against these hazards, the slopes of the excavation trenches are covered with sheeting or
fleece. This ensures that on the one hand erosion gullies and that the slope does not dry
out, thus preventing the formation of the embankment does not dry out and individual
stones come loose from the embankment and fall down.
If, however, smaller parts of the embankment come loose, they are held behind the
film or fleece and the foil or the fleece and cannot jump freely into the excavation pit. In
addition, the workers are warned by the sound of the falling parts and can move away
from the danger zone.
Fig. 3.11: Cover at excavation pit guyed foundation suspension bridge at Rappbode
Dam, Germany
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3.2.2 Rock cross-links
Crosslinking is only useful on rock slopes that show signs of dissolution near the surface
due to weathering. The purpose of rock crosslinking is to provide a wire mesh or steel
mesh over slopes that are at risk of rockfall or erosion, to prevent damage to roads or
structures below by falling stones and boulders.
The s are placed against the bedrock and are anchored in the rock by means of rock
nails( micropiles ) anchored in the rock. In addition, steel cables are stretched between
the rock nails to hold back loose rock fragments as far as possible at the distance between
the nails and to prevent them from sliding further down the valley. These rock cross-links
thus adapt to the slope surface and prevent surface erosion or the breaking out of rock.
This system can be combined with single boulder protection and can also be reinforced
with ropes.
Fig. 3.12: Prestressed meshing in rock slopes
The calculation of cross-links is based on the assumption that parts near the surface of
the rock detach and slide down the slope parallel to the net. Thus, slope-parallel sliding
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figures are investigated, which are considered like slope debris. This area is held by the
nailed net.
Fig. 3.13: System diagram of meshing
In the calculation, different sliding situations are calculated one after the other. First,
a slope-parallel slip is calculated and the thrust resulting from the shear resulting from
the sliding to determine the with regard to the longitudinal force and the protection.
Fig. 3.14: Slope-parallel sliding
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Afterwards a is calculated to see if the mesh is able to absorb this slip wedge and also
to check the connection between the net to the rock nail.
Fig. 3.15: Wedging slip
In the following, a calculation of a mesh using a LibreOffice-Calc program will be

demonstrated and the individual steps are explained.
Fig. 3.16: Input of geometry
First, the geometrical parameters such as the slope and the soil properties of the pos-
sible sliding layer. It is assumed that the sliding slope part acts like a curl material. This
is a pessimistic assumption, but it can occur in the whole area of a slope.
Subsequently, the mesh geometry, namely the horizontal and in the fall direction mea-
sured distance of the rock nails are entered. Thus the grid of the anchorage of the net is
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given. Then the net manufacturer is selected, which allows the type of net to be selected.
These data are taken from a list of possible manufacturers and their products. The indi-
vidual differ in mesh size, wire diameter and steel grade. Thus, an extensive selection is
also possible here.
Fig. 3.17: Input of the net for securing
After the net has been placed, an appropriate holder for the net is now selected on
the rock nails. This must transfer the forces from the net to the rock nail. These are
usually claw plates that are clamped onto the net. The plates grip over several wires,
which spreads the load of the thrust is distributed over several wires, thus enabling an
individual force is possible.
Fig. 3.18: Method of attaching the net to the nails
The next step is to define the soil or rock nails that will be used. First, the type of nail
(company) is selected, which then a selection of nail types will be shown, from which
you can choose. In addition, the nail inclination to the horizontal is entered here so that
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the direction of the nails is clearly defined in the calculation.
Fig. 3.19: Choice of soil or rock nails with inclination
Again, the individual types differ in diameter and steel grade. The cross-sectional
area cannot simply be deduced from the diameter, because many nail types are hollow
rods to press the injection material into the tip of the nail. These are then usually also
self-drilling nails with a lost drill bit.
As a basis for the calculation, the Eurocode requires the design situation and also the
expected damage consequence class must be determined in order to the individual partial
safety factors.
Fig. 3.20: Design situation and damage sequence class
The different partial safety factors, as defined in the Eurocode are given below accord-
ing to the design situation and the damage sequence class.
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Fig. 3.21: Partial safety factors for the further calculation
Furthermore, the possible load cases for the further calculation must be specified. In
the present case, only slope water is used for the calculation, the load cases snow and
earthquake are not shown here for the sake of simplicity.
Fig. 3.22: Decision about load cases to be calculated
Now the calculation of the slope-parallel sliding can be started. The calculation is
performed in four depth steps and the limits of the depths are given in the input of the
geometry. One block is limited at a time calculated with the grid spacing of the nails.
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Fig. 3.23: Decision about load cases to be calculated
The forces generated during a slip are determined in their vertical and horizontal com-
ponents. Then these forces are divided in relation to the sliding plane in normal force N
and driving force T.
Fig. 3.24: Force distribution during sliding
The normal force on the slip plane now generates a frictional force in the slip joint,
which has a holding effect on the system. To this frictional force is now added the
cohesive force, which results from the cohesion of the soil material and the area of the
block element.
As a result, the differential force acting in a block can be determined. This force must
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now be taken from a rock nail. A nail type is now selected from the possible choices and
its pretension is also specified. The nail plate is placed on the mesh and tightened with
the nail nut. This creates a pressure on the laid steel mesh, which also causes a reaction
of nail tensile force, which is effective in removing the block loads.
Fig. 3.25: Calculation of the retaining nail force
Since this determined holding force of a nail with 61.7 kN is greater than the acting
force of a block with max. 29.7 kN, it is ensured that the nail can stop the sliding block
with the selected pretensioning force.
Fig. 3.26: Determining the nail depth
To determine the nail depth, the selected pretensioning force is assumed. The bore
hole diameter and the maximum bond stress (= skin friction) must be specified. These
values can now be used to determine the depth of the anchorage section. If the max.
layer thickness of the overlay is added to this, one has the total nail length.
Now follows the calculation of the net stress. For this purpose, the possible steel mesh
and the corresponding support plate between mesh and anchor nut are selected. Accord-
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ing to the selected nail plate, the number of wires touching the circumference of the plate
are determined.
Fig. 3.27: Verification of the mesh
The force transferred by the wires is compared with the maximum effective nail force
parallel to the slope.
Fig. 3.28: Verification of the net attachment
In the calculation of the net attachment, the wires located on the slab are checked for
securement, with the total force acting as the pretensioning force of the total force.
The steel net is now not held by the contact pressure of the nails alone. It has proved
extremely useful if the nets are held down by pretensioned steel cables. In this way,
individual slide bodies can move only within a block and hardly build up any kinetic
energy. This makes the cross-linking system very safe, as there are no unexpected forces
of movement occur.
These steel cables are attached to the anchor plates and thus form a grid on the slope
to be secured. If it appears necessary, individual protruding parts of the rock can be
additionally secured with these ropes. This will be determined by the local crew in the
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course of meshing the slope. Here, the experience of the work crew in securing such
slopes is also taken into account, because all the special features cannot be simulated in
the planning and calculation.
Fig. 3.29: Specification of ropes for meshing
Finally, a check is made at the end of this calculation, that all necessary steps have
been carried out and that all components have been correctly dimensioned.
Fig. 3.30: Checking the calculation
After this now completed calculation, a slide slope is shown, small parts repeatedly
fell onto the underlying path until it was decided to mesh them. At the beginning it was
not clear if the slope suitable, but since the rock surface was found to be between 10 and
60 cm below the surface, it was decided to take this measure. The protruding rock block
could also be included in the securing.
In addition to this meshing, it was decided to place a coconut mat underneath the
steel net in which seeds for grasses had already been worked in. This resulted in a
relatively rapid greening of the slope and the interconnectedness was no longer visible
to the observer after half a year.
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Fig. 3.31: Cross-linking at Volders Alter Weg, Austria
3.2.3 Rockfall nets
These are used as rockfall protection. It is assumed rock falls out of the rock face or
slides down the slope, or that the rock falls out of the rock down the slope, or even rolls
or bounces. One must consider as a prerequisite of the dimensioning of such rockfall
nets, the fall energy of the fall body must be estimated.
The fall energy is calculated from the mass m of the falling body and the fall height h
and is given in kJ (kilo Joules). From the fall height, the fall velocity is determined with:
p
v= 2∗g∗h (3.1)
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And with this, together with the mass of the falling body, the falling energy can be
calculated.
1
E = + m ∗ v2 (3.2)
2
This results in the following trap energies for practical applications:
Fig. 3.32: Trap energy in kJ (kilo Joules)
Rockfall nets are now offered for the following trap energies:
500 - 1,000 - 2,000 - 3,000 - 5,000 kJ.
This provides a sufficient selection of protective structures against rockfall. In the

case of even greater trap energies, such as those occurring in landslides these nets are
no longer used, but instead one sets up one’s own fall with energy dissipation basins and
dams, in which this large energy can then be dissipated.
A good understanding for the function and arrangement of a rockfall net is provided
by a principle sketch of the Maccaferri company. Here it is clearly recognizable how the
energy is dissipated and which safety distance to used rooms must be provided for this
purpose.
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Fig. 3.33: Principle sketch for the function of a rockfall net by Maccaferri
A corresponding example of an application of a rockfall net is given in the following

figure. A road leading to a settlement is secured to several houses. Thus not only a road
but especially the way to school for several children. The rockfall nets are designed for
a drop energy of of 500 kJ.
Fig. 3.34: Rockfall net at Kleinboden in Fuegenberg Tyrol
The system consists of a steel net supported by strong ropes. These are fixed to the
subsoil and the supports. The energy of the fall is absorbed by the strong deformation of
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the supporting ropes, which can absorb these deformations like a spring.
For the application of this system, the energy of the fall is determined and the sys-
tems from the appropriate companies, which are then also installed by the companies.
The necessary geotechnical verifications are carried out for the ropes and anchors or mi-
cropiles required from the geotechnical companies in each case during use. The basis
for this are sufficient field tests of the respective specialized companies.
The rockfall nets offered by the relevant companies such as Maccaferri, Geobrugg and
Trummer assume a drop energy of 500 kJ. This is a relatively large energy impact. If
lower energies are achieved the systems for 500 kJ are usually installed. In the following
it shall be be shown here, how smaller systems can be calculated and thus a supplement
to the large protective structures can be developed.
Fig. 3.35: System of a small rockfall
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For a corresponding calculation of the small system, first of all a Falling body (boul-
der) is defined, which is to fall.
Fig. 3.36: Definition of the falling body
The mass of the falling body is then used for the determination of the kinetic energy.
Fig. 3.37: Input of the geometry and the ground
With the geometrical values like length and slope angle the fall path is defined. The
subsurface values are needed for the calculation of the falling energy as this is not a free
fall, but a braked movement, which is dependent on the motion, which experiences a
delayed acceleration depending on the ground.
The coefficient of friction plays a major role here. This is calculated from the angle of
friction of the ground, whereby cohesion (as is usual with rock) is not taken into account,
since only surface contacts with friction are involved.
η = tan(ϕ) (3.3)
When rolling on rock, an angle of friction of 35 degree is used. This corresponds to

the experience gained in relevant tests.
For the calculation of the acceleration of the falling body, one assumes a uniform
acceleration, the value of which is dependent on the gravitational constant g and the
slope inclination and the coefficient of friction.
a = g ∗ sin(α) − η ∗ cos(α) (3.4)
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With the length of the fall trajectory the velocity of the falling body can be calculated
now:
√
v= 2∗a∗L (3.5)
Fig. 3.38: Determining the kinetic energy
The kinetic energy is then calculated to:
E = M ∗ v2 (3.6)
It is expressed in kJ (kiloJoules), where 1 J = 1 Nm is defined.
Fig. 3.39: Definitions of the protective net arrangement
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First of all, information must be provided regarding the geometry of the rockfall pro-
tection and its support as well as the position of the guy ropes.
Fig. 3.40: Geometric specifications of the safety gear structure
Then, the possible deformations of the net are entered as the bandwidth. This is varied
several times until a practicable solution is reached in a narrow range. This then influ-
ences the choice of the mesh, which must convene the drop body.
Fig. 3.41: Possibility to vary the net movement and the rope sag
The rope sag can also be varied, so that the rope tensioning force can be influenced in
such a way that a desired rope can be used.
At the beginning of the actual calculation, a net is selected, since the decisive factors
here are which net width and which wire thickness a net has.
In the following, the most common nets from the companies Geobrigg and from Mac-
caferri, such a compilation has not been found.
Fig. 3.42: Steel wire nets from the Geobrugg company
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Fig. 3.43: Trummer steel wire nets
For the further calculation in this example, the following mesh is used 50/50/2.5 from
Trummer. It is now calculated how many wires of the mesh are present at the edge of the
drop body. For this purpose, the falling body is simplified as a sphere and it is calculated
how many wires at the circumference of the sphere must take over the impact force. A
safety factor of 1.5 is used to determine the permissible wire tensile force.
Fig. 3.44: Determination of the permissible wire force of the selected mesh
Now, with the energy of the falling body and the given braking distance = net move-
ment, the net force must be determined.
Nk = E/s (3.7)
Where E is the kinetic energy and s is the braking distance = net movement.
Fig. 3.45: Calculation of the single wire force for different net motions
The result is the corresponding net forces for the various net movements. Dividing
these by the number of wires results in the respective individual wire force that takes
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effect during the braking distance.
The permissible wire force is only reached at a net movement of 1.75 m. This is the
maximum permissible wire force. Thus, this net movement must be further calculated.
The net force, which is generated by the drop body at a given net movement, is now
transferred to the rope which holds the net at the top and bottom. The load is assumed
to be uniformly distributed between the supports. In the present case, this is calculated
as follows:
qs = Nk /e + gs = 51, 1/5 + 0, 67 = 10, 9 [kN/m] (3.8)
However, since the rope is not a rigid body, the deflection of the rope depends on the
one hand on the load and on the other hand on the rope tension.
It is therefore necessary to select ropes which are available for such an application.
There are several rope companies that can supply ropes for this purpose.
Fig. 3.46: Steel ropes from Brugg
According to the manufacturer, these ropes are particularly suitable for the timber
industry. It the small bending radius of deflection sheaves is pointed out, and also that
they are that they have few problems in contact with the soil (dragging on the ground).
In addition, the particular robustness during operation is emphasized.
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Fig. 3.47: Pfeifer steel ropes
The Pfeifer company offers low-cost open spiral ropes made of stainless steel, whose
load-carrying capacity is given as between26 and 945 kN. The above selection refers to
the ropes to be used for simple safety gear constructions as they are treated here.
Fig. 3.48: Solitec steel ropes
Solitec specifies protruding ropes in the smaller range as traction and haul ropes, al-
though ropes with intermediate diameters are also available (see their catalog).
A rope is selected from the possible ropes in order to calculate the rope force for the
given passage. In this example, the rope from the company Brugg with the reference
number 78502 (d = 10 mm). The selected rope has a safety factor of 1.5, the selected
rope has a permissible rope force of 67.3 kN, which must not be exceeded.
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The rope forces for specified rope passes are calculated for the determined rope load.
Fig. 3.49: Static system of rope loading
The forces from the rope are calculated to:
H = q ∗ l2/(8 ∗ f ) (3.9)
V = q ∗ l/2 (3.10)
p
S = H 2 +V 2 (3.11)
The rope elongation is calculated from the difference of the support distance e to the
arc length with the passage f.
Fig. 3.50: Calculation of rope force and rope elongation
The rope forces calculated according to the indicated formula relationships show, that
only from a deflection of 0,6 m the rope force becomes smaller than the permissible rope
force of 67,3 kN. This results with a rope elongation of 18,8 cm.
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A spring mechanism must now be installed when anchoring the rope that meets these
requirements. For this purpose, springs or steel rings are usually used which correspond
to the force-deformation behavior determined.
The support and the guy rope are now calculated. To do this, the angles of the geo-
metric situation must be determined.
Fig. 3.51: Angles at the column support
Fig. 3.52: Forces and angles at the column support
Taking into account the safety factor for the force application, the following forces
arise forces:
Fig. 3.53: Column force and bracing force with safety
A rope from the Brugg company is now selected as the guy rope, since the rope was
also selected from this company.
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Fig. 3.54: Selected rope for bracing
As a support, a sectional beam type HE-A of size 120 with steel grade S235 is selected.
The following profile values are decisive:
Fig. 3.55: Profile values of the HE-A 120
Half the net force at half the support height is taken as the impact force. The reason
for this is that the guy rope deflects the falling body in such a way that a direct hit is not
to be assumed, but only a dispersion hit. This is estimated with half of the falling force.
This results in a maximum moment for the prop of 28.8 kNm and a normal force in
the column axis of 105.3 kN. These values result in an edge stress of 313 N/mm2 for
the selected profile. This also corresponds exactly the permissible bending stress of the
selected profile.
Now follows the dimensioning of the anchorage of the guy rope. After selecting the
angle of inclination of the nail, the remaining angles must be determined before calcu-
lating the forces of the support and the nail force.
Fig. 3.56: Angles and forces at the nail and rope anchorage
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With this definition of the angles and the forces, it is now possible to determine their
values can be determined:
Fig. 3.57: Calculated angles and forces for nail and cable bracing
The foundation that introduces the force Fa into the ground or rock must be deter-
mined locally by the geotechnical engineer in coordination with the structural engineer.
Various approved nailing systems can now be used for anchoring the nail force. The
three most common types of nails are shown below, with the smaller nails used in these
constructions are indicated.
Fig. 3.58: DSI Simple Soil Nail
With the simple soil nail , a hole is drilled and the bar is inserted and then mortared.
However, this requires that the drilled hole remains open, which is normally only the
case in rock. Therefore, this nail is particularly suitable for rock substrates.
Fig. 3.59: Self-drilling nail from MAI-IBO
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Self-drilling nails are hollow rods and have a lost drill bit. During drilling, the material
to be drilled is either forced by a stream of compressed air from the drill bit to the
borehole, or cement mortar is injected through the drill bit during drilling. At the same
time the cement mortar is then also the bond between the steel member of the nail and
the subsurface.
Fig. 3.60: Ischebeck self-drilling nail
As can be easily seen, in the calculation example, of each type of anchor the smallest
type can be selected for the transmission of the tensile forces. It is now up to the geotech-
nical engineer on the basis of the strength properties of the subgrade and the diameter of
the hole to determine the required length of the nail.
On the dimensioning of the concrete foundations and also of the individual transition
parts of the concrete foundations and also the individual transition parts from the net to
the rope and support as well as the soil nail, constructional details still have to be worked
out. This presentation is deliberately omitted here as this is a purely structural treatment
that is not dealt with in this book.
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3.3 Impact wall
A slope between a federal road and the railroad in the province of Salzburg came
repeatedly in motion. The slope, more and less steep, extends over a longer distance.
Fig. 3.61: Landslide near traffic routes in Salzburg
A protection of the railroad line below had to be built, a total stabilization of the slope
with a cross-linking was rejected for various reasons. It was therefore decided to erect
an impact wall on the underside of the slope in front of the railroad line. This is intended
to prevent slipping from blocking the railroad line in the future.
The impact wall is used in principle to protect against sliding soil (mudflows) or snow
(avalanches). The load acting on the wall is determined from the kinetic energy. For this
purpose, first the movement of the sliding mass (debris flow or avalanche) is analyzed
and from this the forces acting on the impact wall can be determined.
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3.3 Impact wall 103
Fig. 3.62: Section for the situation of a impact wall protection
Since the slide mass is a uniform material, the first thing to be the geometry is consid-
ered first.
Fig. 3.63: Basic geometric data
The friction angle of the substrate is needed to consider the deceleration to the differ-
ence of a frictionless sliding to be observed. The coefficient of friction is the tangent of
the friction angle.
Fig. 3.64: Motion data of the slide
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This allows to calculate the acceleration and also the velocity of the slide mass at the
end of the acceleration path.
a = g ∗ sin(α) − h ∗ cos(α) (3.12)

√
v= 2∗a∗L (3.13)
Now the braking distance comes in a different inclination. Now the velocity of the mov-
ing mass at the beginning of the braking distance must be determined. This is calculated
from the difference of the two inclinations:
vba = v ∗ cos(α − β ) (3.14)
Fig. 3.65: Motion data of the braking distance
The acceleration in the braking distance is determined, then the velocity at the end of
the braking distance. q
vbe = 2 ∗ abe ∗ sb ∗ v2ba (3.15)
With these values and the density of the slide body, it is now possible to calculate the
surface load on the impact wall can be calculated.
p = ρ ∗ v2be /2 (3.16)
Fig. 3.66: Density of slide body and impact wall load
With this load from the slide mass, the impact wall can now be designed in its details.
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3.4 Retaining wall 105
Fig. 3.67: Illustration of the impact wall
3.4 Retaining wall

The retaining wall is considered to be the classic shoring of a terrain baffle. There are
variants, which are used depending on the existing boundary conditions.
Fig. 3.68: Types of retaining walls

Today, the classic gravity retaining wall is usually constructed with a natural stones to
save concrete and to give the impression of a natural stone wall, which is more desirable
than a pure concrete wall. The gravity wall is often made of concrete only. In this case,
the footprint width is often half the height of the wall. This already shows the extremely
high material consumption. Therefore the slimmer reinforced concrete walls have also
prevailed.
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The angle walls made of reinforced concrete are much slimmer than the gravity walls.
Fig. 3.69: Cross section for Concrete wall for road protection in Hippach Zillertal
Fig. 3.70: Concrete walls for road protection in Hippach Zillertal
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The angle on the foot can now point forward or backward. With the angle back, the
disadvantage is that a large forward stroke is necessary. Therefore this variant is usually
used for filled slopes (ramps).
In the example shown, an angle retaining wall has been designed with angle to the
front for space reasons. In the following, the entire calculation with all intermediate
steps of the angle wall.
Fig. 3.71: Calculation of weights and moments for the retaining wall
After entering the soil properties such as density γ, friction angle ϕ and wall friction
angle δ , the inclination of the rear side of the wall a and the slope above the wall b are
entered. With these values the Coulomb earth pressure coefficient can be calculated.
Subsequently the geometric quantities are entered according to the sketch. The follow-
ing is then calculated using the Coulomb earth pressure coefficients, the weights of the
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individual partial surfaces of the wall itself and of the ground surfaces, which load the
wall. The moments are calculated around the front base of the foundation.
Fig. 3.72: Calculation of the sliding check
The individual verifications are performed for the construction condition and the final
condition. The calculated safety is then compared with the required safety.
Fig. 3.73: Calculation of the overturning analysis

In the subsequent overturning check, the bottom stress is determined, whereby no
tensile stresses can be absorbed in the joint. Therefore, the gaping joint must be calcu-
lated. The resultant and its point of intersection are calculated through the bottom edge
of the foundation are calculated and compared with the core width. This shows if tensile
stresses are present under the foundation.
The next step is to verify the resistance to foundation failure. Due to the earth pres-
sure, the load inclination of the resultant must be taken into account. This is different in
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the construction state than in the final state.
Fig. 3.74: Calculation of the ground failure
In addition, a terrain failure analysis must be performed. With this all necessary ver-
ifications for a retaining wall are provided. This calculation is omitted here, since it has
already been described in detail in Section 2.2.3.
The wall with cantilever is a special feature of retaining walls. It poses a peculiar
challenge to all geotechnical engineers. In the case of a reinforced concrete retaining
wall, one or more cantilevers are integrated in the rear area, which is supposed to lead to
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a reduction of the earth pressure acting on the wall. This is expressly called into question
here and the reader should judge for himself which way he wants to go. In his two books,
Simmer gives different forms of earth pressure for the determination.
Fig. 3.75: Comparison of earth pressure shapes for retaining walls with cantilever
The question arises for which cantilever can the earth pressure be reduced? Why not
both? Or should there be any reduction at all.
In section a-a, the full earth pressure is active, without reduction. Through the or the
cantilever arms, the earth pressure is changed locally, but the sum of the horizontal must
have the same numerical value at the back of the wall as in section a-a. After all, nothing
can disappear. The consequence of this reduction would be to build 10 cantilevers and
the horizontal earth pressure disappears! This is really impossible. So the horizontal
earth pressure must be used to its full height without any reduction.
One must not allow such considerations, even if well-intentioned, to obscure the es-
sential view of the mechanical fundamentals (Σ H = 0) be blinded.
The cantilever arm of a retaining wall has only the task of creating a counter-moment
to the monents in the wall and thus to keep the retaining wall slim enough. Whether this
is economically advantageous must be proven in each individual case.
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3.5 Stone walls 111
3.5 Stone walls

In principle, two different types of stone walls are distinguished, which are not only used
for very different applications, but for which the work preparation, planning and execu-
tion also differ greatly.
3.5.1 Raw stone wall
This is the type of shoring with the greatest problems in practice. For this classification
there are two main reasons:
1. no planning and calculation of the retaining wall is carried out
2. the execution is the responsibility of the excavator, whereby the excavator driver
usually has no idea of a masonry wall.
Thus difficulties are already pre-programmed. One recognizes mostly these walls,
since they are not professionally manufactured in a wall bond and thus cannot fulfill the
task of a wall at all.
Fig. 3.76: Stone wall with continuous joints in Voels near Innsbruck
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The selected example shows a vertical stone fill with a height of 1.5 to 2 m, which
already has several defects:
• no foundation or no large stones laid for a foundation
• the stones are not laid in the bond, there are always vertical joints that separate the
wall and thus do not ensure mutual support
• plants have been installed in the joints and their roots can lift the individual stones
at the points of contact and thus loosen the already bad bond. The individual
stones can come loose and fall out of the wall.
• smaller stones have already loosened in the first two years and and fell out, al-
though this happened in the immediate vicinity of small children. This is an un-
tenable condition.
Due to this inadequate production, individual stones become detached from the bond
over time and can from the bond and may well fall out of the wall. Supporting that these
walls are not built frost-proof and therefore a movement is already given.
The consequence can be only that these walls are used only for gardening purposes
and not for the protection of terrain jumps where an additional such as a road, path or
even a house must be secured.
In general, these walls, even if they have only secondary functions, should be calcu-
lated and also during the execution of a construction supervisor should pay attention to
a professional production, whereby here particularly on a mutual bond of the individual
stones is to be paid attention to. If one speaks before with the excavator operator and
explain the requirements to him, in most cases, a solid stone finishing can be expected.
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3.5 Stone walls 113
Fig. 3.77: Stone filling in bond ‚Äì illustration
The above example shows a stone fill founded in a reinforced concrete bed, which
shows a good bond between the stones and therefore also a long service life can be ex-
pected. Different stone surfaces were deliberately chosen so that the individual stones
can be compared from the front and back. This gives a better understanding of the spatial
position of the individual stones.
In general, also rough stone finish walls are calculated like gravity walls and also the
necessary verifications against sliding, tilting and foundation failure are to be provided
as for the retaining wall.
However, it should not only be reported negatively, also positive examples of stone
finishing walls stand out.
3.5.2 Mortared stone wall
A stone walls for the protection of terrain slopes, which is also intended to secure a
structure such as a road or a house, must be planned and geotechnically calculated.
In contrast to rough stone walls, mortared stone walls requires planning and subse-
quent planning and calculation is an indispensable prerequisite. The geotechnical and
structural fundamentals for the project must be calculated.
The advantage of this method of securing a terrain jump is that the work can be carried
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114 3 Excavations
out continuously without time pressure and the support of formwork. The placement of
the individual stones determines the progress of the wall.
Fig. 3.78: Mortared stone finishing in section
The above section shows the individual parts of a mortared stone finishing wall. Start
with a foundation, which in most cases is supported by reinforcement.
The stones are laid in the mortar bed and can thus be deliberately laid, so that a beau-
tiful wall is created. The individual stones float in the mortar bed and therefore do not
have to take over decisive static functions. The mortar is produced in a relatively dry
consistency, so that slopes can also be made with the trowel, and also the mortar surface
can be set back somewhat from the stone surface. This allows a good visual effect of
the stone finishing wall. The more stones are laid in the wall, the more you can save
mortar. Since the entire cross-section is subject to only one compressive load, the stones
embedded in the mortar are also fully effective statically.
The wall as a whole, i.e. bricks and mortar bed, acts as a gravity wall. Therefore, it is
also possible to install smaller stones on the surface, the mortar bed behind it addition-
ally assumes the function of the gravity wall.
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3.5 Stone walls 115
Another example is a stone filling with mortar bond, which is used for the protection
of a cable car station.
Fig. 3.79: Stone filling at the Kreuzjoch near Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
Here, the mortar-bonded stone filling is placed on a concrete foundation. The stones
are set in a mortar bed and thus frost resistance is also given. For optical reasons, the
stones should also be placed in a bond here. The mortar bed is set relatively deep in this
wall.
Fig. 3.80: Stone finishing on the Wattentalstrasse in Tyrol
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116 3 Excavations
For the stone finishing wall on the Wattentalstrasse, relatively large stones with a flat
visible surface were selected and the mortar bed was set only 1-2 cm deeper. The optical
effect is clear in comparison to the previously shown wall.
Fig. 3.81: Stone filling with connection to a rock slope in the Wattental in Tyrol
A particularly beautiful connection of a stone finishing wall to a rock slope is shown

in the the picture of the Wattental, where the stone finishing wall is up to 2.0 m thick and
is and was adapted to the naturally occurring rock. The rock surface was also the rock
surface was also reworked accordingly.
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3.6 Gabions (stone baskets) 117
3.6 Gabions (stone baskets)
Gabions (from the Italian gabbia, basket) are steel and wire mesh baskets filled with
stones of various types. and wire mesh baskets filled with various types of stones. The
application of gabions is manifold. Here, only the slope protection or slope support shall
be shown.
The dry construction method allows the quick and inexpensive erection of an individ-
ual wall. The water permeability of a gabion prevents, that pressure builds up due to
moisture and water. Their use is therefore especially recommended for damp slopes.
Fig. 3.82: Gabions for slope stabilization
Even though there are currently no standard requirements, gabions should be used
for slope support in the same way as gravity walls. Thus the earth pressure should be
calculated in order to be able to carry out the sliding and overturning can be carried
out. The foundation failure check should also be carried out, because the contact area is
limited by the width of the cage and is rather narrow for a gravity wall.
The gabions are not as rigid as a concrete wall, because the baskets can move can move
slightly in the 1-2 cm range depending on the individual size, but it should be decided
depending on the subsoil whether a separate foundation (eg. reinforced foundation plate)
is necessary.
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118 3 Excavations
3.7 Cushion wall
The cushion wall is a very simple support for a terrain slope. It is mainly used tem-
porarily when the slope is built up from a level.
Fig. 3.83: Construction of a cushion wall
Here, the geogrid serves as a tension element. The curved reinforcement mat is the
gauge that indicates the height and inclination of the individual chute levels. On the front
side of the construction, a fleece is laid so that no parts of the soil fall down. In addition,
with the fleece is usually laid coir mat, in which seeds for greening are already stored.
This makes the cushion wall with grass after a short time and it has a pleasant surface.
The calculation is the same as for a gravity wall. The tension bands are calculated
according to the sliding safety of the whole construction in their length. The mesh cage
serves only as a form and spacer and has no function in the calculation. If this also cor-
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3.7 Cushion wall 119
rodes later, minor bulges may occur on the surface of the embankment, but the geogrid
is, however, intended as a tension band for this load case.
The earth material is placed in layers of 40 - 60 cm and is immediately compacted by

rollers or vibratory plates before the next layer is poured. Such a cushion wall may well
reach heights of up to 15 m.
Fig. 3.84: Cushion wall at Rifflsee Pitztal, Austria
The shown cushion wall is approx. 12 m high and thus a space is created for the bot-
tom station of a ski lift. As can be seen in the picture, this wall curvatures in the ground
plan and also the lateral integration into the natural terrain without any problems.
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120 3 Excavations
In the following, an example is calculated, which was used for a protection of a road
with heavy traffic. It is a 6.0 m high slope with an an angle of 75 degrees.
First of all, the soil properties for the fill material are recorded, because the type of
geogrid and the length that the geogrid must lie on the contact surface.
Fig. 3.85: Material parameters for the fill material for a cushion wall
The layer height of the paving layers must now be specified. This is determined by
the structures that are used at the front of the slope.
Fig. 3.86: Earth pressure calculation in the individual layers of the cushion wall
The earth pressure coordinate (= the stress acting in the calculation joint) is calculated
as follows to:
eh = γ ∗ t ∗ Kh (3.17)
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Where γ is the bulk density of the fill, and t is the respective depth from the the ground
surface to the calculated layer. The force that now acts on a geogrid is the earth pressure
coordinate multiplied by the height of the layers of the geogrids:
eg = eh ∗ ∆h (3.18)
The allowable long-term tensile strength must be greater than the earth pressure acting
on the geogrid, taking into account the corresponding partial safety factor.
fz ≥ eg ∗ ηL (3.19)
fz .... Long-term tensile strength of the geogrid

eg .... Earth pressure coordinate acting on the geogrid
ηL .... Partial safety of the loads
But before making the choice of the geogrid, we will kave a little closer look at the
geogrid. It is usually a grid that can support tensile forces on both sides. Depending on
the manufacturer, different mesh sizes and also mesh shapes are offered.
Fig. 3.87: Types of geogrid used with calculation values
From a geotechnical point of view, it is important to note that the same forces cannot
be applied between the geogrid and the poured soil, because they do not have the same
frictional properties as the soil itself. It is therefore necessary to know the angle of fric-
tion between the soil and the geogrid used.
Thus, with the help of a small series of measurements, it was proven that the angle of
friction between the TT grids and the soil is about 20-23 degrees. Therefore, the smaller
friction angle of 20 degrees is used in the calculations.
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122 3 Excavations
Fig. 3.88: Example of a TT 060 geogrid
Since there are different angles of friction in the plane of the geogrid, this must also
be taken into account in the calculation of the length of the geogrid. This must be done
via the area fraction, which differentiates in geogrid and soil.
Thus, the possible shear stress (friction) in the respective bed joint can be calculated
with the area ratio of the respective geogrid:
τ = γ ∗ t ∗ ( fb ∗ tanϕb + fg ∗ tanϕg ) (3.20)

τ .... Shear stress (friction) in the invert joint
γ .... Bulk density of the fill material
t.... Depth of the bottom joint to be calculated
fb .... Percentage of area for the bottom
fg .... Area fraction for the geogrid
ϕb ... Friction angle of the soil (fill material)
ϕg ... Friction angle between soil and geogrid
Fig. 3.89: Partial safety factors for the design
The entire earth pressure must be absorbed in the joint of the geogrids. With this
determined shear stress, the required length of the geogrids can now be determined,
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taking into account the partial safety factor.
E ∗ ηL ∗ ηG
Lg = (3.21)
τ
Lg .... length of the geogrid in the contact area
E .... total earth pressure up to the bottom joint
ηL ... Partial safety factor of the loads
ηG ... partial safety factor of the geogrid
Fig. 3.90: Design of type and length of geogrid in each plane
This calculated length must be used to design the geogrid in the respective layer, the
layer height and the anchorage length of the geogrid must be added. The layer height
∆h is given and the anchorage length can be determined from the tensile strength of the
geogrid.
fz ∗ ηG
Lv = (3.22)
τ
Thus, the specifications of the geogrid to be laid in each layer have been determined
in type and length.
Only the support structure of the slope inclination remains. Here a wide variety of
systems are offered. First and foremost, attention must be paid to the service life of this
construction.
There are plastic constructions that are correspondingly durable and thus can also be
relocated for permanent use.
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124 3 Excavations
Fig. 3.91: Anchoring lengths of geogrids in each layer
Caution should be exercised with constructions made of reinforcement mats, because

these can rust and thus lose their shape. There will then be major deformations of the
slope, which may well occur with a cushion wall up to 1-2 m from the slope.
A solution to this problem is to galvanize or coat the reinforcement mats with plastic
coating to counteract the problem of corrosion. Also a cathodic corrosion protection
with external current anode can be considered to prevent corrosion. This would also be
a possibility to protect already installed reinforcement meshes in the long term.
Fig. 3.92: Front element for fixing the slope geometry
In the figure above, such an embankment element made of reinforcement mat is

shown. This can also be seen in practical application in Fig. 3.7.
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3.8 Geocells 125
3.8 Geocells
Another option for slope stabilization is the use of geocells. This method is suitable for
both temporary and permanent slope stabilization.
Fig. 3.93: Section through a geocell stabilization system
The cells are laid out and filled with a sand-gravel mixture. Subsequently the fill is
compacted normally. The result is a total body that is used in the can be treated like a
gravity wall in the calculation.
As an example of calculation, an avalanche impact dam with a height of of 7.0 m,
which was built to protect a lift station in the Patznaun Valley, Austria.
Fig. 3.94: Entering the geometry, soil properties and loadings
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126 3 Excavations
As can be seen in the input, one should not use the active earth pressure, but an av-
erage value between active earth pressure and the earth pressure on the entire retaining
wall, as the compaction work results in an increased earth pressure is generated.
Fig. 3.95: Entering the type and size of the geocells to be used
Normally, the geocells are placed in packages of 2 or 3 layers on top of each other
before an offset is made. By this package structure with offset an almost arbitrarily steep
slope can be achieved.
Fig. 3.96: Principle sketch with definitions of the geometry for geocells
With these input values, the calculations can now be performed step by step for each
layer. The partial safety factor for the loads must also be taken into account.
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3.8 Geocells 127
Fig. 3.97: Calculation of earth pressure for each layer of geocells
Fig. 3.98: Calculation of required package width of the geocells
Now that the geocells have been defined, the geogrids can be installed at the site. The
geocells are laid out on a prepared plane, which is then filled with a bulkhead material
and compacted. During the compaction it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that
around the (approx. 1 - 3 cm) so that the geocells are not displaced during the subsequent
compaction process.
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128 3 Excavations
Fig. 3.99: Geocells during installation
For a turning area for vehicles at the end of a turning area in a hillside location in
Kitzbuehel, such a construction with geocells was applied. The individual geogrid layers
were installed according to the specifications of the supplier and the calculations.
Fig. 3.100: Installed geocells in Kitzbuehel
The slope can then be planted to visually cover the technical measures.
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3.9 Reinforced earth 129
3.9 Reinforced earth

This method, developed in France, employs two structural elements to secure a slope.
A prefabricated element , usually made of reinforced concrete, which is arranged and,
behind it, tension bands, usually made of steel, which are inserted into the slope in the
course of the fill.
Fig. 3.101: Reinforced earth as per script. Retaining structures and shoring TUM
The friction between the tension bands and the fill material is mobilized by a relative
movement. This usually results from the settlements of the fill material, whereas the wall
itself receives little deformation. The total body including the tension bands is treated in
the calculation like a gravity wall.
Fig. 3.102: Reinforced earth according to script. Retaining structures and shoring TUM
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130 3 Excavations
3.10 Precast wall in front

In the case of smaller terrain slopes, there is often not much space to build the structure.
Especially for smaller roads in rural areas and for roads with old moving stone fillings,
a new wall must be built to secure the terrain.
Fig. 3.103: Possible applications of the precast wall
Precast walls are suitable for this purpose, which are placed in front of the terrain
jump and additionally retained in the subgrade with soil nails. As shown in the figure,
the following sequence of operations is selected:
• Construction site setup and traffic control
• Building of the foundation
• Lay drainage
• Moving the precast elements
• Drill and inject soil nails
• Install backfill
• Clear site and open to traffic
This is a very simple and fast method of securing a terrain jump in confined conditions.
The calculation of this precast wall according to the following procedure:
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3.10 Precast wall in front 131
First the earth pressure on the retaining wall is calculated, here in 2.0 m the width of
the individual precast elements is calculated.
Fig. 3.104: Example data for the precast wall
For the calculation of the earth pressure, an increased earth pressure is assumed which
lies between the active pressure and the earth pressure. The corresponding earth pressure
coefficients are given.
Fig. 3.105: Calculation steps for the precast wall
The total height of the precast wall is divided into two parts, as the precast wall is to
be secured with two soil nails one above the other. The indicated levels refer to the depth
of the soil nails calculated from the top edge of the precast wall. In addition, the depth to
which the precast wall reaches below the bottom soil nail. The calculated earth pressure
values without and with partial safety factor for the precast wall are now the output for
the design of the structure.
First step, the soil nails are selected. There are several types and dimensions of the soil
nails. An overview of the possible soil nails currently available on the market is given in
Figure 3.128. The additional rust off rate have to be considered for the application for
permanent use as shown in Figures 3.129 and 3.130. A corresponding approval is given
in Germany as well as in Austria.
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132 3 Excavations
Fig. 3.106: Available soil nail types
2.0 mm are used for the rust off rate, since the precast wall is used in the area of a road
where salt is spread by winter road maintenance services. Hence the maximum rust off
rate for the soil nails.
Fig. 3.107: Calculated values of the soil nails with consideration of the abrasion rates
With the calculated allowable tensile forces, the soil nails for the precast wall can now
be determined.
Fig. 3.108: Selection of the nail type and calculation of the nail length
The basis for determining the nail length is the adhesive force per meter that the nail
can introduce its forces into the existing soil.
The actual precast wall is now calculated. First of all, the material selected is a wall
made of steel fiber reinforced concrete. This was chosen because of the simpler produc-
tion and also because of the lesser problems with corrosion in contact with road salt.
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Fig. 3.109: Selection of nail type and calculation of nail length

The moments are calculated in a simplified way according to the formulas given in
the standards.
Fig. 3.110: Approximate method for the calculation of moments for point-supported
slabs according to EN 1992-1-1
Now follows the design of the precast slabs. For the building material steel fiber
concrete the design is carried out in condition 1 (uncracked). Therefore deformation of
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134 3 Excavations
the cross-section is calculated and the design is carried out in a similar way as in steel
and timber construction.
Fig. 3.111: Design of steel fiber reinforced concrete
A thickness of 12.5 cm is selected for the precast element. The safety of the cross-
section is the partial safety of the materials.
Fig. 3.112: Selection of the thickness of the slab and existing safety
After the design of the precast wall, two verifications remain concerning the interac-
tion between the soil nail and the precast wall.
First, it must be checked whether the nail plate at full nail force also does not punch
through the fiber-reinforced concrete. For this purpose, a cut surface is calculated at
right angles to the nail plate and extends to the surface of the precast wall. Along this cut
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surface the possible shear force is determined from the permissible material properties
and compared with the nail force.
Fig. 3.113: Verification against punching through the nail plate
Fig. 3.114: Verification against pull-out of the nail plate
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136 3 Excavations
Likewise, a tear-out of the nail plate below 45 degrees is calculated. This possible
fracture was found to be a decisive reason for failure in the preliminary tests of a precast
slab made of steel fiber reinforced concrete. Therefore, it is also specifically calculated
in the verifications.
The calculated wall was erected near a national road in the Lechtal valley in the direc-
tion of the Tannheimertal valley in Austria.
Fig. 3.115: System slabs made of steel fiber concrete during assembly
The precast wall was built with a formwork imitating natural stone. It thus has the
appearance of a masonry wall. With the exposed stones, the soil nails were drilled and
injected out. After that open areas were closed with prefabricated parts, so that the wall
has a uniform appearance.
Fig. 3.116: System slabs made of steel fiber concrete for slope stabilization up to a height
of 3m
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3.11 Timber anchor wall 137
3.11 Timber anchor wall

A shoring system that does not require excavation behind the wall is the timber anchor
wall. This construction can be placed directly on the terrain and is secured by anchors
or soil nails in the deeper subsoil.
Fig. 3.117: Slope and road stabilization with timber anchor wall in the Wattental valley
The following section clearly shows the position of the individual components.
Fig. 3.118: Section through a timber anchor wall
When calculating the timber anchor wall, the earth pressure on the wall is first deter-
mined.
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138 3 Excavations
Fig. 3.119: Calculating the earth pressure for a timber tie wall
The earth pressure, which is transferred as a uniform load, is used to calculate the
bending moments for the timber beams and also the vertical steel rails (top hat sections)
are determined. After the material selection and the corresponding allowable stress of
the respective material, the design can be carried out using the section modulus.
Fig. 3.120: Design of the timbers and the support rail
For the timbers, impregnated logs are used whose service life is of at least 30 years
(usually also 50 years) is specified. The service life is explicitly guaranteed by the man-
ufacturing companies. The steel beams in hat shape are natural and thus can also rust. In
this case, as with the ground nails, a rusting off rate is included as protection. However,
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since an optical inspection damage can be seen immediately and a replacement is easy
to install, therefore many builders do without additional corrosion protection for these
beams.
Fig. 3.121: Anchor design for a timber anchor wall
For a soil nail application, two types are used, each with several types are used. All
the soil nails of the respective company are indicated here, although usually only the
smaller diameter soil nails are used.
Fig. 3.122: Types and kinds of soil nails
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140 3 Excavations
These soil nails can now be used as temporary (up to 3 years) or permanent soil nails
can be used.
Fig. 3.123: rust off rates to be considered for soil nails (Austria)
The wall dimensioned in the example must now be transferred to the soil behind it
by means of anchors (soil nails). Since the construction is to be a permanent protection,
the soil nails must be added with rust off rate. This rust allowance must be taken into
account in accordance with the approval for soil nails. depending on the load and service
life.
The use of these shown rust off rates makes (British Standards) it now possible to
use the simple nails not only for temporary purposes, but also as permanent support
structures. Especially for more or less steep slopes the self-drilling soil nail can be
easily inserted into the subsoil.
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If necessary, hand drills can also be used if the use of machines is not possible. This is
especially in extremely steep terrain the case and the borists drill the soil nail with hand
drills while hanging on rope protections.
Fig. 3.124: rust off rates to be considered for structural steel (British Standards)
The timber anchor wall is particularly suitable in areas where access is difficult or
in remote situations. All construction materials and machines were transported by heli-
copter, so that there was no need to build access roads had to be made. In the terrain,
only the overgrown (manual work) and then the wall can be erected. Therefore, it can be
used very individually.
The inclination of the wall can be freely chosen between 45 degrees and 80 degrees.
The wall is usually produced in height sections of 2.5 - 4 m. It is possible to arrange
several walls with can be arranged among themselves with small offsets. This must be
taken into account in the corresponding partial calculation of the wall section.
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3.12 Krainerwall
The Krainerwall is a spatial lattice system laid out with wooden logs or precast con-
crete system that is filled with soil and is designed to function like a gravity wall. Some
details have to be taken into account to ensure the stability of the wall. The follow-
ing illustrations only show the systems, each company tries to distinguish itself from its
competitors by its own way designing their system with a better sales argument. The
differences in most cases can hardly be seen.
Fig. 3.125: System of the Krainer wall made of logs
The wooden krainer wall is mainly used for slope stabilization in near-natural hy-
draulic engineering and for slope stabilization in rural areas. First, an excavation is
made, into which the entire wooden lattice construction is inserted. The freely erected
wooden structure is filled with the soil or rock debris and thus obtains overall stability,
so that it acts as a retaining wall.
The life span of such wooden crawler walls is limited to 30 - 60 years, depending on
the treatment of the wood (painting or pressure impregnation). Wooden Krainer walls
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3.12 Krainerwall 143
are usually built into the natural slope without foundations and are therefore considered
soft shoring with mobility.
Fig. 3.126: System of the Krainer wall made of precast concrete elements
If the individual space grid elements are made of concrete or reinforced concrete,
walls can be built much higher, since statically almost any wall height can be realized.
Even the cross-section of the Krainer wall is changed with the height so that it can be
adapted.
Such walls are with professional production and laying almost unlimited. These space
lattice walls are usually placed on a concrete slab, but this can also be provided with a
deep foundation.
As already mentioned for the wooden tie wall, the entire area of the Krainer wall must
be exposed during the advance excavation. In most cases, temporary slope stabilization
is also necessary. Especially if the Krainer wall is to protect a slope on the valley side
from a traffic route and the traffic road is to be maintained during the construction period.
The necessary is then usually achieved with a nailed shotcrete wall as described under
the section on shotcrete walls.
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First of all, a concrete foundation is constructed which is appropriately reinforced. On

steep slopes, an additional deep foundation with GEWI piles or ductile driven piles has
proved helpful in order to avoid a possible deep sliding circle.
Fig. 3.127: Section through a Krainer wall at Weerberg Tirol
In the case of the slope situation shown, deeper slides were feared even before con-
struction which led to the foundation of the Krainer wall being carried out with ductile
driven piles. In this way it was possible to slip joint and the Krainer wall could be safely
founded.
In the section shown, it is also possible to see the main problem of using the Krainer
wall for sloping roads. The excavation for the wall extends into the the existing road,
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3.12 Krainerwall 145
so the work has to be carried out in very cramped conditions. It is particularly difficult
when during the construction of the Krainer wall, traffic has to run on the road, since this
is the only traffic connection. A temporary excavation support which absorbs the traffic
loads must then also be carried out.
Fig. 3.128: Foundation of the Krainer wall in Navis, Austria
In the above picture of the construction site of a Krainer wall you can see these
cramped conditions. The picture also shows the necessary temporary shoring to secure
the road and the foundation area of the Krainer wall, which was supported with GEWI
piles as deep foundation elements. The calculation of the Krainer wall is exactly the
same as that of a gravity wall in Section 3.4, so no explanation of the calculation is given
here.
Fig. 3.129: Finished Krainer wall in the Hochgenein Zillertal project
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146 3 Excavations
3.13 Nailed shotcrete

This type of slope stabilization is possible for temporary (construction conditions up to
3 years) and also permanent constructions.
3.13.1 Principle of production
The procedure is always carried out in small steps and the slope is thus continuously
constructed from top to bottom with securing.
Fig. 3.130: Working steps for soil nailing according to Ischebeck
The working method for soil nailing is section by section in individual fields. The
field sizes are selected according to the soil properties. The following steps are chosen:
• excavation in layers 1-2 m high and 2-5 m wide
• Cutting and fixing of reinforcement in the whole open field (mesh reinforcement)
• Application of shotcrete in the necessary thickness of 10-20 cm
• rilling and injection of self-drilling soil nails
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3.13 Nailed shotcrete 147
These steps are performed side by side with gaps until one layer is finished. Then
the next deeper level is tackled. This process is repeated until the full securing depth is
reached.
Fig. 3.131: Working steps for nailing at Weerberg, Tyrol
In the beginning, a wedge of earth is always left between the individual working areas
for securing purposes. Once the areas have been secured, the earth wedges are removed
and these still open areas are also secured. Only then the next excavation level is worked.
Fig. 3.132: Division of the fields for the calculation
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3.13.2 Calculation
In the calculation, the fields are defined first. The size of the field is selected so that
the earth pressure acting on the field can be transferred from a soil nail to the subsoil.
First the layer height and the width of the respective field is selected according to the
depth, whereby the widths in a layer are always the same.
In the following, an example of an approx. 8.6 m high wall with an 80 degree slope,
the individual calculation steps will be gone through in detail until all the required veri-
fications have been performed.
Fig. 3.133: Example data for a nailed shotcrete wall
The first step is to define the individual fields in the layers and to calculate the earth
pressure acting on them, whereby an average value is selected between the active earth
pressure and the resting pressure.
Subsequently, a choice is made between the usual types of soil nails such as Ischebeck,
Mai, IBO and GEWI as well as the corresponding steel grade of the respective soil nails
are selected. The cross-sections selected in each case and diameters, as well as the yield
load and the breaking load of the individual soil nails are specified.
In addition, it is defined here whether or not a rust off rate for the permanent state is
to be considered or not. This abrasion rate depends on the environmental load and the
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duration of use. An Austrian regulation (see Fig: 3.129) suggests here to take the corre-
sponding values from a table. In Great Britain, too, a similar rust off rate is proposed, so
that a European solution will certainly exist in the near future.
Fig. 3.134: Specification of the soil nails to be used (anchors)
Following the specification of the soil nails, these are now assigned to the individual
fields according to the force acting on the length of the individual soil nails is calculated.
Fig. 3.135: Assignment of soil nails and calculation of the respective nail length
The shotcrete shell is then calculated. The calculation is based on a point-supported

slab that is loaded uniformly. For this load case, there is an approximation method in the
standards to calculate the field and support moments with a rectangular column grid.
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Fig. 3.136: Approximation method for calculating the field and chord moments for
point-supported slabs
Fig. 3.137: Calculation of moments in shotcrete wall
This approximation method is used to calculate both the moments for the different
situations.
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Fig. 3.138: Design of the shotcrete wall and choice of reinforcement
With the subsequent design, the shotcrete thickness and the reinforcement to be used
are calculated. Thus, the shotcrete wall with the soil nails is calculated. The required
geotechnical verifications must now be carried out for this wall.
For the sliding analysis as well as for the overturning analysis and the analysis of the
safety against foundation fracture the entire wall with the nails is treated like a gravity
wall.
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152 3 Excavations
Fig. 3.139: Verification of the sliding safety of the nailed shotcrete wall
Fig. 3.140: Verification of the tilt resistance of the nailed shotcrete wall
In the case of the overturning check, it is only verified that the resulting force within
the core of the contact surface (middle third) intersects the invert surface and thus no
tensile stresses can occur in the invert joint. This is also necessary if the wall system is
to be considered as a single body.
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Fig. 3.141: Verification of the base failure safety of the nailed shotcrete wall
According to the standard, the coefficients for the base failure check are calculated
according to the angle of friction of the soil and the direction of the load application and
also the geometric boundary conditions.
Now the numerous verifications of various sliding joints must be carried out. First, a
slip joint is selected that extends from the upper terrain to an anchor position at the end
of the anchor and from there to the anchor head of the next deeper row of anchors, where
it reaches the surface.
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154 3 Excavations
Fig. 3.142: Proof of deep sliding over an anchor horizon ‚Äì system
Fig. 3.143: Verification of deep sliding above an anchor horizon - 1st and 2nd anchor
row
The calculation is now performed for each anchor row.
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Fig. 3.144: Evidence of deep sliding over an anchor horizon - 3rd and 4th anchor row
Fig. 3.145: Verification of deep sliding above an anchor horizon - 5th row of anchors
In the fifth and thus last row of anchors, the slip line then leads to the bottom of the
excavation. This means that the slip plane is considerably flatter and thus the safety
increases again.
In the next step, the new slip joint is extended from the ground surface to one anchor
end then to the next but one anchor row to the anchor head, so that an anchor is cut in
between approximately in the middle of its length.
With this type of cut, all anchor rows are now verified again, so that the verification
of the deep slip joint is now provided for all variants.
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156 3 Excavations
Fig. 3.146: Verification of deep slip over two anchor horizons - system
As shown in the system picture, the slip joint runs from the terrain to the end of the
first anchor row and then straight to the end of the second anchor row, to the anchor head
of the third anchor row, at which it enters the open.
Fig. 3.147: Verification of deep slip over two anchor horizons - system
For the calculation of safety, the forces are calculated in the direction of the slip joint
and the retaining forces (from friction and anchor) are compared with the driving forces
(from earth pressure). In the next step, the slip plane is lowered by one anchor row each
and the same verification is performed.
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Fig. 3.148: Verification of deep slip joint over two anchor horizons - 3rd and 4th anchor
Finally, the slip joint under the fifth row of anchors is led down to the bottom of the
excavation. and again the force comparison is carried out to determine the corresponding
safety. Once again, it can be seen that the safety in the lowest anchor level with a slip
joint to the bottom of the excavation reaches a higher safety value than in the sliding test
above.
Now that the classic verification of the deep slip joint, which extends to the back of
the anchors, has been carried out, the safety value in the lowest of the anchors has been
provided, a slip joint must still be calculated, which runs straight from the bottom of the
excavation to the slope line and intersects all anchor horizons. All anchors are calculated
according to the the remaining embedment distance behind the slip line are taken into
account with their skin friction.
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158 3 Excavations
Fig. 3.149: Proof of deep sliding over two anchor horizons - 5th anchor row
The next slip analysis is carried out over a straight slip plane that intersects all nail
planes.
Fig. 3.150: Proof of sliding with a straight slip line - System

In the system drawing for the straight sliding under an angle φ only one one anchor
is drawn. This is only meant to be symbolic, in the calculation of the sliding all an-
chor planes are of course fully considered. First the general input data for this glide are
shown, whereby here also the inclination of the anchors is given as angle w. Also shown
is the angle of the slip joint with respect to the horizontal is given as φ .
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Fig. 3.151: Determination of the effective nail length in each nail horizon
First, the nail lengths existing in the individual layers are determined, which extend
behind the slip plane. For this purpose, the geometrical length between the front of the
wall and the slip plane la is calculated in each layer, and then the projection of the anchor
l‚Äô beyond the slip plane.
Fig. 3.152: Nail force referred to 1 m excavation pit
With the length l’ of the soil nail extending beyond the slip joint, the friction and co-
hesion of the soil nails can be determined. The basic values are taken from the data given
in Figures 3.139 and 3.140 are used. This allows the adhesive force of the soil nails to
be calculated from friction and cohesion in the direction of the nail axis. Adding up all
the rows of nails, the sum of the nail forces over the entire slip plane is obtained.
The next step is to calculate some auxiliary quantities that are self-explanatory. After
that, the holding and driving forces are calculated along the sliding joint.
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160 3 Excavations
Fig. 3.153: Load data and determination of auxiliary quantities
Fig. 3.154: Calculation of driving and retaining forces
Fig. 3.155: Calculation of safety in the plane sliding joint
Finally, the safety of the sliding plane is determined and compared with the required
safety.
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A problem that often occurs with nailed shotcrete walls is that of in the close neigh-
borhood of roadway installations.
Fig. 3.156: Shift of the nailing plane due to underground installations
The soil nails cannot be installed according to the calculation, since they will then
interfere with the most diverse lines. The nails must have a minimum distance of 50 cm
from all lines (1.0 m for gas lines). It is no use, the nails must be installed deeper. To
absorb the earth pressure nailed rails are used to absorb the earth pressure above. These
can be made of prepared steel profiles as shown in the illustration or reinforcements are
integrated in the shotcrete, which are called pilaster strips.
In the area of the nailed rail, the shotcrete must have additional reinforcement on the
earth side to be able to absorb the moments. The nailed rail must be at least 1.0 m deeper
than the soil nails, so that the earth pressure absorbed by the rail to the subsoil again.
The static effect corresponds to that of a cradle beam.
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162 3 Excavations
3.13.3 Execution with structural steel mesh reinforced shotcrete
A number of practical examples will now be given to illustrate the use of the nailing
of the shotcrete wall.
Fig. 3.157: Shotcrete reinforced with mats and nailed in Brixen im Thale
In the confined area between the railroad and a body of water, a bypass road had to be
built. The excavation pit for the road, which was later led in a gallery had to be temporar-
ily secured with shotcrete reinforced with construction steel mats with ground nails. You
can see the field layout for the individual work steps. Also the reinforcement mats can
be seen when they are encroached upon. This is a mandatory mesh reinforcement that
the overlap of the individual reinforcement meshes between the work areas is observed.
The stripes under the nail heads come from the grouting process during the pressing
out the soil nails. There is always some anchor grout spillover that causes these color
streaks. In the case of temporary securing, one accepts this optical defect. In the case of
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permanent securing, the nail heads must also be injected. This is normally taken as an
opportunity to inject the entire shotcrete wall again with 2-3 cm of shotcrete. This also
creates an even surface that makes a good optical impression.
Fig. 3.158: Drained shotcrete reinforced with mats nailed in Kappl, Paznaun Valley
In the next example of an approx. 20 m high excavation pit protection in Kappl, Aus-
tria, for the new community center, drainage anchors were used for the first time, which
captured the incoming slope water deep in the slope and brought it to the surface without
pressure. The soil nails selected for this with a drainage mortar specially developed by
the Ischebeck company. The drainage mortar used proved to be quite permeable and has
and drained the slope water very well. Even in winter, because the water reached the
excavation before it solidified into ice.
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164 3 Excavations
3.13.4 Design with fiber concrete
An innovation in shotcrete shoring is the use of fiber reinforced concrete . This means
that steel reinforcement no longer has to be laid, thus saving one work step and the open
excavation is closed by force much faster.
3.13.4.1 Steel fiber concrete
Fig. 3.159: Shotcrete reinforced with steel fibers nailed in Patsch near Innsbruck, Austria
As can be seen in the picture of an approx. 12m high and 80 degree steep excavation
support relatively small working sections were chosen, since the soil consisted of sand,
which only allowed small openings. These working areas were in extreme cases only 60
cm high and 2 m wide. During the transition of the spray areas care was taken to ensure
that approx. 20 cm of the shotcrete overlapped, whereby this overlap was integrated at
an angle into the wall, so that a level wall surface was created. The nailing grid was not
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affected by this and it was therefore possible to produce this protection quite quickly.
The advantage of saving time and labor will make this type of embankment stabi-
lization be used more and more often. Fears regarding the insecurity and also the load-
bearing capacity of the steel fiber concrete with regard to the occuring moments to be
transferred from the earth pressure load case could not be confirmed. The calculations of
the dosage and the strength of the steel fiber concrete can be made with the book Fiber
Concrete [51].
In the next example of a shotcrete wall with steel fiber concrete, the last covering
shotcrete with 3 cm were used for corrosion protection for the anchor heads. The finished
surfaces were covered therefor with a normal shotcrete., so no steel fiber reached outside
the surface.
Fig. 3.160: Excavation pit bottom station inclined elevator Ehrenbreitenstein in Koblenz,
Germany
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166 3 Excavations
3.13.4.2 Plastic fiber concrete
After the steel fiber concrete had been used positively several times for shotcrete
shoring, the question arose as to whether shotcrete with plastic fibers could also be used
for this type of shoring. After a number of trials, a suitable process was found that
differed from normal shotcrete. The most important changes were:
• a special spray nozzle (allowing spraying at a distance of up to 1 m)
• prewetting of the sprayed material at least 4-5 m in front of the nozzle.
These innovations prevented the plastic fibers from being dispersed in all directions
by the air stream from the nozzle, but instead remained in the spray stream of the other
material, so that the fiber content was largely maintained on the wall.
Fig. 3.161: Spray test with plastic fibers
Extensive tests were carried out, which ultimately led to solutions that can also be
implemented in practice.
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Another problem that was feared was the spray joints. Even though these were pro-
duced in a transition width of more than 20 cm, it was initially difficult to understand
whether these joints could also take the tensile and bending loads. Several transition
joints were made and subsequently investigated by means of core samples.
Fig. 3.162: Joint formation in core specimens
As can be clearly seen in the pictures, the shotcrete bonds at the joints can be worked
out very well. Shear tests also showed no significant decrease in shear forces. in the
joint area, so that for the calculation this point does not have to be extra must be verified.
Fig. 3.163: Securing the ski depot in Fiss, Austria
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168 3 Excavations
In Fiss, the vertical securing of the excavation pit for the ski depot was successfully
up to a depth of 9m. The nailing grid was 1.60 m, and with this field size it was also pos-
sible to transfer the support and field moments resulting from the earth pressure could
be transferred without cracks.
Fig. 3.164: Securing at the Hotel Elisabeth in Ischgl, Austria
A particular challenge at the Hotel Elisabeth in Ischgl was the extension of the hotel to
the property line. The result was an excavation pit up to 16.5 m deep, which also had to
take into account a 4-story neighboring shoring. A nail wall with fiber shotcrete (plastic
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fiber Enduro HPP45) was used, with every third row of nails being prestressed. In this
way, the maximum deformation in the wall area was kept below 2 cm. could be achieved.
At the same time, an underground connection to an existing hotel was built in Ober-
lech. This tunnel began with the excavation of the new building and was driven horizon-
tally until it reached the basement of the existing hotel in a cellar of the existing hotel.
Fig. 3.165: Underground access tunnel in Oberlech, Austria
The tunnel was secured only with fiber shotcrete (plastic fiber Enduro HPP45) was
used. In view of the confined space conditions, the spraying distance of 1 m from the
nozzle to the wall. This could only be achieved with a special nozzle shape, which was
developed specifically for use with the plastic fiber.
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170 3 Excavations
The entire tunnel was completed within 3 weeks, and no cracks occurred in the over-
lying hotel due to any deformations. This shows that with this method there is a gentle
and also low-deformation procedure for the underground connection between buildings.
Fig. 3.166: Spraying work on the tunnel in Oberlech
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3.14 Comparison of different types of securing 171
3.14 Comparison of different types of securing
There are, after all, several types available for securing terrain jumps. The choice of
system depends on many criteria, which can differ greatly in situation. The following
is an attempt to compare the different securing systems for a road widening in sloping
terrain. Here, the details of the geotechnical the details of the geotechnical calculation,
but rather the construction process and the and the resulting costs.
Fig. 3.167: Section of existing road with desired extension
For a currently single-lane road in mountainous terrain, an extension to a two-lane

road with a width of 6.0 m on both the uphill and downhill sides. On the uphill side, the
road is to be widened by approx. 1.5 m and from there the terrain jump is to be secured.
On the downhill side, the road will be widened by 1.0 m and an additional 0.8 m of
shoulder will be provided.
As the road is the only access to a populated area, traffic must be maintained through-
out the construction period, with only a short traffic may be stopped for short periods
(max. 2 hours). This requirement enables that the widening can only be carried out on
one side at a time.
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172 3 Excavations
It will be started on the uphill side, because with the excavation immediately a widen-
ing of the road is possible and thus the construction traffic and the public traffic can be at
the same time. Two variants are being considered on the uphill side,which can be used
to support the slope.
Fig. 3.168: A mortared stone fill on the uphill side
In order to be able to construct the mortared stone backfill, an excavation pit has to be
which must be additionally secured. The depth of the foundation and thus the excavation
depends on the expected frost depth. For the temporary securing of the excavation pit,
a nailed shotcrete securing system is is used, which is produced first. Foundation work
and drainage of the slope side can then be started.
For the retaining wall to be built subsequently, the individual natural stones are laid
in such a way that they lie in line with the wall at the front and on the sides are fully
embedded in a mortar bed (dry concrete). This the required cross-section of the gravity
wall is achieved. In the process directly to the shotcrete wall so that no backfill space is
created.
In the present example, the temporary securing was selected vertically in order to keep
the cubature of the mortar as small as possible. However, it is possible to work with shal-
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lower slopes on the uphill side, so that an additional backfill can be used to reduce the
costs.
As a variant to the mortared stone infill, a precast wall is provided which which can be
moved quite quickly after the excavation of the terrain and thus also brings advantages
in terms of time during construction.
Fig. 3.169: Anchored precast wall on the uphill side
The working section for the production of the precast wall is selected in the length of
the day’s work. Only the part that can be completed on the same day is excavated. This
saves the need for temporary excavation support. First of all, a foundation is built with
dry concrete, onto which the precast element can be erected and aligned immediately
after excavation. The soil nails (usually 2 per element) are then drilled and mortared.
The anchor heads of the soil nails are installed immediately. The next day, the remaining
space between the panels can be backfilled and thus the precast wall is effective in this
area. The alignment of the road and the terrain can now be carried out.
The surface of the precast wall can be adapted to the wishes of the builder. All desired
structures are possible here. For the valley-side support of the extension, three different
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174 3 Excavations
variants are shown, which are quite common today.
For the valley-side support of the extension, three different variants are shown. which
are quite common today.
Fig. 3.170: A half bridge made of reinforced concrete on the valley side
In the case of the traditional half-bridge, which is constructed on the valley side, the
excavation pit must first be made. Because of the trafficability of the road above, the
excavation must be supported by temporary shoring. This is constructed as a nailed
shotcrete wall. The foundation can then be concreted and the drainage of slope water
can be carried out. Thereupon the rising concrete wall is constructed and the backfill is
installed. Only then can the cover structure be formed and concreted. Once the form-
work has been removed, the terrain in front of the half-bridge can be adjusted to the
construction.
If it is geotechnically necessary, it is possible to attach to the ground nails of the rising

wall from the slope bridge to the ground nails of the excavation support. However, if
this is used, the additional rusting of the soil nails must be taken into account.
The second variant is a Krainer wall, which can be built relatively quickly as a pre-
fabricated wall and thus also brings time advantages.
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Fig. 3.171: A Krainer wall on the valley side made of precast reinforced concrete ele-
ments
For the construction of a Krainer wall on the valley side, a temporary excavation
support consisting of a nailed shotcrete wall is absolutely necessary because of the traffic
loads. The concrete foundation and the necessary slope drainage can then be constructed.
The prefabricated parts of the Krainer wall are then moved and at the same time the
backfill of the Krainerwand is produced and compacted. Subsequently, the terrain at the
front of the Krainerwand will be leveled and a possible planting of the open spaces in
between the Krainerwand will be carried out.
Fig. 3.172: A wooden anchor wall on the valley side
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176 3 Excavations
From the road, which has already been widened on the uphill side, a small trench is
being of the wooden anchor wall, where the drainage will be installed and subsequently
the uprights of the wooden anchor wall will be installed. After the ground nails are
placed, the wooden beams are installed and fixed in their place. The wooden anchor
wall can then be backfilled the next day. With the backfilling, the road widening and the
new shoulder will be created.
Now that the construction sequence has been described for the individual variants, the
comparison of the costs of the variants must now be made. With only the costs for 1.0 m
of shoring are calculated and not the road connection and widening, which are the same
for all variants. Thus, only the different costs resulting from the variants are calculated.
The cost comparison for the variants is given, without being influenced by the addi-
tional road construction costs. The unit prices are average prices from the year 2019
from several construction sites, which were have been executed. The individual prices
from the various construction sites vary by about 20 percent, which is within the range
of the usual spread.
The costs are calculated in the same order as in the construction description was pro-
ceeded.
Fig. 3.173: Comparison costs of the stone finishing wall variant on the uphill side
In the case of the stone finishing wall, the excavation area must be secured, because
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the stone setting work with subsequent mortaring proceeds relatively slowly, so that a
temporarily secured slope support must be available for the work section.
Fig. 3.174: Comparison costs of the precast wall variant on the uphill side
In terms of the costs of uphill slope support, the precast wall has a clear advantage.
The main saving is the smaller excavation and the excavation support, which is not nec-
essary with the precast wall. This shows that with slope support on the uphill side has a
very large savings potential. If one proceeds skilfully, the costs can be reduced to almost
half. Therefore, it is very important to carry out a variant study already in the prelimi-
nary planning stage not only of the boundary conditions and construction processes, but
also of the costs as well.
Fig. 3.175: Comparison costs of the uphill variants
The half-bridge is probably the variant that poses the greatest difficulties in the con-
struction process. In particular, the space required for the construction of the upper
reinforced concrete slab makes it almost impossible to avoid disrupting traffic. There-
fore this variant has been pushed somewhat into the background in practice, however, it
is a benchmark in comparison to other options.
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Fig. 3.176: Comparative costs of the half-bridge downhill variant
As a comparison to the relatively costly half bridge, a Krainer wall made of precast
concrete elements is calculated in terms of cost.
Fig. 3.177: Comparison costs of the variant Krainer wall on the valley side
It is shown with the Krainer wall about the same expensive variant, but it still allows
for potential savings.
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Fig. 3.178: Comparison costs of the wooden anchor wall variant on the downstream side
With the wooden anchor wall, a very cost-effective variant has been found, which
should be taken into account in a comparison.
Fig. 3.179: Comparison costs of the valley-side variants
The compilation of the cost variants for the widening of the road on the valley side
shows a large difference between the individual options shown. Also here, as in the case
of the uphill support, the difference is between the cheapest and most expensive variant
with a saving of about 30 percent is given. This shows that an investigation of the
variants of terrain support can only be advantageous. The savings potential is currently
very large and should definitely be exploited.
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4 Securing spatial terrain slopes
All calculations for slopes shown so far assume very long slopes. The question now
arises, what actually happens in the case of limited slopes? Do the generally known
stress effects occur here? How can these be estimated? Does it make sense to investigate
these effects at all and to carry out own spatial calculations?
All these questions will be answered in the following nd the results obtained in prac-
tice will be described.
It should be noted in advance that the following considerations are only concerned
with the situation and all other verifications for the plane case are not considered. From
the author’s point of view, these have only a minor little influence on a spatial impact.
4.1 Simple theoretical consideration
First, a stable elongated slope is assumed into which a vertical support for an excava-
tion pit is to be produced.
So, a laterally limited part is removed from the slope and at the same time considers
what spatial influence this has on the stability of the new pit.

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182 4 Securing spatial terrain slopes
Fig. 4.1: Terrain with limited incision
Seen in section, there is now a risk of terrain breakage. This is verified with the
swedish circle method. The slip circle with the lowest safety is searched for. Accord-
ingly, several circles must be examined until the critical case is recognized.
Fig. 4.2: Slip circle for terrain failure
If we look now at the slip body spatially, we can see that the side surfaces are in
contact with the ground. At all contact surfaces with the subsoil, i.e. at the circular
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4.1 Simple theoretical consideration 183
surface and the two lateral surfaces a shear force can be transmitted due to friction and
cohesion.
Fig. 4.3: Spatial view of the slip circle body
Fig. 4.4: Terrain without slip circle body
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If we now look at the slip body itself, in addition to the usual calculation of forces of
a slip circle, the influence of the two side surfaces must also be taken into account.
Fig. 4.5: Slip circle body with lateral load
The earth pressure acts laterally on the slip body from both sides. This generates a
frictional force, which is applied to the retaining moments with the corresponding lever
arm of the respective slip circle.
However, the effect of the frictional force of the side surfaces depends on the width
of the sliding body. The wider the sliding body, the smaller the influence of the lateral
frictional forces.
In the next examples, the effects of this influence will be shown on the basis of prac-
tical examples to show the effects of this influence in each case.
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4.2 Spatial slope stabilization 185
4.2 Spatial slope stabilization
Two slope protections of terrain slopes are shown here, which have a simple geometry,
the terrain above is horizontal and loaded by structures or traffic.
4.2.1 Road protection for parking lot
Underneath a busy main road, a parking area was built. The road has been secured by
means of a road cutting system. The height of the terrain jump that had to be secured is
7.5m.
In the course of the calculation of the terrain stabilization it was determined from
which the securing width at which spatial bracing or redistribution of force takes place.
Fig. 4.6: Securing the terrain in Kirchbichl-Tyrol
In the following investigation for the estimation of the width effect five relevant slip
circles were examined.
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Fig. 4.7: Slip circles for the terrain jump in Kirchbichl
The theoretical width of the excavation pit was chosen in a generous range between
45 and 2 m. The lateral influence is clearly visible in the utilization of the slip circles.
Fig. 4.8: Influence of the width on the degree of utilization in Kirchbichl
If we look at the decrease of the utilization factor, the effect is as large for a pit width
of less than 15m, the effect is so big that it should be worthwhile to investigate this in-
fluence and to readjust the anchoring.
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This means that we have already reached an economic point that should be taken into
account, especially since from this width onwards, in the present case a more favorable
solution can be worked out.
4.2.2 Securing the excavation pit for a ski depot
In the winter sports resort of Fiss in Austria, a new ski depot was built in underground.
This required a relatively large and deep excavation pit, which was placed between the
existing structures. The height of the terrain jump that had to be secured is 8.7 m.
which width a spatial bracing or force redistribution has a growing influence.
Fig. 4.9: Terrain stabilization in Fiss-Tirol at a ski depot
For the estimation of the width influence, for five glide circle situations the calcula-
tions were carried out.
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Fig. 4.10: Slip circles for the terrain jump in Fiss
The theoretical width of the excavation was chosen in a generous range between 4 and
50 m. The lateral influence is clearly visible in the utilization of the slip circles.
Fig. 4.11: Slip circles for the terrain jump in Fiss
If we look at the decrease of the utilization factor, then at a pit width of less than 15m,
the effect is so large that it is worthwhile to investigate this influence and to read just the
anchoring. This means that we have already reached an economic point that should be
taken into account, especially since from this width in the present case a more favorable
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4.2.3 High slope stabilization for a hotel
In Meersburg on Lake Constance, a new hotel had to be built on the slope below the
castle. This required a relatively large and deep excavation pit, which was placed be-
tween the existing shoring. The height of the slope that had to be stabilized is 15 m. The
entire slope has a height of about 35m.
which width a spatial bracing or force redistribution has a growing influence.
Fig. 4.12: Meersburg excavation pit when excavation started
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A particular challenge was that one of the neighbors did not allow any underground
internals such as anchors and therefore a support for the excavation pit had to be pro-
vided.
Fig. 4.13: Meersburg finished excavation pit
In the following investigation, five significant glide circles were examined to estimate
the width influence.
Fig. 4.14: Slip circles for the terrain jump in Meersburg
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4.3 Implications for practice 191
The width of the excavation pit was chosen in a generous range between 150 and 5 m.
The lateral influence is clearly visible in the utilization of the slip circles.
Fig. 4.15: Influence of width on utilization in Meersburg
If one looks at the decrease of the utilization factor, then with an excavation pit width
width of less than 45 m, the effect is so great that it should be worthwhile to investigate
this influence and to readjust the anchoring to it.
This means that we have already reached an economic point that should definitely be
taken into account, especially as from this width in the present case a more favorable
4.3 Implications for practice
The examples given show that it is quite interesting to consider the influence of the
excavation width on the spatial bracing of the subsoil to be investigated.
If one compares the utilization rates for the respective excavation pit shoring, deter-
mined for a linear excavation to the maximum utilization rates for restricted excavations,
it is possible to recognize when an influence is given. The relationship becomes particu-
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larly clear if the maximum degree of utilization to a ratio of excavation width to shoring
height is plotted.
Fig. 4.16: Comparison of the degree of utilization to the ratio B/H
One recognized the decrease of the utilization ratio under a ratio of 4-5 already reaches
below 95 %. If one looks more exactly at the curves of the three examples, one recog-
nizes that a certain scattering of the values is given. The reason may be in the calculation
of the earth pressure, which depends on the square of the height.
Fig. 4.17: Comparison of the degree of utilization to the ratio B/H 2
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4.3 Implications for practice 193
If we now plot the maximum utilization factor against the ratio of the width to the
square of the height, similar curves are obtained for all construction sites, which show
only slight differences. These differences may be due to the different boundary condi-
tions of the individual examples. If we now look at the curves of the three construction
sites, we see that under the influence of the width of the excavation pit can be seen at a
ratio of B/H 2 = 0.2 recognizable. Therefore, the spatial influence should be recalculated
for each construction site that is below this value and, if necessary, the supporting means
of the slope or excavation shoring should be adapted to the spatial situation.
Particularly in inner-city construction, excavation pits often have a special constric-

tion. The ground plans must be adapted to the existing buildings. This often results
in very angular excavation pits. If these now must also extend somewhat deeper into
the subsoil, since the subterranean space is absolutely necessary for the use of the new
structure, this results in pits, as has already become the norm in Ischgl-Tyrol.
Fig. 4.18: Excavation pit between buildings in Ischgl
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5 Excavation Shoring
These are mainly used to secure excavation pits, as well as bank shoring and vertical
slopes.
Since the basic calculation is the same for all types of shoring and the most various
detailed calculations are carried out. This approach has also been followed consistently
in this book.
Fig. 5.1: Definition of excavation depth, shoring depth and calculation depth
First, the earth pressure on a shoring wall is calculated. Here, the earth pressure
according to Coulomb with its triangular distribution is determined layer by layer, on
the earth side, the active or increased active earth pressure is calculated to a sufficient
depth below the base of the excavation and the passive earth pressure on the excavation
side down to the same depth as on the earth side. The required depth of the shoring is
only determined in the course of the calculation, so that a generous depth should started.
Two different depths are suggested:

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196 5 Excavation Shoring
• Unanchored wall: Calculation depth approx. 2.2 * excavation depth.
• Anchored wall: calculation depth approx. 1.5 * excavation depth
The best way to show how the calculation works is to use a practical example. For a
6.5 m deep excavation pit with the soil stratification shown below.
Fig. 5.2: Section for excavation shoring (example)
In this example, there are three different soil layers, each of which is considered differ-
ently in the earth pressure calculation. In this situation no groundwater was encountered,
which makes the calculation quite simple. A 6.5 m deep excavation is planned. The pos-
sibility should be examined to additionally secure the excavation pit at a depth of 1.5 m
with anchors.
In the calculation of the active earth pressure side, the active earth pressure was in-
creased. This is a common specification for many geotechnical engineers, who also take
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the movement of the shoring into account. This increases the earth pressure coefficient
according to the following formula:
Kab = Kah + r ∗ (Ko − Kah ) (5.1)
Otherwise, the earth pressure is calculated normally according to Coulomb [50].
Fig. 5.3: Input data and active earth pressure on the soil side
The active part of the earth pressure is calculated up to the possible depth according
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to the relation, given at the beginning of this chapter. The wall friction angle δ used
depends on the type of shoring and is given for the different types of shoring.
Under the same conditions, the passive earth pressure is determined, whereby here a
reduction of the theoretical passive coefficient is applied.
Kp
Kph = (5.2)
η
Fig. 5.4: Input data and passive earth pressure on excavation side
The passive range is calculated only from the bottom of the excavation pit, because
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it is effective only from this depth. Subsequently, the two calculated earth pressures are
combined to form the resulting earth pressure that acts on the system.
Since there is no groundwater in this example, it is not taken into account. If ground-
water were present, the uplift space weight must be calculated in the corresponding
zones. Furthermore, the different water pressure on the shoring together with the earth
pressure. The difference between the active and passive sides of the water pressure and
passive side for the water pressure and add it to the total pressure.
Fig. 5.5: Resulting earth pressure on total system
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This total pressure is the basis for the further calculation of the shoring. Since the
earth pressure on the active side has much smaller numerical values than that on the
passive side, it is usual to use different scales for the resulting pressure, as is also shown
in the graphical representation.
Fig. 5.6: Graphic earth pressure representation in kN/m2 on the system
So far, the calculations are well understood. In the relevant literature [32], [33], [36],
suggestions are now being made for the distribution of earth pressure on the active side.
A large selection is given here, so that a large uncertainty arises in the application.
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Fig. 5.7: Earth pressure distribution according to EAB for excavation walls
For anchored or supported shoring, additional earth pressure distributions are given,
so that one is really confused.
Fig. 5.8: Redistribution of earth pressure according to EAB for anchored excavation
walls
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Looking at all these variants one is reminded of the comparison in chapter Introduction
and recognizes the hexagonal wheels of our geotechnical vehicle. However, there is no
point in making ironic observations as long as one does not give the user a guideline to
work with.
In my practice, two earth pressure shapes for the active earth pressure range have
proven to be quite reasonable in use.
• unanchored shoring: earth pressure figure as calculated according to Coulomb
• single or multiple anchored shoring: earth pressure redistribution in rectangular

shape.
First, the earth pressure of Coulomb is used for an unanchored wall and the equivalent
load is calculated for each layer in the calculation, which acts on shoring. For the equiv-
alent load, the point of application is also determined in terms of height. This results as
the center of gravity of the trapezoidal load. For a rough calculation, the center of the
layer can also be used for a rough calculation.
Fig. 5.9: Equivalent loads for unanchored shoring in [kN]
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The bar statics is used to determine the moments. In this case the moments are calcu-
lated from the outside to the inside. The moment on the outside axis 0 is Mo = 0.
At section 1 the moment is:
M1 = P1 ∗ a1 (5.3)
M2 = M1 + P1 ∗ ∆h + P2 ∗ a2 (5.4)
Fig. 5.10: Forces applied to a static beam
M3 = M2 + (P1 + P2 ) ∗ ∆h + P3 ∗ a3 (5.5)
And so on. The general formula for the determination of moments in a section i is
therefore:
Mi = Mi−1 + ΣPi−1 ∗ ∆h + Pi ∗ ai (5.6)
In this equation, the equivalent loads from the active side are considered as positive
forces, those from the passive side as negative forces.
With this relationship, the moments in the shoring are now calculated. This is done up
to a depth where the moment becomes negative. There it is aborted, since there are no
negative moments in a restrained wall. The shoring is also finished at this depth. Thus,
the calculation of the moments shown above, the calculated depth of an unanchored
shoring is determined.
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In our example, the maximum moment at a depth of 8.5 m was calculated with a value
of M1 7 = 746 [kNm]. The total depth of the shoring was determined as 11.0 m from the
moment calculation.
At the bottom end of the shoring, the restraining force C must still be taken into
account which can be calculated from the condition ΣH = 0. In our case, this results in
716 kN. To ensure that this force can also be applied on the active side, the embedment
depth of the shoring is increased by a factor of 1.2 according to the relevant literature
[8]. Thus, the embedment depth for the present case is then:
t = 1.2 + x = 1.2 ∗ (11fl6.5) = 5.4 [m] (5.7)
The shoring must then be produced with this embedment depth. In this respect for the
different types of shoring, there are additional suggestions for the actual shoring depth,
which is also described for each type of shoring.
Fig. 5.11: Moment calculation for unanchored shoring
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The result of the calculation is shown graphically in the next figure. It can be seen
that the maximum moment is generated below the bottom of the excavation that is, in
the non-visible area of the shoring.
Fig. 5.12: Graph of moments with unanchored shoring
The maximum moment with M17 = 746 [kNm] is relatively high and a massive struc-
ture is required to absorb this moment. The design of these moments is carried out in
the respective shoring types. Furthermore the deformation of the shoring caused by the
moments is also discussed.
In order to achieve much smaller moments, the shoring is anchored. The changes that
occur in this process are shown here by way of example.
First, the earth pressure is converted from the calculation according to Coulomb on
the active side into a rectangular (uniform) earth pressure. With the equivalent loads are
also recalculated according to the redistributed earth pressure. Thus, with a total active
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earth pressure of Ea = 185 [kN] and the height of the actively loaded shoring of h = 6.85
m, the result is a uniform earth pressure of:
Ea 185
ea = = = 27 [kN/m2 ] (5.8)
h 6.85
This earth pressure is now used for the anchored shoring on the active side. On the
passive side, the values determined from Coulomb’s earth pressure remain in place in
terms of magnitude and distribution.
Fig. 5.13: Total earth pressure converted to a rectangular shape for the anchored shoring
in the example
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The earth pressure distribution determined for the anchored shoring is shown in the
following figure. Please note the different force scale between the active (right) and pas-
sive (left) sides.
Fig. 5.14: Equivalent loads for anchored shoring in [kN]
With these equivalent loads, the moment distribution can now be determined again.
First calculate the moment distribution without the anchors for the wall. Because of the
redistribution of earth pressure, other moments are obtained as for the unanchored wall.
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The moments are only completely reduced at a depth of 11.0 m and reach the value
0. The maximum value of the moments is reached at a depth of 8.5m and reaches the
moment M = 835[kNm].
Fig. 5.15: Moment calculation first without anchorage with earth pressure redistribution
Now the shoring depth and the position of the anchorage or bracing are selected.
These two data are changed until an optimum solution for the shoring is found. The op-
timum solution for shoring is desired that the moments along the shoring are of similar
magnitude. This is of great advantage for the dimensioning of the cross sections. There-
fore, the depth and the anchor position are changed until similar moments are found in
the wall, the field and the restraint in the ground.
Differences in moments can also be specified, if, for example, the anchor heads have
to be sunk in a pile wall or diaphragm wall. In this case, for example, only 80 percent of
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the normal moment can be applied in the anchor area.
Fig. 5.16: Details of the shoring unit and anchor horizon
The moment distribution is placed next to the new section and explored, which mo-
ment is present at the lower edge of the selected shoring.
Fig. 5.17: Section through shoring with anchor and moment line
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In our example, there is a moment of M8.5 = 835 [kNm]. If the end of the shoring is
located at this depth, this moment must become 0. For this purpose, a counter moment
must be created which cancels the existing moment. This moment is created by an an-
chor force to be introduced.
In Figure 5.16, the distance of the anchor force from the bottom edge of the shoring
is entered as h. The moment of the anchor force to the end of the shoring is then:
Ma = A ∗ h (5.9)
If this moment is equated with the moment of the unsupported wall at a final depth of
8.5 m, the anchor force can be determined:
M8.5 835
A= = = 129 [kN jm2 ] (5.10)
h 6.5
This anchor force can now be used in the calculation of the shoring wall to determine
the respective anchor moment at the calculation height and subtract it from the moment
of the moment of the non-anchored wall.
Mt = Mo,t flMa,t (5.11)
This increases the moment in the shoring taking into account the anchor position.
Below the bottom edge of the shoring, the moments are no longer relevant. Therefore,
in the following calculation, the anchor moment is equated with the original moment
and then moment and then subtracted from the moment without anchor.
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Fig. 5.18: Calculation of the moment line with anchor
Fig. 5.19: Graph of moments with simply anchored shoring
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If we look at the moment line, we see that the moments are considerably lower than in
the case of the free-standing shoring wall. In our case the largest moment has fallen from
746 kNm to 54 kNm, which is less than 10 percent of the moment load of the anchored
to the unanchored wall. This already shows that it is economical to produce an anchored
wall as shoring.
In the case of a multiple-anchored wall, the anchor forces can no longer be found
so easily. The system is then one to several times statically indeterminate. The anchor
forces must therefore be searched for using a calculation method such as the rotation
angle method. In this case, the anchor forces are calculated as forces and the earth
pressure forces are assumed to be the load acting on the member, and thus the support
forces and the moment distribution are determined.
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5.1 Sheet pile wall 213
5.1 Sheet pile wall

Sheet pile walls are used to secure the terrain of excavations and trenches, and today
are almost exclusively produced as steel sheet piles. Only an overview of the profiles is
given here, but this may be sufficient for calculations, if more precise sheet pile data is
required, it can be found in the manuals of the manufacturing companies [39], [1].
Common structural steel grades according to EN 10025 are used:

S 235 JRC (1.0120)
S 275 JRC (1.0128)
S 355 JRC (1.0551)
No special corrosion protection is provided for sheet piling. It is assumed a annual
corrosion rate in air/soil of approx. 0.01 mm/year and in freshwater and seawater of
approx. 0.03 mm/year.
Fig. 5.20: Sheet pile profiles for use in excavation pits
For excavation pits and underpasses, the first two profile types are usually used from
the companies Hoesch, Arbed, Krupp, Peiner and Larssen.
Fig. 5.21: Sheet pile profiles for use in trenches and trenches
For trench protection, the flat section and trench sheeting of the same companies as
the sheet piles are used. The following are the common profiles and their static values
for a design are given.
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Fig. 5.22: Sheet pile profiles in U-shape
Fig. 5.23: Sheet pile profiles in Z-shape
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Fig. 5.24: Sheet pile sections as lightweight form
Fig. 5.25: Sheet pile sections as flat form
Fig. 5.26: Channel profiles
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Sheet pile walls are predominantly stressed in bending. The calculated bending mo-
ment must be absorbed by the sheet pile profile. The design is carried out according to
the formula:
M M
σ= Wreq = (5.12)
W σ
Here, the safety values must be incorporated accordingly. With the calculated the
required section modulus, the sheet pile wall is selected from the specified sheet piles.
Both the calculated and the specified moment of resistance are always given per meter
of sheet pile.
In many cases, the sheet pile wall is braced. This bracing can be either by means
of supports placed inside the excavation pit or by means of anchors in the soil behind
the sheet pile wall. This reduces the moments in a sheet pile wall, as already shown in
section 5 above.
Fig. 5.27: Chords in a sheet pile wall
The calculated anchor force is decisive for the dimensioning of the waling. The mu-
tual distance e between the anchors is selected for design reasons. Thus, the horizontal
anchor force Ah to be derived can be compared with the calculated anchor force A ac-
cording to equation 5.10.
Ah = A ∗ e (5.13)
Depending on the necessity resulting from the subsoil stratification, the anchor may
have to be inclined. In this case, the inclination a of the anchor must be taken into
account and the longitudinal force acting in the anchor is then:
Ah
Aa = (5.14)
cosα
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In principle, two different types of anchors are used in the soil.
Fig. 5.28: Possible bar anchors
Bar anchors are usually installed up to lengths of 12m. However, it is difficult to

handle the long rods and therefore strand anchors are preferred on most construction
sites.
Fig. 5.29: Possible strand anchors
Both bar anchors and strand anchors are inserted into a cased borehole and then
grouted with anchor grout. With both systems, both temporary and permanent anchors
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can be used. The permanent anchor differs from the temporary anchor in that the anchor
rod or the full length of the tie rod or strands, which provides double corrosion protec-
tion.
These anchors usually have a friction free area and an adhesive section. This is
achieved by that a smooth tube is slid over the ribbed tube, so that there is no adhe-
sion with the substrate can occur in this area.
This completes the design of a sheet pile wall.
Fig. 5.30: Anchored sheet pile wall in Brixen im Thale, Austria
The anchored sheet pile wall shown was built in the course of the construction of a
railway underpass in Brixen im Thale in Tyrol in a soft subsoil.
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5.2 Soldier pile wall 219
5.2 Soldier pile wall
As a pure excavation shoring, which is removed again after the construction of the
underground structure, the soldier pile wall is being used less because of the high cost
of erection. The soldier pile wall consists of 3 or 4 elements:
Fig. 5.31: System of soldier pile shoring
Vertical bearing elements: For this purpose, I-beams (wide flange beams) are usually
placed in holes, which are refilled with sand. The spacing of the beams can be chosen
between 1.5 and 2.5 m. The entire earth pressure has to be absorbed by these beams.
Horizontal supporting elements: Excavation is carried out in layers of 50 - 100 cm.

The excavation height depends on the free stability of the subsoil. After excavation, a
horizontal supporting element (wood, steel) is introduced.
Fixing element: The horizontal supporting elements are fixed to the ground by means
of wedges or other special fixing elements to the vertical beams. The method of fixing
should be secure, but it should be possible to release it under force.
Anchoring or bracing: In order to keep the overall formation of the wall within limits,
one or more bracings are chosen in most cases. The bracing can of course also be made
in the form of ground anchors.
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Depending on the method of work and the working material, the girder plank walls
are designated differently but without changing the basic system. Otherwise there are:
• Berlin shoring
• Hamburg shoring
• Munich shoring
• Essen shoring
The soldier pile wall is calculated using the method that is used for all shoring projects.
5.3 Pile wall
Today, in-situ concrete bored piles are almost exclusively used to secure the excava-
tion. The diameter ranges from 40 cm to 1.5 m. The piles can be installed in various
arrangements, depending on the structural necessity.
Fig. 5.32: Pile wall systems
They can be used not only for the load case of excavation support, in most cases, the
pile walls are also used for the foundation of the structure at the same time. Thus, an
economic efficiency of the application is quite given. Of particular interest is the fact
that this structure, based on its dimensions, this construction is a very low-deformation
shoring system. This is often very important for inner-city excavations.
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5.3 Pile wall 221
Fig. 5.33: Anchored dissolved pile wall in Steyr, Austria
Fig. 5.34: Pile wall with support ledger in Rum near Innsbruck
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A special feature of cast-in-place concrete piles is the drainage pile. Here, instead of
concrete in the lower section of the pile drainage concrete is installed.
Fig. 5.35: Drainage pile after removal with filter concrete and normal concrete
Thus, in addition to its static load-bearing effect, the pile can also perform the task of
water conduction in the form of drainage. Thus lowering of the groundwater is possible
with a pile wall without the use of wells is possible.
Fig. 5.36: Drainage pile after removal with filter concrete and normal concrete
The use of the drainage pile not only brings cost savings but also space savings, be-
cause the construction of wells can be dispensed with, since it is already integrated in
the necessary piles.
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5.4 Diaphragm wall 223
5.4 Diaphragm wall
This is a wall, that is built from the ground downwards. For this purposes slits are
excavated in the subsoil. This exposure of the slits is done with:
• Diaphragm wall grab on cable excavator (for all soil types)
• Diaphragm wall cutter with rod guidance (for large diaphragm wall areas)
• Suction basket on the dredger (for fine-grained soils)
A supporting liquid is filled into the slit to prevent the side walls from collapsing. This
supporting liquid must absorb the earth pressure acting into the slit. For this purpose,
a natural clay (montmorillonite ) is used, which has special properties (tixotropy). This
natural clay is processed and is commercially available under the name of bentonite.
Bentonite is a clay that has an extremely large specific surface area (200 - 800 [m2 /g]).
As a result, it has a particularly high binding capacity with water. This is reflected in
the plasticity of bentonite. It can bind water up to 6 - 8 times its of its own weight and
can still be described as solid. Only then does the plastic phase begin, which, at 16 - 20
times its own weight water binding, it changes into the liquid phase. In the transition
between plastic and liquid state, the suspension exhibits tixotropic behavior. This means
that in the agitated state the suspension is a liquid and when it is stationary for a certain
time, the suspension becomes plastic, i.e. it can absorb shear stresses. This means that
the suspension behaves in the same way as yogurt products also exhibit.
Furthermore, the extremely low permeability of the suspension with 10−10 to 10−12
m/sec is remarkable; this material can therefore be described as dense.
If this bentonite is now mixed with water at the yield point as a suspension into the
open slit, the excavator can work almost freely in the slit. The supporting liquid in the
slit does not hinder its work. The slurry penetrates a few cm into the exposed subsoil and
comes to rest due to its higher viscosity compared to water. Thus, a relatively thin zone
is created, which consists of a dense plastic material. This zone is called "filter cake".
This filter cake now causes a complete separation between the soil and the slit. Thus that
the suspension pressure from the slit counteracts the earth pressure from the soil side.
Via the water-bentonite mixing ratio the slurry can be adjusted in such a way that it acts
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as a supporting liquid for very deep slits. Slits up to a depth of 100 m have already been
very successfully produced in Austria.
5.4.1 Production
Before starting the slotting work, a guide wall must first be built on both sides of the slit
to provide guidance for the excavator’s grab. At this guide wall, the grab is calmed in its
rotational movements and also receives a guide itself, so that a vertical slit is created.
Fig. 5.37: Diaphragm wall excavator in operation
The bentonite slurry is filled into the open slit in order to protect the open slit against
soil pressure that is caving in. The excavator now excavates a slit of the specified width
(from 2.8 to 8.40 m) to the final depth. The bottom of the open slit is then desanded, as
the low-lying supporting liquid has become enriched with sand. The reinforcement cage
is then installed and fastened to the guide wall so that it does not reach the bottom edge
of the diaphragm wall. Now the concrete can be placed. This is done with a concreting
pipe (pouring pipe). The concrete is introduced through the pipe to such a depth that it
penetrates into the fresh concrete below the respective concrete surface. Thus, there is
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only one concrete surface that comes into contact with the supporting liquid above it and
can mix slightly.
Fig. 5.38: Production chamfers of the diaphragm wall
As shown in the previous figure, the individual slits are made in the sequence indi-
cated, so that at the end concrete is always poured into a wall gap. This method is used
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until the entire wall has been made and thus closed. Seen in plan diaphragm wall ele-
ments are either butted together or joined with a joint construction. If the diaphragm wall
is not required to be watertight the individual elements are excavated and then concreted
in the full cross-section. This then results in a somewhat rough side surface, to which
concrete is then poured from the neighboring element.
Fig. 5.39: Simple joint formation with a butt joint
If the finished diaphragm wall has to be impermeable to groundwater, the joint be-
tween the individual elements, a joint construction must be installed. A large number of
joint constructions are offered by the various companies, each of which has advantages
and disadvantages. Here only one possibility is described, which has been positively
accepted for many years and can also be used independently of the company.
The simplest and also most frequently used construction is the joint pipe. It is placed
in the first slit on both sides during concreting, so that a semicircular joint is created. Af-
ter the concrete has set the joint tube is pulled out and the adjacent element is excavated.
The neighboring element is now concreted against this semicircular, relatively smooth
joint. The result is a joint with a semicircular shape, which not only has a clear ele-
ment transition but also absorbs additional forces transverse to the joint. This provides a
certain lateral connection between the individual diaphragm wall elements.
Fig. 5.40: Simple joint formation with a butt joint
If an additional sealing function is required for these joints, the most tapes are usually
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installed along the joint, with the swelling tapes in particular showing a positive result.
5.4.2 Open slit
The open slit is stabilized with a supporting liquid, whereby this supporting liquid
penetrates the surrounding soil for a few cm and then, as a result of its intrinsic viscos-
ity, it does not penetrate any further. This creates a sealing skin in the first few cm, which
is pressed towards the soil by a supporting liquid. The pressure of the supporting liquid
must now be greater than the pressure exerted by the the soil into the open slit.
Fig. 5.41: Fracture body according to Piaskowsky and Kowalewsky (DIN 4126)
Since the slit is laterally limited, no plane earth pressure occurs, but rather a reduced
pressure. Here, the fracture body of Piaskowsky and Kowalensky according to the figure
above. The plan view and section of the fracture body is shown in the next figure.
Fig. 5.42: Fracture body according to Piaskowsky and Kowalewsky - plan and section
In principle, a planar earth pressure calculation is used in which the earth pressure
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ordinates are determined, whereby these ordinates are multiplied by a reduction factor
for the reduction of the earth pressure. This factor depends on the friction angle of the
soil and the relative depth of the earth pressure calculation.
Fig. 5.43: Reduction factor according to Piaskowsky and Kowalewsky for earth pressure
calculation
For calculation depths above groundwater up to a depth of tw applies:
eah = γ ∗ z ∗ Ka ∗ fa (5.15)
Below this depth, the earth pressure coordinate is to be calculated according to the fol-
lowing approach:
eah = [γ ∗ tw + γ 0 ∗ (z − tw ) ∗ Ka ∗ fa (5.16)
Here Ka is the earth pressure coefficient according to Coulomb.

ϕ
Ka = tan2 (45 − ) (5.17)
2
The calculation is demonstrated by means of a practical example for a diaphragm wall
construction site (University hospital in Innsbruck):
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Fig. 5.44: Geometry of the diaphragm wall
According to the geometrical data, the individual soil layers of the existing subsoil
together with the corresponding layer thicknesses and soil properties, such as density,
friction angle and cohesion.
Fig. 5.45: Soil layers with properties
In the case of an open slit, a construction road is directly adjacent, which must also be
considered by the load on the slot. Therefore, as a load on the soil, a surface load at a
distance of 2 m to 6 m is additionally introduced into the calculation.
Fig. 5.46: Loading of the open slit
With these basic data, the earth pressure on the soil side can now be calculated ac-
cording to the Coulomb method. First, the normal earth pressure is calculated with the
specified loads for the plane case. Only in the next step, the reduction due to spatial
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bracing is taken into account.
Fig. 5.47: Earth pressure coordinates according to Coulomb
The diaphragm wall depth is then divided into calculation steps, so that in the earth
pressure according to Coulomb can be given in each of the individual. Now that the
depth ratio has been determined for each specified depth, the associated reduction factor
fa can be taken from the graph. This reduction factor is now used to calculate the earth
pressure coordinate according to equation 5.15 or 5.16.
Now the total earth pressure up to the respective layer can be determined. Then the
earth pressures of the individual layers are added up, and the total reduced earth pressure
is determined for each calculated height coordinate.
Fig. 5.48: Earth pressure in the calculation steps with reduction
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Fig. 5.49: Supporting force of the suspension in the calculation steps with safety of the
open slit
A graphical overview of the distribution of the safety over the depth is given in the
following figure.
Fig. 5.50: Graph of the safety of the open slit
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As can be seen in the graph, directly below the baffle the safety is the smallest. This
comes from the adjacent road load. It is the minimum permissible safety value of 1.1 is
not undercut.
5.4.3 Vertical force transfer
A frequent requirement for diaphragm walls is the subsequent integration of floor

slabs. This is particularly difficult for the reinforcement, because the reinforcement cage
deforms when it is inserted into the slot, so that the exact location of connecting rein-
forcement is not possible. Therefore, for the diaphragm wall, which can be removed after
excavation of the diaphragm wall has been excavated. The necessary floor reinforcement
can then be laid, which can also be inserted into the diaphragm wall reinforcement.
Fig. 5.51: Slab design for diaphragm walls
5.4.4 Horizontal forces and moments
The diaphragm wall is designed according to the criteria for reinforced concrete. To
is to pay particular attention to the fact that unreinforced areas are created at the joints,
the load of which must naturally be transferred to the reinforced element parts. Thus, in
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the case of diaphragm walls - as is usual in reinforced concrete construction - the rein-
forcement can also be adapted to the moment profile. Particular attention must be paid
to the size and weight of the reinforcement cages, which also have to be installed on the
construction site. It is quite common, for example, that because of weight, 2 - 3 rein-
forcement cages are installed in an open slit. It is also quite common for reinforcement
cages to be lengthened because of the large weight.
5.4.4.1 Testing of diaphragm wall elements
During the construction of diaphragm walls, it is necessary to carry out a number of

checks on the construction site on an ongoing basis. First and foremost, attention must
be paid to the production of the open diaphragm. The supporting liquid must be checked
continuously, especially directly on the construction site. At any time, the tixotropic
properties and also the density of the suspension must be prooved at all times. Only in
this way can be ensured that the slit is also open without danger.
When placing the underwater concrete, care must be taken to ensure that the pouring
pipe is always under the rising concrete surface, so that only a small layer of concrete
is mixed with the the suspension above. Of course the ongoing site tests of the concrete
must also be carried out here.
5.4.4.2 Application examples
There are countless possible applications for the diaphragm wall. It is one of the best,
but also most expensive deep foundation elements. However, since they can also be ex-
cavation shoring, the cost-effectiveness is given. In addition there is also the possibility
of making the diaphragm wall tight. With this an additional interior basement wall can
then be dispensed with.
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Fig. 5.52: Securing the excavation pit with a diaphragm wall
In the execution, such a diaphragm wall has the following appearance from the view
of the exposed excavation the diaphragm wall will look as follows.
Fig. 5.53: Anchored diaphragm wall of Innsbruck University Hospital
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Another example are underground structures which, without diaphragm wall technol-
ogy, would only be built using much more difficult construction methods.
Fig. 5.54: Application of diaphragm wall technology in subway railroad construction
A particularly interesting extension of the diaphragm wall is the integration of drainage

elements into the diaphragm wall element.
Fig. 5.55: Area distribution of the use of a drainage wall
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Fig. 5.56: Construction of a drainage wall
The effect of the drainage wall in case of a necessary lowering of the groundwater
level can be seen in the next figure. The groundwater level is not only on the inside
of the excavation pit, but also on the outside lowered. This can cause difficulties for
neighboring buildings. It pump a relatively large amount of water, since groundwater is
also pumped from outside the excavation pit.
Fig. 5.57: Effect of GW drawdown on a drainage wall
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It is therefore advantageous if the drainage elements are used only within the exca-
vation pit. Then only the groundwater within the excavation pit is pumped out and the
water level outside the excavation pit remains almost the same.
Fig. 5.58: Effect of GW drawdown with a one-sided drainage wall
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5.5 Cutting wall
In 2004, Bauer succeeded in combining the best of two existing methods (diaphragm
wall and SoilMix). The cutting wheels of the Trench Cutter system have already proven
their worth many times. These cutter wheels were combined with the Soil Mixing prin-
ciple and the new Cutter-Soil-Mixing (CSM process) for the production of a cutting wall
was born.
Fig. 5.59: Cutter head for the CSM system
The CSM system consists of a milling head with two cutter wheels. In the the center
of the cutter head, between the wheels, a suspension (bentonite suspension) is pressed
in. This results in a homogeneously mixed mass into which the cutting head can easily
penetrate into the soil with its own weight. When the feeding cup is pulled, cement paste
is pressed in, to which fibers can also be mixed in.
The result is a wall made either of concrete (the soil is used as an aggregate) or fiber-
reinforced concrete. In addition, each wall element can be either a steel profile or a
reinforcement cage can be vibrated into each wall element.
The use of synthetic fibers produces a wall that can also absorb bending moments and
is therefore very suitable for use on harbor walls, since fiber-reinforced concrete cannot
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5.5 Cutting wall 239
corrode, which is always a major problem in coastal construction.
Fig. 5.60: Principle of wall construction of a cutter wall
The production of a cutter wall starts with odd lamellae. After the odd lamellae have
cured (approx. 1 day), the even lamellae are cutted. This achieves an optimal mutual
connection of all lamellae and thus the the stability of the surrounding ground is ensured.
During the production of the individual slots, it is absolutely necessary to check the entire
process. It has become common practice that the following parameters are constantly
monitored:
- Depth of the milling head
- inclination of the milling rod
- advance speed or time
- Torque on the milling wheels
- Injection pressure
- Injection flow rate
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Fig. 5.61: Control functions during production
Fig. 5.62: Protocol for the production of a wall lamella
The advantages of a cutting wall are best demonstrated in inner-city projects. A cut-
ting wall is constructed completely free of vibration and settlement, which minimizes
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5.5 Cutting wall 241
the risk to sensitive neighboring buildings. In addition, this method is very quiet, which
minimizes the nuisance to residents. The cutter wall is a relatively rigid retaining wall, so
bending/displacement is very low. During the process, the material is mixed exclusively
with the existing soil and therefore this soil is also a part of the construction material
of the of the cutter wall. By varying the addition of the cement suspension and also of
fibers, the flexural strength of the wall can also be adjusted.
Fig. 5.63: Milled wall as anchored excavation support
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The fact that hardly any residue is produced during manufacture makes the cutter wall
process faster and more sustainable than comparable conventional systems.
Since the cutting head moves downwards on a leader, the process is extremely accu-
rate. Compared to conventional systems, such as sheet pile walls and Berlin shoring, the
cutter wall involves only minimal work risks. In addition nuisance caused by noise and
transport is kept to a minimum.
Fig. 5.64: Rectangular and polygonal cut-off wall for shaft construction
The main advantages of a cut-off wall compared to similar systems are:

- high productivity compared to a diaphragm wall
- the existing soil can be used constructively
- low wastage (sustainable)
- completely vibration-free
- noise-reduced
- can be used in hard ground
- good quality control
- less nuisance
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6 Underpinning
In inner-city areas, it is becoming more and more common to build directly on the
neighbor building. The new foundation is usually deeper than that of the existing struc-
ture. The foundation of the neighboring structure must be moved deeper and in the
course of this foundation relocation, the space in between also has to be excavated. This
means that excavation shoring has to be installed under the existing neighboring foun-
dation.
Depending on the production method, a distinction is made between different types of
underpinnings. They vary considerably in their production and also in the deformation
of the structure at the neighboring of the adjacent structure.
For all underpinnings, the movements of the existing structure must be measured.
Here, a measuring device has proven to be useful, in which a slider is along a scale and
the measuring mark is read off and noted at intervals.
Fig. 6.1: Measuring device for measuring structural cracks
With the vernier graduation engraved on the tongue, the measurement can be per-
formed to an accuracy of 0.1 mm. Thus, a sufficient accuracy is given and also the time
sequence of deformations can be clearly traced.

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244 6 Underpinning
In general, underpinning is only to be used with materials of high strength because

materials such as wood and masonry show too much deformation, which are no longer
acceptable today.
6.1 Conventional concrete discs
When underpinning with individual concrete discs, the subgrade is opened in slits, the
formwork installed and concreted out as quickly as possible. This is done in sections
specified by the standard. With this method underpinning down to 3.0 m is possible. For
greater depths, other methods must be used.
Fig. 6.2: Underpinning of a wall according to DIN 4123
Conventional underpinning normally causes settlements in the range of 1 - 3 cm. This

is due to the difficulty of connecting the joint between the concrete underpinning and
the existing foundation is not completely and the concrete is usually loaded relatively
recently. The joint can only be grouted with great difficulty and therefore the defect that
causes deformations is generated is very uncertain.
Therefore, this type of underpinning is very regressive in its application.
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6.2 Nailed shotcrete

Due to the relatively quick processing of individual shotcrete fields, the nailed shotcrete
wall is also suitable for the underpinning of structures. A prerequisite, however, is
a short-term stability of the underground without immediately showing deformations.
Soils with a low cohesive fraction are very well suited for the application of this method.
The processing of an open field can be done in 5 minutes, if the prepared the reinforce-
ment and immediately after uncovering it by the excavator and starts spraying. Since the
shotcrete can absorb force after only a few minutes, the deformation of the soil is very
small.
Deformations of 0.5 to 1.5 cm are assumed for this method.
Fig. 6.3: Underpinning in the village area of Ischgl, Austria
The individual fields are selected in height sections of approx. 1.5 m and in widths
between 2 and 4 m, depending on the stability of the subsoil. The spacing of the nailing
is usually chosen to be somewhat closer than for shoring outdoors. Especially in the case
of inner-city properties, the space for shoring is often very limited. Here, with the nailed
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246 6 Underpinning
shotcrete wall any geometric shape can be done.

There is also the possibility to embed deeper foundations laterally into the shotcrete of
the underpinning. For this purpose, connection bars similar to dowels are drilled into the
foundations and grouted. This gives the shotcrete a rigid connection to the foundations.
When dividing the field, additional care must be taken to ensure that the foundation level
also represents a shotcrete level and that is below a foundation, the working fields may
only be opened on one side at a time to avoid settlement of the foundations.
A particularly illustrative example for the integration of foundations underpinning with
nailed shotcrete is shown in the following figure, in which an excavation for an under-
ground parking garage was constructed.
Fig. 6.4: Underpinning of the Franciscan monastery in Innsbruck
In general, it is important that all open areas are closed as quickly as possible and that
the soil nails are inserted immediately after the shotcrete. The neighboring field must not
be touched up until one day at the earliest in the case of use of rapid cements, otherwise
after 3 days. Thus the deformations that occur are kept to a minimum.
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Deformations of 0.5 to 1.5 cm can usually be expected. At with a brick construction,

small cracks of up to 3 mm can be expected. If the foundation is made of concrete or
reinforced concrete, an internal load redistribution is possible, so that in many cases no
cracks occur.
Fig. 6.5: Underpinning of the Schwaz hospital with heliport with steel fiber concrete
In order to shorten the time during which the individual working fields are exposed, a
steel fiber concrete was used instead of the reincorced concrete. It was shown in practi-
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248 6 Underpinning
cal use that a field h=1.5m b=2m including excavation work and finished shotcrete was
completed in 4-5 minutes. The soil nails were installed directly afterwards.
With this method, the underpinning of the hospital in Schwaz with an integrated heli-
pad could be carried out without cracks.
6.3 High-pressure soil grouting

High-pressure soil grouting (HDBV also Soilcrete, jet grouting, high-pressure injection
method, grouting, etc.), cement slurry is injected into the substrate at high pressure and
to produce a mortar body.
Fig. 6.6: HDBV work sequence
A lance is drilled into the subgrade, at the end of which is an injection head is placed.
After the final depth has been reached, the injection head is used to inject the grout.
Injection agent based on cement is injected into the ground at pressures of up to 600 bar.
This creates a full-body with the structure to be underpinned, which has a very positive
effect on the settlement of the entire structure.
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6.3 High-pressure soil grouting 249
Fig. 6.7: Types of injection used for HDBV
There are currently three different injection methods in use, whereby the choice of
injection method varies considerably between the companies. Some examples of appli-
cations are shown below.
Fig. 6.8: Possible applications at HDBV
At the Villa Blanka tourist school in Innsbruck, the double-anchored underpinning had
to be constructed using HDBV columns. Particularly unpleasant was the protrusion in
the facade of the existing building. The drilling had to take this protrusion into account.
Thus, an additional HDBV body was created directly under the existing foundations.
The following section shows this situation with the HDBV bodies and the anchors
used.
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250 6 Underpinning
Fig. 6.9: Underpinning with HDBV at Villa Blanka Innsbruck ‚Äì section
The calculation of this underpinning is the same as for an unreinforced gravity wall,
where no tension may occur on the air side. Therefore the cross-section must be under
pressure at all times. The anchors cause the system is shifted back to the center of the
grout body.
The finished underpinning is shown in the next figure, where the projection in the
facade can also be seen.
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Fig. 6.10: Underpinning with HDBV at Villa Blanka Innsbruck
After the HDBV columns had been placed, a preliminary excavation was carried out
to the first anchor position. The anchors were installed and, for safety checked with a
suitability test. Only then could the second excavation area be sunk and the anchors of
the 2nd layer were installed. After time for the anchor grout to cure and the suitability
test was carried out the remaining excavation was carried out.
The method can be used not only outdoors, there are already small machines avail-
able that can carry out the drilling and grouting work from basement and can even pass
through cellar doors and have a width of < 80 cm and a height of < 160 cm.
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252 6 Underpinning
Such a possibility was used in the course of the reconstruction of the building of the
Chamber of Labor in Innsbruck.
Fig. 6.11: Underpinning with HDBV in the interior of the Chamber of Labor in Inns-
bruck
A somewhat freer accessibility is shown by the underpinning with anchoring in the

next example of an excavation pit in Schwaz in the Tannenberggasse, where the required
accuracies were maintained. The protruding injection bodies were removed true to size
with a cutter attached to the excavator.
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One can clearly see the transition from the existing structure to the HDBV underpin-
ning and the relatively rough surface created by the milling of the injection bodies.
No cracks or settlements were measured during this underpinning. This shows that
this method is currently the gentlest underpinning method for existing structures.
Fig. 6.12: Underpinning with HDBV at Tannenberggasse in Schwaz
The spreading of the grout is strongly dependent on the existing subsoil. For this rea-
son, it is generally recommended that a trial column is first made in the excavation pit
to check the spread and shape of the injection body. It has been shown that in particular
the spreading can vary considerably, especially in the case of sloping soils, and thus the
intended injection body was not always achieved.
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254 6 Underpinning
For a better understanding, the underpinning shown in the last picture is used in order
to be able to follow the calculation procedure in individual steps.
First, a load calculation must be carried out to determine the load on the structure to
be underpinned. The loads from the roof structure, the slabs and the exterior wall are
determined accordingly. With the span (= half the span of the slabs), the total wall load
per linear meter is then calculated as floor pressure.
Fig. 6.13: Determining the underpinning load
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Fig. 6.14: Entering the soil properties
The soil properties entered are used to determine the earth pressure coefficients. The
geometry of the underpinning is then entered.
Fig. 6.15: Entering the geometry and load
Fig. 6.16: Underpinning geometry
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256 6 Underpinning
Now the underpinning is calculated step by step. This is done according to the fol-
lowing table, where the individual columns have the following meaning:
No: Number of the layer to be calculated
Depth-a: Depth on the active side (under the structure)
Depth-p: Depth on the passive side (in the excavation)
P-Load: Load on the underpinning
HDBV weight: Weight of HDBV body up to the layer
V-load: sum of vertical load up to the layer boundary
e-x: lever arm of the resultant seen from the front edge in each layer
Earth pressure: Earth pressure up to the layer
e-y: lever arm of the earth pressure seen from the layer
Fig. 6.17: Calculation of the individual underpinning cuts
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In the next step, the point of intersection of the resultant in the layer joint is calculated
and compared with the core of the bearing surface in the layer. In addition, the two
boundary stresses in the respective section are calculated. This then determines whether
a gaping joint is present or not. If a gaping joint is present, it is checked whether it
extends only as far as the core or whether the gaping joint is larger and thus no longer
permissible for the HDBV body. In the table, these too large gaping joints are indicated
specifically.
Fig. 6.18: Calculation of the stresses and the gaping joint in the sections
It can be seen that from a depth of 4.5 m, the gaping joint is too large and therefore
this underpinning is no longer permissible. An attempt is now being made to stabilize
the condition with a row of anchors, this means that the resultant should to be pushed
back into the core area.
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258 6 Underpinning
Fig. 6.19: Definition of the 1st anchor row for underpinning
First, the anchor is entered with its data. The anchor force, the horizontal spacing
and the height of the anchor are entered. The anchor force per meter of wall is then
determined and used in the further calculation.
Fig. 6.20: Geometry of underpinning with 1st anchor layer
The geometry of the new situation can be seen in the figure above.
Now the calculation in the individual sections follows again, whereby here the anchor
force is also taken into account.
Subsequently, the resultant with the point of piercing is again compared with the core
width and the gaping joint is calculated again. The calculation shows that below a depth
of 5.7 m, the gaping joint is also too large. This cross-section with one anchor layer is
also insufficient.
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Fig. 6.21: Calc of the individual sections of the underpinning with 1st anchor layer
Fig. 6.22: Calc of the stresses and the gaping joint in the sections with 1st anchor position
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260 6 Underpinning
The graphical representation of the points of penetration of the resultant in the calcu-
lated sections shows that also the resultant with one anchor leaves the core zone and is
therefore no longer permissible.
Fig. 6.23: Position of resultants without and with 1 anchor
You can clearly see the effect of the 1st anchor position, but it is not sufficient to keep
the resultant in the core area of the HDBV.
A further anchor layer must therefore be introduced. Graphical representation where
the 2nd anchor position would be advantageous and one can alsosee the distance of the
resultant from the core. A greater force is required than in the first anchor position. The
first anchor position is left as already introduced in the calculation, and a second anchor
position is introduced at a distance of 2.5 m below it with twice the anchor force.
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Fig. 6.24: Definition of the 1st and 2nd anchor layer for underpinning
Fig. 6.25: Geometry of underpinning with 2 anchor layers
Now follows the calculation in the same sections as before.
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262 6 Underpinning
Fig. 6.26: Calc of the individual sections of the underpinning with 1st + 2nd anchor layer
Fig. 6.27: Calc of the stresses and the gaping joint in the sections with 1st + 2nd anchor
It can be seen from the calculation that the resultant can always be kept in the core
area and that no gaping joint is created.
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Fig. 6.28: Position of the resultant without and with 2nd tie position
The picture of the position of the resultant shows that it is always located in the core
cross section and thus the entire HDBV body is under pressure.
Thus, the calculation is successfully completed for this underpinning using HDBV
and anchors is completed.
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7 Shaft structures
In the case of structures such as public utility lines in urban areas, manholes are often
built that lead to deep cuts in built-up areas. These manholes usually have small horizon-
tal dimensions (a, b) in relation to their depth (t). The depth ratio t/b should not exceed
the value of 5, which is usually not the case with shafts.
The side walls of a shaft can be either flat or curved, depending on the local conditions.
This is of minor importance for the determination of the earth pressure distribution, but
there are considerable differences in the shoring systems used.
Fig. 7.1: Measuring device for measuring structural cracks

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266 7 Shaft structures
7.1 Spatial earth pressure
The planar representation of the earth pressure is not sufficient, however, because the
sliding body, which lies in the subsoil on both sides of the edge, generates a frictional
force there which prevents slippage. So this sliding body must be considered spatially
and also the forces acting on it with their spatial influence.
Fig. 7.2: Effect of earth pressure on or from the sliding body
In the plane case, earth pressure acts on the airside wall from the slip body. However,
this is reduced by the influence of the lateral earth pressure, which acts on both sides
of the slip body. From this earth pressure the frictional force arising in the direction
of sliding must be determined, and from this the horizontal component that reduces the
earth pressure acting on the wall. This is then the influence of the arch pressure on the
sliding body. If this influence is taken into account, the earth pressure acting on the wall
is reduced.
This all sounds simple, but in the practical calculation always questions arise again and
again, which are better dealt with in advance. So here from each step of the calculation
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7.1 Spatial earth pressure 267
is explained from the beginning.

The earth pressure calculation is carried out for the larger shaft dimension in the plan
view, since the spatial bracing is smaller and therefore a greater earth pressure is gener-
ated. This earth pressure is then applied to both side walls.
The geometry of the shaft wall to be calculated must be known as the basis for the
calculation:
Shaft width b [m]
Shaft depth t [m]
Basically, it is assumed that there is a level, horizontal ground surface and that the
shaft is to be constructed vertically downwards.
Terrain angle β [◦ ] horizontal β = 0
Shaft inclination α[◦ ] vertical α = 0
The soil parameters are given according to the existing subsoil

Volume weight g [kN/m3] (wet weight)
Friction angleϕ [◦ ]
Cohesion c [kN/m2 ]
Residual pressure fraction r [%] (for calculation of the increased earth pressu-
re) 30-50 % is suggested in order to take into account possible traffic impacts.
With this information, the further necessary parameters can be calculated:
2
Wall f riction : δ = ϕ [◦ ] (7.1)
3
ϕ ◦
Glideangle : θ = 45 +[ ] (7.2)
2
and the coefficients for the earth pressure calculation:
active earth pressure coefficient:
cos2 (ϕ)
Kah = p 2
(7.3)
1 + sin(ϕ + δ ) ∗ sin(ϕ)/cos(δ )
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Earth pressure coefficient:
Ko = 1 − sin(ϕ) (7.4)
Increased earth pressure coefficient :
Kh = Ka h + r ∗ (Ko − Ka h) (7.5)
Cohesion coefficient:
p
C = 2 ∗ c ∗ cos(δ ) ∗ Ka h (7.6)
With these basic data, the earth pressure determination can now be carried out. The
following procedure is suggested:
• The subsoil up to the shaft depth is divided into layers for the calculation. It is
sufficient to assume a total of 10 layers.
– The respective layer height h is calculated from the top of the shaft to the
respective layer bottom [m]
• For each layer, the earth pressure is calculated from the plane structure:
– the earth pressure up to the bottom of the layer is calculated [kN/m2 ].
– the live load is added [kN/m2 ].
– he total load is used to calculate the earth pressure coordinate
e plane,u = totalload ∗ Kh −C (7.7)
– the area for the earth pressure must still be determined
A plane = h ∗ b (7.8)
– with this, the earth pressure for the respective layer can be calculated:
e plane,u ∗ A plane
E plane = (7.9)
2
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• Then the earth pressure on the lateral surface of the sliding body created for each
layer is calculated.
– he earth pressure up to the bottom of the layer is calculated
– the earth pressure coordinate at the bottom of the layer is calculated
erest,u = earthpressureload ∗ Ko (7.10)
– the area for the earth pressure is calculated (side area)
h
Aside = h ∗ (7.11)
tan(θ )/2
– thus the earth pressure is calculated for the respective layer:
erest,u ∗ Aside
Eside = (7.12)
3
– from the lateral earth pressure force the friction force is calculated to:
E f riction = Eside ∗ tan(ϕ) (7.13)
– this frictional force acts in the direction of the slip angle

– the horizontal component must therefore be the horizontal part has to be
calculated in order to get a comparability with the plane earth pressure:
E f ric,horiz = E f riction ∗ cos(ϕ) (7.14)
– this is now the fraction of the lateral resting pressure which can be subtracted
from the plane earth pressure and is the basis for the arching effect in a shaft.
• Now that the plane earth pressure and the laterally acting frictional force have
been determined, the spatial pressure can be calculated.
– the spatial earth pressure is calculated for each layer
Espatial = Eeben − E f ric,horiz (7.15)
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– So that the earth pressure coordinate acting on the shaft wall can now be
given, the earth pressure coordinate is determined for each layer
Espatial
e − spatial = (7.16)
(h ∗ b)
– This is the pressure acting on the shaft wall in the area of the layer under
consideration.
With the help of a practical example, the calculation process can be understood. A
shaft with a width of 3.0 x 4.0 m and a depth of 15 m is calculated, with the soil prop-
erties simplified to one soil type. Of course, stratified soils can also be calculated for a
shaft, but the present example would become a bit confusing, therefore one soil type is
used for the calculation.
Fig. 7.3: Calculation example for spatial earth pressure determination
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As indicated in the description, the shaft depth is divided into 10 layers. A finer sub-
division does not seem to make sense, since for the design of the shaft wall, only those
sections are considered in which the same structures are used for support. A subdivision
into 10 steps is therefore precise enough, since 10 sections are usually not used in the
design, but 3-4 sections are usually used. Thus, further simplifications are made from
the 10 layers in order to to be able to carry out the construction economically.
Fig. 7.4: Plane earth pressure calculation for each layer
When calculating the earth pressure on the side wall of the slip body it must be taken
into account that the lateral surface is a triangular surface, whose width depends on the
slip angle φ , and this in turn depends on the friction angle ϕ of the substrate.
Fig. 7.5: Determination of the lateral resting pressure and the frictional forces
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Fig. 7.6: Sliding body and lateral earth pressure wedger

The lateral earth pressure is used to determine the frictional force that goes in the
direction of the slip plane. From this frictional force, the horizontal component is de-
termined, which contributes to the reduction of the plane earth pressure. These are the
forces that produce spatial bracing in shafts.
Fig. 7.7: Spatial earth pressure and its earth pressure coordinate
When considering both calculated earth pressures and also the earth pressure coordi-
nates a considerable difference can be seen increasingly with depth.
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Particularly in the case of shafts in inner-city areas, these earth pressure calculations
are the basis for the choice of shoring and its dimensioning.
Fig. 7.8: Comparison of plane and spatial earth pressure on the shaft wall
Fig. 7.9: Comparison of earth pressure coordinates of planar and spatial earth pressure
on the shaft wall
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7.2 Flat side walls
Shafts with flat side walls usually have a square or rectangular cross-section. This results
in two symmetry axes, which simplify the calculation of the side walls. The side walls
can be separated at the axes of symmetry and thus one quarter of the shaft will have one
a beam is clamped at the symmetry axes, which represents a corner. In terms of statics,
this is a single-hip frame.
Fig. 7.10: Shaft with symmetry
Fig. 7.11: Quarter shaft is statically a single-hip frame
In the relevant static tables, the support forces and moments for such single-hip frames
are given. In order to simplify the the following auxiliary values are used to simplify the
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7.2 Flat side walls 275
respective calculation.
k = a/b N = k+1 (7.17)
With these values, the respective forces and moments can be calculated.
Fig. 7.12: Forces and moments for a single-hip frame
If we now calculate these forces and moments in the example of Fig. 7.3 the following
input values result in the moments and forces for each layer to:
a = 3.0 m b = 4.0 m t = 15.0 m

k = 3 / 4 = 0.75 N = k + 1 = 1.75
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First, the moments and support forces for the load e1 acting on the width b are cal-
culated. The individual moments are calculated separately for each layer to obtain the
difference with depth.
Fig. 7.13: Determination of moments due to load e1
Fig. 7.14: Determination of the support forces due to load e1
Afterwards, the moments and support forces for load e2 , which act on the length a
are calculated. Here, too, the individual calculations are performed for all layers. The
resulting course of moments and forces can therefore also be seen as a function of depth.
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Fig. 7.15: Determination of moments due to load e2
Fig. 7.16: Determination of the support forces due to load e2
Now that both moments and support forces have been determined for both loads e1
and e2 , they can be combined to determine the total load of the single-hip frame.
In both calculations, the decisive moments and forces are highlighted in gray. First of
all, these are the moments, whereby the individual moments for the shaft wall have the
following assignment:
Ma ..... Moment in the center of the field with dimension 2a

Mb ..... Moment in the corner of the shaft
Mc ..... Moment in the center of the field with dimension 2b
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Fig. 7.17: Composition of moments
Fig. 7.18: Composition of the forces
A somewhat clearer representation is the graphical evaluation of the moments and the
forces. These show the reduced increase of moments and forces with increasing depth.
This clearly shows the influence of the spatial bracing with increasing depth of the shaft.
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Fig. 7.19: graphical representation of moments
Fig. 7.20: graphical representation of compressive forces
These forces and moments can now be used to design the shaft lining.
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Since shafts are sunk from top to bottom, it is also advisable to select a support mea-
sure that is constantly applied from top to bottom together with the excavation. Anchor-
ages for the support measures in inner-city areas should be avoided as far as possible,
because there are usually a number of supply lines and neighboring cellars in the vicinity
of a shaft. In this case, shotcrete support using fiber-reinforced concrete is suggested.
This can be installed continuously with the excavation.
Fig. 7.21: Choice of materials for shaft protection
Once the fibers and the concrete grade have been selected, the strength of the fiber
concrete can be calculated. Here we recommend the book Fiber Concrete (Springer Ver-
lag 2021) for more detailed study.
Fig. 7.22: Determination of the fiber-reinforced concrete properties and partial safety
factors
With these material values, the design of the shaft walls can be carried out for each
layer.
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Fig. 7.23: Layer-by-layer design for the shaft walls
With a graphical representation of the necessary shotcrete thicknesses, one can see the
effect of the spatial arching action very well. It shows that the protection increases only
up to a maximum thickness and then slowly decreases again with as the depth increases.
Fig. 7.24: necessary shotcrete thickness for the shaft walls
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7.3 Curved side walls
Shafts with curved side walls usually have a circular or an elliptical cross-section.
Normally, the ratio of the two diameters is not greater than:
b/a < 1.5
If the ratio is higher, a more detailed static calculation of moments and forces around
the circumference of the shaft is necessary. This is usually carried out with a rod work
program or with finite elements. Here, however, only simple shafts with an aspect ratio
smaller than 1.5 are considered.
Fig. 7.25: Curved shaft
Since, theoretically, only compressive forces arise in the side walls of this type of
shaft are generated, the calculation is performed for the larger diameter. This results in
the largest compressive forces, which are taken into account in the dimensioning of the
manhole cross-section.
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7.3 Curved side walls 283
Fig. 7.26: Load on shaft
The earth pressure determined for each soil layer is now calculated as a centric load
(equal to an external pressure on a pipe) and the compressive force. This results from:
Fig. 7.27: Determining the pressure forces in the shaft
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Fig. 7.28: Shaft compression forces
These compressive forces must now be absorbed by the shaft lining in each layer. As
with the rectangular shaft, shotcrete is used to support the compressive forces.
Fig. 7.29: Choice of construction materials
After the selection of the fibers and the concrete quality, the calculation of the strength
of the fiber-reinforced concrete. Here we recommend the book Fiber Concrete (Springer
Verlag 2021) [49] for more detailed study.
Fig. 7.30: Characteristic values of selected fiber-reinforced concrete
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7.3 Curved side walls 285
For the design of compressive forces in the shaft, there is another special feature
should be taken into account. During the excavation of the shaft, the tooling produces
(shovel and pickaxe or excavator shovel) a rough surface that must be compensated.
Therefore, this roughness must be taken into account when dimensioning the pressure
shell.
Fig. 7.31: Roughness of the excavated material
In the present case, the roughness of the excavation surface is assumed to have the
following value is assumed:
r = 10 cm
Fig. 7.32: Excavation thickness of the shaft
This shows an almost constant shotcrete thickness of about 11 cm with which the
rounded shaft should be secured.
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8 Anchors and soil nails
In the construction industry, the term anchor is very widely stretched. Not only from a
historical point of view, but especially from the point of view of application possibilities,
there is a myriad of anchors. Therefore it is necessary to make a classification here, by
which one can recognize the different anchors, before one starts using the term anchor
for slopes and excavations.
8.1 Classification
In general, anchors are used to transmit forces between two components. Depend-
ing on the direction of the anchors, a distinction is made between tension-loaded and
alternating-loaded anchors.
Fig. 8.1: Definitions according to direction and load type
While there may be many different ways of classifying anchors, they are simply clas-
sified according to the force that the anchor has to transmit.

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288 8 Anchors and soil nails
8.1.1 Small anchors or dowels

The small anchors or dowels mainly used in building construction have a load in the
range of 10 to 2,000 N (1 - 200 kg).
Fig. 8.2: Anchors in building construction
The above figure shows the variety of these anchors. More detailed information about
these anchors is best obtained via the Internet or in the local hardware store.
8.1.2 Medium load anchor

This type of anchor is used for light structures that have a working load in the range of
1 to 25 kN (100 - 2,500 kg).
Fig. 8.3: Screw

anchor
Fig. 8.5: Plate anchor
Fig. 8.4: Expansion anchor
These anchors can generally be used in soil, snow and ice, where they are also their
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8.1 Classification 289
largest areas of application.
Fig. 8.6: Spinning anchor
Depending on the soil conditions, whether in soft loam or harder in sand-gravel areas
or in winter on snow and ice (ski slopes), the different anchors are selected.
The range of applications is very wide, with some typical examples being shown
below.
Fig. 8.7: Mountain Fig. 8.9: Climbing

Bob Fig. 8.8: Tent frame
More detailed information on these medium-load anchors is best obtained from the
Internet or at your local building materials store.
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8.1.3 Ground and rock anchors

These anchors are widely used to secure slopes in all soil types and in rock construction
for slope stabilization as well as in gallery and tunnel construction for securing cavities.
The load capacity is in the range of 10 to 500 kN (1 - 50 to) is normally sufficient for
these applications.
Fig. 8.11: Perfo- and expansion an-

Fig. 8.10: Ischebek-Anchor chorsr
This range also includes GRP anchors, which are characterized by the fact that, due to
their material that they are not subject to corrosion due to their material GRP (glass fiber
reinforced plastic). This is particularly interesting for applications inagresive substrates.
Fig. 8.12: GRP anchor
For the soil and rock nails, the individual nail types and also materials will be dis-
cussed in detail in the chapter on soil nails.
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8.1 Classification 291
8.1.4 Heavy-duty anchors

Heavy-duty anchors are used in foundation and rock construction. The load capacities
used here are in the range of 200 to 5,000 kN (20 - 500 to).
Fig. 8.13: Single-rod anchor

Fig. 8.14: Strand anchor
Based on the two types shown above, there are a number of systems available for
the respective anchor head. Also the service life of the anchors leads to two different
designs. A distinction is made between temporary and permanent use. The steel grades
also differ between the various anchor manufacturers. The section on anchors deals
specifically with all these differences will be discussed.
Fig. 8.15: Duplex anchor
A special feature of the duplex anchor is that the force introduced into the anchor is
transmitted to the end of the anchor and from there is transferred to the soil via a pressure
tube. This is the only type of anchor in which the forces are introduced into the ground
from the deepest point of the borehole.
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8.2 Soil nails
In rock construction (underground or above ground), soil nails are mainly used as
solid bar nails. An appropriate hole is drilled in the rock and the soil nail is is pushed
into it and anchored accordingly. After anchored in the ground (rock), the anchor plate
is placed on top and a force with the nut a frictional connection is made. In the fewest
cases, a prestressing force is applied at the same time.
In ground construction, i.e. in loose soils, it is not possible to drill a hole without
support, therefore self-drilling soil nails are used in these soils. These are also called
hollow bar nails because of their shape. In this case either air or anchor grout is pumped
into the hole from the drill bit during the drilling process. Thus, the drilling material
is transported to the outside. When the drilling depth has been reached, air flushing is
used to fill the cavity with anchor grout from the drill bit, or, in the case of drilling with
anchor grout the drilling process is stopped. In both cases, the drill bit remains in the
ground, therefore it is referred to as lost drill bit. After the anchor grout is hardened in
the substrate (soil), the anchor plate is placed and a frictional connection is made with
the nut. In very few cases, a prestressing force is applied.
8.2.1 Solid bar nail
The use of these nails is mainly limited to rock construction and tunneling.
Fig. 8.16: Rock nail
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8.2 Soil nails 293
Fig. 8.17: Perfo anchor
In the case of the perfo anchor, an additional perforated shell is often added to the
tie rod. where the anchor grout is then injected into the space in between and after this
has flowed through the perforated plate with the rock then also forms the contact. The
reason for the perforated plate is that in the case of larger fissures a bridging can take
place and not the entire grout is pumped into a fissure.
Fig. 8.18: expansion anchor
Fig. 8.19: expansion spreader head Fig. 8.20: Spring expansion head
The fastest force contact can be established by an expansion anchor. Immediately

after inserting the tie rod, the expansion mechanism is activated and the anchor (rock
nail) can immediately transmit forces via nut and anchor plate. Injection of the cavity in
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the tie rod is not absolutely necessary, but is recommended to protect against corrosion.
Injection of the cavity in the tie rod is not absolutely necessary, but is recommended
to protect against corrosion.
DSI single-bar anchors, which are available in two different versions, are very often
installed.
Fig. 8.21: DSI Standard Soil Nail
The Standard Soil Nail is mainly used for temporary applications for short-term slope
and excavation stabilization.
Fig. 8.22: DSI Permanent Soil Nail
If the soil nail is to be used permanently, it is necessary to use a corrosion protection,

a permanent soil nail with double corrosion protection.
When selecting the two types of nails, the service life is a significant factor. Only
because of the necessary corrosion protection for prolonged use the permanent anchor
should be used.
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8.2 Soil nails 295
The following table shows the steel grades provided by DSI with the possible diame-
ters, whereby other companies also offer the same dimensions and steel grades.
Fig. 8.23: DSI Soil Nail Data
8.2.2 Hollow bar nail
This type of soil nails was developed in the years from 1960 onwards, with two com-
panies were significantly involved in the development. The Gruber company in Austria
and Ischebeck in Germany. In the beginning, many ideas from the mining industry also
found their way here, with the craftsmanship of individual led to astonishing inventions
and expansions. Particularly noteworthy here is the company GD-Anker as a subsidiary
of Gruber, which was extremely innovative with the hollow bar nail. Unfortunately, after
very successful years, it fell victim to the strategy of other competing companies, which
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succeeded in dissolving this company by regulating the market. The most important
product is still marketed by several companies under different names.
Fig. 8.24: Variation of many types of soil nails from GD-Anker company
As already mentioned, the company Ischebeck has invented a nail called Titanium
which is similar to the GD nail but differs in several details, which were chosen more for
inventive reasons and are rather secondary for the practical application.
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8.2 Soil nails 297
Fig. 8.25: Ischebeck soil nail
In the following, the basic data required for dimensioning this nailing system.
Fig. 8.26: Ischebeck soil nail data
The MAI hollow bar nail, descended from the Gruber nail, is one of a number of
by various companies. The application and technical data are the same as those of the
DYWIDAG soil nail, so we do not need further description of the different soil nails
from other companies.
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Fig. 8.27: MAI hollow bar nail
For short-term use in slope and construction pit stabilization, the DYWIDAG Soil Nail
is available.
Fig. 8.28: DSI Standard Hollow Bar Nail
For longer service life, a permanently corrosion-protected DYWIDAG soil nail. This
allows the soil nail to be used in permanent applications.
Fig. 8.29: Permanently corrosion-protected DSI Hollow Bar Nail
The technical data for a calculation with these soil nails can be found in the following
table.
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8.2 Soil nails 299
Fig. 8.30: Data for the DSI Hollow Bar Nail
8.2.3 GRP Anchors
GRP anchors and rock bolts are used as alternative support elements to steel. With the
advancing development of production technology and increasing share of mechanized
tunnelling, GRP systems have become more and more important. Application areas of
GRP anchors and rock bolts range from tunnel and gallery construction to excavation
and slope stabilization.
What is particularly important here is the property that these anchors do not corrode
and can therefore be used to great advantage in aggressive underground.
Fig. 8.31: GRP anchor
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Fields of application:
Rock tempering and support in underground mining.
Mechanical heading - TVM and cutting mining
Cuttable support element for underground mining
Injection lance in combination with DYWI R Inject Systems
Portal areas of tunnel structures
Securing means for excavation
Excavation support and underpinning
Slope stabilization in special civil engineering
Main advantages:
Low operating weight facilitates installation
High tensile strength
Durable and resistant system
Easy to remove by jacking machines or excavators
No corrosion protection necessary
Antistatic system components
Resistant and load-bearing thread form
Fig. 8.32: Data for the GRP anchor
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8.3 Anchors 301
8.3 Anchors
Since the beginning of anchor and prestressing technology, various prestressing sys-
tems have been created, which differ mainly in the type of prestressing, the design of the
anchorage heads and the steel used (wires, strands or rods).
Fig. 8.33: VSL anchor head Fig. 8.34: Freisinet anchor head
The VSL system uses strands anchored with wedges to a perforated steel cylinder.
The Freysinet system and the DSI bundle tendon system also use strands. Anchoring
is also carried out with this tensioning method by means of wedges on the anchor plate.
Fig. 8.35: Anchor head of Polensky-

Zoellner Fig. 8.36: Anchor head of BBRV
In the Polensky and Zoellner tensioning method, the strands or wires are attached to
a cone by means of an anchor sleeve. The force is then transferred to a rod, which is
designed with a fine thread. Via the anchor nut the pretensioning force can now be ad-
justed as required.
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The BBRV system uses wires which are surfaced that are anchored in a perforated
steel cylinder. During the tensioning process, the cylinder is out of the sleeve trumpet by
means of a tensioning press and anchoring ring onto the anchor plate set in concrete.
Fig. 8.37: Anchor head of DSI single bar anchor
The DSI single tendon method uses threaded bars. The bars are anchored to the an-
chor plate on a retaining wall.
8.3.1 Bar anchor
Bar anchors are a grouted anchor system and comply with current standards. By
means of an active prestressing, the expected deformations of the system and defor-
mations in the area of the civil engineering measure are minimized or eliminated com-
pletely. This may involve temporary structures (e.g. excavation shoring) or permanent
tiebacks.
Fig. 8.38: DSI Single Bar Anchor
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8.3 Anchors 303
By definition, an anchor consists of three main components:
Force introduction section: with anchor grout (cement grout) the anchor is the an-
chor is encased in the borehole and can transfer the forces to the surrounding ground.
Free friction section: a smooth pipe is used to decouple the rod from the borehole
backfill so that it can expand freely along this length. The prestressing forceis transmit-
ted loss-free along this section to the force application section.
Anchor head: in the case of the anchor head, the anchor force is applied and fixed by
an external prestress. From there, the prestressing force is transmitted via the free play
distance to the force application section.
After sufficient hardening of the grout, each anchor is tested for its load-bearing ca-
pacity by an acceptance test to determine its load-bearing capacity. If necessary the
anchors can be retensioned or made releasable. A permanent control of the anchor force
is possible by installing load cells.
Fig. 8.39: DSI Single Bar Anchor with Double Corrosion Protection
For permanent use over a long period of time, the double corrosion protected anchor
is used. In this case, the single bar anchor is replaced by a plain tube at the free friction
section and an additional ribbed tube at the force introduction section. The anchor grout
is placed on both sides of the plain tube and the ribbed tube. This provides double cor-
rosion protection. Better corrosion protection is also ensured for the anchor head.
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The technical data for a calculation can be found in the following table.
Fig. 8.40: DSI Anchor Data
A special feature is the removable anchor, where the anchor head and the free friction
section can be removed after the anchor has been used. However, the force application
section with all its system components remains in the ground.
Fig. 8.41: DSI Removable Anchor
A more historical type is the duplex anchor, which was installed until about 1990.
The basic idea of this bar anchor was to transfer the anchor force to the end of the
anchor and from there to the ground via an additional compression member. This means
that, in contrast to the usual anchors, the force is introduced from the very rear and not
continuously from the end of the free friction section. However, since this design is more
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8.3 Anchors 305
expensive than the usual anchor type is, the duplex anchor has been used less and less in
practice.
Fig. 8.42: Duplex anchor
8.3.2 Strand anchor
In strand anchors, one or more strands are used instead of the bar that transmits the force.
A strand consists of 7 individual wires, which is bare in the force transmission section
and is protected by a sheathing tube with grease injected in the gap, in the free friction
section as shown in the following figure.
Fig. 8.43: Structure of an individual strand
For the application with anchors, 2 diameters of single strands have become estab-
lished. Either 0.60 inch (15.25 mm) or 0.62 inch (15.75 mm). There usually several
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strands are used for force transmission. This usually results in strand anchors with 3 to
20 strands, depending on the anchor force to be transferred.
Fig. 8.44: DSI Temporary Strand Anchor
Basically, these anchors have the same design as bar anchors. They are normally
transported to the jobsite in large coils and can therefore be transported by any length of
the anchor, they can be transported to the job site by any truck.
Only after installation in the borehole is the anchor grouted with anchor grout. This
establishes the contact with the subgrade.
Fig. 8.45: DSI Double Corrosion Protected Strand Anchor
The technical data for the single strands used in the calculation, can be taken from the
following table.
Fig. 8.46: DSI data for strand anchor
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8.4 Small pile - GEWI pile 307
8.4 Small pile - GEWI pile
A special feature of the solid bar anchor is the

GEWI pile, which is usually installed vertically
and, as a small pile, transfers the loads into the
ground.
The pile is available as well as the single-rod nails

and also single-rod anchors in the temporary version
(see illustration opposite) as well as with double corro-
sion protection.
In contrast to the nails and anchors the respec-

tive force is transmitted by means of a transmission
plate which is secured by two nuts into the struc-
ture of the building (usually the foundation) intro-
duced.
GEWI piles are micropiles according to DIN 4128

and EN 14199. As a rule, they are not prestressed and
thus act as a passive foundation system. Into the bore-
hole a GEWI threaded rod is inserted into the drilled
hole, which is centered by means of a spacer. Sub-
sequently the borehole is grouted from bottom to top.
The cement mortar serves on the one hand to transfer
the force friction into the ground, and on the other hand
as a as standard corrosion protection. Here similar to
solid construction, the alkaline milieu of the of the sur-
rounding cement stone cover is used to protect the re-
inforcing steel. If the ground or groundwater is aggres-
sive to steel and cement stone cover does not provide
Fig. 8.47: GEWI-Pile sufficient protection, the GEWI pile can be designed
with permanent corrosion protection. For this purpose,
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the steel support member is encased in a plastic ribbed pipe at the factory and the and
the annular space is grouted with cement mortar. This design variant is used especially
for tensile forces. Since GEWI piles are pure skin friction piles, they can carry com-
pressive, tensile and alternating loads. Thanks to the specially developed DSI thread
and the system components, no adjustments to the to the foundation system is necessary.
Only the design of the pile heads and the socket connections are varied. For the transfer
of extremely high loads several individual piles (usually three) can be combined in one
borehole, diameter is chosen accordingly.
Fig. 8.48: GEWI pile data
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8.5 Durability of anchors 309
8.5 Durability of anchors

The durability of an anchor depends on several factors:
Load allocation:here the forces are compared to the areas of material, standard, de-
sign and testing are compared and correlations are shown.
Fig. 8.49: Load assignments for anchors
Substrate properties: the substrate is differentiated into groups of aggressiveness.

Corrosion protection: three periods with different levels of corrosion protection are
given, into which the anchors are to be classified in each case.
Fig. 8.50: Service life of anchors
Grouted anchors with extended, simple corrosion protection shall be designed accord-
ing to the following rule below:
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The steel tension part shall be provided with corrosion protection compound in the free
steel length within the PE protection tube at the factory. In the anchor head area, exposed
parts of the steel tension part are to be coated with corrosion protection compound and
covered. The anchor head shall be connected to the exposed steel length.
As a substitute for corrosion protection, soil nails and temporary single-bar anchors,
the rust off rate can be used. This can increase the service life. However, the loss of
cross-section must be taken into account when dimensioning the anchor.
Fig. 8.51: Rust off rates for anchors
Especially on construction sites in high alpine areas, this additional method of extend-
ing the service life is used. This is especially the case for avalanche barriers and slope
and rock stabilization in impassable terrain.
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8.6 Monitoring of anchors 311
8.6 Monitoring of anchors
Anchors are a load-bearing component that normally transmits very high loads. Since
anchors are normally not visually inspectable (with the exception of a anchor head that
is not embedded in concrete), other control systems must take over the monitoring.
Most anchors are made of steel and are therefore susceptible to corrosion. It can be
seen from the classification of the anchors that the service life plays a significant role in
the corrosion protection provided by the factory.
Since the service load is usually very high, it is absolutely necessary to control the
anchors over time, because failure can lead to extreme structural damage, which is also
not just about material damage, but also lives.
Two monitoring systems are currently possible for steel anchors:
Force measurements
Corrosion measurements
Both types of measurement have advantages and disadvantages, which must be weighed
against each other before deciding on a method.
8.6.1 Monitoring the load capacity
Each anchor installed in the ground must be checked for its load bearing capacity. This
is to ensure that the anchor itself, and also the substrate is capable of carrying the in-
tended loads.
First of all, it must be determined whether the anchor is suitable in principle for trans-
ferring the forces into the subsoil. For this purpose, there is the Qualification test, which
must be carried out as the first anchor test for a prescribed minimum number of anchors.
The remaining anchors in a project must successfully pass an acceptance test success-
fully in order to be able to transfer the intended forces into the ground as fully into the
subsoil.
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8.6.1.1 Qualification test
Fig. 8.52: Qualification test for bar anchor d=57.5mm
Fig. 8.53: Specifications for anchor and press
Fig. 8.54: Specifications for anchor forces and test load
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Fig. 8.55: Load case 1 Fig. 8.56: Load case 2
Fig. 8.57: Load case 3

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8.6.1.2 Acceptance test
Fig. 8.62: Specifications for load application
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8.6.1.3 Lift-off test
Fig. 8.65: Specifications for load application
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8.6.1.4 Load cells
To monitor the force that the anchor introduces into the ground, load cells are used.
These are installed at the anchor head between the bearing plate and the retaining nut
including flat washer.
In most applications, the load cells remain at the anchor head, only the reading unit
can be removed. Since most pressure cells operate on a hydraulic principle, the pressure
gauge required for reading is either permanently installed or, or only screwed on during
measurement.
Fig. 8.66: Load cell with pressure gauge for bar anchor d=57.5mm
Recently, electronic load cells have been used, which are based on the principle of
measuring strips and then also transmit the measuring signal digitally. The readout unit
is then connected with the load cell during the reading and the respective value can be
recognized at the reading device and in most cases also immediately stored. Automatic
transmission of measured values is also currently possible and also in use.
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Fig. 8.67: Electronic load cell, photo Fig. 8.68: Load cell for strand anchors,
DSI photo DSI
A special feature of the load cell is a new load cell from DSI that consists of two
halves and has a maximum height of 2-4 cm. With it, it is possible to place the load
cell under the washer and under the anchor nut and then apply the desired preload and
measure the force with the new load cell.
This means that a load cell can also be retrofitted to anchors. This was not possible
until now, because the new load cell to be installed had a height which exceeded the
projection of the anchor steel above the nut. With this the anchor nut could no longer be
appropriately tightened after installation of the box and thus the desired force could not
be applied again.
Fig. 8.69: Two-part load cell from DSI
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8.6.2 Monitoring corrosion
If such an effort is already made with anchors because of possible corrosion the ques-
tion has to be asked: Why does one not measure the corrosion or the corrosion pro-
cess?
The existing standards already give some suggestions as to the level at which such a
measuring system could be found.
In EN 1537 Grouted Anchors
Item 6.3.2 Short-term anchors

If short-term anchors are used unscheduled for a longer period of time or changes in
the conditions occur which may influence the aggressiveness of the soil, suitable regular
monitoring should be carried out to verify the functionality of the anchor.
Item 6.5.5:Coatings with sacrificial metals.

Sacrificial metal coatings state that they shall not be applied to tensile members. How-
ever, they may be applied to other steel parts. However, no harmful galvanic element
may be created for the tension members.
These suggestions show quite clearly that a measuring system based on electrochem-
ical would certainly lead to the goal, at least that galvanic elements do not occur. Such
galvanic elements can be measured with reference electrodes. This is state of the art in
shipbuilding, pipeline construction and boiler construction. However, since in building
constructions it is not yet common practice to monitor with electrochemical methods,
therefore this method is described here in detail, especially for anchors.
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8.6.2.1 General
Since the 1930s, prestressed anchors have been used in foundation engineering. Over
the years, the use of these prestressed anchors has shown problems with the corrosion
protection of the anchor steel. This led years to the most diverse types of corrosion pro-
tection, which ultimately led to the respective standards in all countries. In all standards,
anchors are differentiated according to the period of use.
Short-term anchors (temporary anchors) are intended for use for less than two years,
if anchors are to be used for longer periods, double corrosion protection must surround
the anchor steel. This protection consists of a cement mortar sheathing around the an-
chor steel in a minimum thickness of 5 mm and a dense plastic tube around the anchor
steel, which when installed is again in a cement mortar when installed.
Although these permanent anchors are checked by means of a basic test, once they
have been installed in the substrate, however, it is not necessary to check the corrosion
anchor system currently, because till now on the market it is no longer possible. This
situation has led to the search for a measuring system that can be used at any time to
check the anchor steel, even after the anchor has been installed.Whether the steel is in
perfect condition or whether it is already undergoing a chemical transformation that will
ultimately leads to corrosion of the anchor.
Since a change in the anchor steel takes place by electrochemical means, a measuring
system can only record the condition accurately if it can measure the electrochemical
condition.
For an electrical measurement two poles are always necessary. Thus, for a measuring
system a reference electrode is introduced into the anchor to enable electrical measure-
ments. It now depends on the choice of the material of the electrode, which properties it
has in connection with the steel and how the mechanical properties are.
In the following, we will first explain the electrochemistry that occurs during corrosion
in steel, in order to derive the consequences for the measuring system.
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8.6.2.2 Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is the science that deals with how chemical reactions can be pro-
duced with electrical energy, and on the other hand, which electrical energies are gener-
ated by chemical reactions. The second part of this definition is the part relevant to the
corrosion of steel in concrete or cement mortar.
An electrochemical reaction, e.g. the generation of electrical energy, requires two par-
tial reactions.
a) The anodic partial reaction at the anode, e.g.
2Fe =⇒ 2Fe++ 4e− (8.1)
There Iron (Fe ) is oxidized (corroded), this reaction produces positively charged iron
ions (cations) and electrons. This is called the reduction of the iron (steel).
The released electrons are needed in the next context.
b) The cathodic partial reaction at the cathode, e.g.
O2 + 2H2 O + 4e− =⇒ 4(OH)− (8.2)
Here, a reduction takes place, the free electrons are released at the negatively charged
OH ions (anions). This results in an increase of the pH-value which means additional
protection of the steel at this local point.
As shown in the following reaction, the final product of the two partial reactions de-
scribed above is iron hydroxide [Fe (OH)2 ], rust.
4(OH)− + 2Fe++ =⇒ 2Fe (OH)2 (8.3)
This is one of the principal reactions that can take place under the terms carbonation
and also chloride-induced corrosion.
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Fig. 8.70: Electrochemical conditions during the formation of corrosion
At the anode, where the corrosion occurs, positively charged iron ions are formed
(cations). Negative electrons flow away from these positive iron ions and migrate to the
cathode.
At the cathode, the negative electrons are used to form negatively charged OH ions
(cations). These in turn migrate to the iron ions and form with them the iron hydroxide
[Fe(OH)2]. Thus, during reaction, an electric current is generated due to the electron
flow, which is measurable, and is thus the basis for a monitoring system.
8.6.2.3 Types of corrosion
From the set of generally defined types of corrosion, the following can be identified for
corrosion of steel in anchor grout (cement mortar), only three types are actually of sig-
nificance in the construction.
Ablative corrosion
Pitting corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking
All three types of corrosion cannot be distinguished electrochemically, but have to

be recognized from the respective situation. The types of corrosion also often indicated
in the construction industry, such as flash rust, e.t.c. can be described in each case by
one of the three types of corrosion indicated, their difference is only for optical reasons
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or for reasons of the location in which they occur. In essence corrosion of anchors in
foundation and rock construction can be reduced to the three types of corrosion.
Ablative corrosion
This is a change in the steel surface due to chemical transformation of iron to an iron
oxide along the surface of the anchor steel and thus has a lineal to areal effect.
In practice, this type of corrosion is usually caused by carbonation of the cement
mortar. During this process, the cement mortar loses its alkalinity and the pH value
moves from the basic range (-13) to the neutral range, at least below 9. The corrosion
protection of the cement mortar for the anchor steel is no longer given. The passive layer
on the steel surface dissolves or is activated as corrosion. Thus it depends local water
content of the pores determines the extent to which corrosion is activated.
Fig. 8.71: Start of corrosion
Since the products formed during corrosion, such as Fe2O3 or Fe(OH)2 occupy a
much larger volume than the pure iron, there is a increase in volume at the steel surface.
Fig. 8.72: Formation of cavities around the steel due to volume increase of the corrosion
products
This increase in volume causes a tensile force at the mortar-steel contact surface,
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which increases with increasing corrosion, until the cement mortar is removed from the
steel surface due to inadequate adhesion, thus a cavity is formed. The cavity increases in
size with increasing corrosion. This cavity is statically questionable, since the structure
of the cement mortar is disturbed and the cavities expose further non-corroding steel
parts. Thus, the corrosion protection is no longer present there and the steel corrodes.
Fig. 8.73: Formation of cracks in the cement mortar cover
If the volume expansion of the corrosion products is so great that, in the area of of the
cement mortar coating, bending stresses occur in the anchor mortar, tensile cracking oc-
curs, which abruptly causes failure of the cover area. This results in an open crack from
the surrounding substrate to the corroding steel. Corrosion products can now penetrate
through this crack onto the surrounding soil and can also be flushed out.
A relatively large area of corrosion is therefore required at the anchor steel until the
corrosion products penetrate into the subsoil. This is not visible from the outside, so it is
absolutely necessary to make such a corrosion process detectable by means of a suitable
measuring system.
Pitting corrosion
This type of corrosion typically occurs in the presence of chlorides. In winter service,
salts (NaCl) are spread on the road surface to thaw snow and ice. In the process, the
chloride ions migrate into the subsoil to the anchor and selectively penetrate the passive
layer on the anchor steel.
This can cause localized corrosion in the unprotected steel, which does not extend
over an area, but progresses more and more into the depth. As shown in the following
drawings, this type of corrosion is initially localized and works its way into the depths
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only selectively.
Fig. 8.74: Penetration of chlorides, destruction of the passive layer, beginning of the
corrosion (pitting)
Fig. 8.75: First pitting and depth effect
Only when the corrosion products have lifted the overlying cement mortar from the
from the anchor steel, cavities are formed around the corrosion site and extensive corro-
sion may attack the adjacent surface.
Subsequently, a combination of both types of corrosion occurs.
Fig. 8.76: Cracks in the cement mortar
Pitting corrosion is a very unpleasant type of corrosion, since the corrosion penetrates
very rapidly into the depth of the anchor steel. This means a relatively rapid cross-
sectional narrowing, and thus an early reduction in safety. Thus, increased attention
must be paid to anchors where chloride penetration can occur. This should encourage
owners to regularly inspection of their affected anchors.
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Stress corrosion cracking
The basic condition for this type of corrosion to occur is that the steel is under high
tensile stress, as is the case with prestressing steels and prestressed anchors. A gen-
eral representation of the course of stress corrosion cracking is shown in the following
drawings.
Fig. 8.77: Initial condition for stress corrosion cracking
• Steel under tension
• Penetration of chlorides
• Destruction of the passive layer
• Start of corrosion at the boundary layer
If destruction of the passive layer now occurs at the surface of the steel, or the chlo-
rides penetrate through the passive layer, corrosion can begin. The first surface corrosion
covers an area that can extend over several single crystals of the iron. Also the bound-
aries between the single minerals are also affected by corrosion. The "dissolving" of the
Fe parts is easier at the crystal edges than in the interior of a crystal. So at the beginning
corrosion is found at the crystal edges as intergrannular corrosion. This results in some
depressions on the surface due to the corrosion, which occur precisely at the crystal con-
tact surfaces.
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Fig. 8.78: Beginning of crystal opening and thus first corrosion
• further chloride penetration
• cracking along the crystals in the steel
• further corrosion in the crack
The steel under tension now slightly opens the edge crystals ‚Äì a mutual hold is no
longer given because of the edge corrosion - and a first part of a crack is present. The
corrosion products that are formed during corrosion take up a larger volume than the
original steel. Thus, the crack is pushed further apart. So, in addition to the general
tension present in the steel, there is also an internal compressive force created in the
crack by the corrosion which supports a further opening of the crack.
Fig. 8.79: Crack propagation in the crystal structure
• Crack propagation over the whole cross-section
• Fracture of the tensile member due to Cross-section reduction
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If the crack now goes part of the way into the cross-section, it is possible, in the case
of larger forces, it is possible that the further extension of the crack will be rapid and
thus a sudden failure of the entire cross-section occurs. This property is much feared by
structural engineers, particularly in the case of high-tension very much feared by civil
engineers. Particularly in anchoring technology, where permanent anchors are often
very highly prestressed, this type of corrosion is dangerous, because failure, there is no
warning of any kind.
Especially in the case of old anchors that have been installed for decades, the danger
exists when they are unloaded and reloaded during an anchor inspection. If this higher
than the force that has been applied for decades, stress corrosion cracking can sudden
failure (anchor failure) can occur. The risk of this is relatively high, so that great caution
must be exercised when testing old anchors, great care should be taken and anchor fail-
ure should be expected.
8.6.2.4 Potential measurement with electrodes
The potential measurement with electrodes is a measuring method in where the elec-
trical potential is measured with volts (V). The potential is measured between electrode,
which is embedded in an electrolyte, and a reference electrode. This potential is mea-
sured as usual in electrochemistry in millivolts (mV), as is customary in electrochem-
istry.
An electrolyte is a substance that, in solution or liquid form, has the property of con-
duct current by transferring positively and negatively charged ions to the respective elec-
trodes (6), such as the cathode and anode. In the present case the cement mortar acts as
an electrolyte, at least the pore water in the pores of the mortar performs this function.
The corrosion potential (Ecorr ) is now defined as the potential that is generated in an
open electrical circuit between a corroding steel surface and a reference electrode on the
concrete surface.
During an electrochemical process, the cathodic and anodic partial reactions are not
always the same, so a mixed potential is created. This potential can now be measured by
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means of a reference electrode.

In the case of corrosion of anchor steel, the cathodic partial reaction is predominant
and a negative change in potential occurs as a result. The corrosion potential depends on
the metal type of the electrodes and also on the character of the electrolyte. However,
it must be noted that even without corrosion potential between the two electrodes (steel
and reference electrode) is always measured. Even if there is a passive layer on the steel
surface, this potential measurement is possible.
A potential up to a defined potential value thus indicates a non-corroding steel in the

concrete. If the potential drops below this value corrosion must be assumed. This will
be described in more detail in the next chapter.
Measurement with the CMS electrode (CMS = Corrosion Monitoring System)
With this method, a solid electrode is placed in the cement mortar around the steel part
to be measured (anchor steel) and the potentials between this electrode and the steel to be
tested are measured. From the measuring system there is a similarity with the potential
measurement method, the only difference is that the measurement is not made point by
point, but line by line.
A silver-silver chloride electrode is used, which is provided with a special permeable

sheath construction, in order to avoid a metallic contact with the steel body to be tested.
Silver-silver chloride has long been known in medical technology as a very good refer-
ence electrode known. It is used there, for example, in ECG measurement as a reference
electrode and has been proven itself in millions of applications.
A potential difference arises between the reference electrode and the steel, which
corresponds to the minimum over the entire measurement distance. The lowest potential
along the entire measurement path is decisive and is therefore measured. Similarly as
the pressure in a pipeline depends on the weakest point this means that at a measurement
of -400 mV the corrosion is more active than at -300 mV. Over a longer distance this
effect remains although a change in potential naturally occurs relatively slowly and thus
the temporal change plays only a minor role.
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Fig. 8.80: System of measurement with the CMS electrode
This effect can be compared to a hose scale; when the water level is raised on one
side, it is raised everywhere inside the pipe and therefore also at the other end of the line.
Therefore lengths of the electrode of 50 m are quite acceptable as a measuring distance.
For longer lengths it is a question of cross-section of the electrode, so that line losses do
not play a role. It is clear from the above drawing that the electrode acts as a cathode and
the steel as anode during the measuring process. Thus the entire electron flow (current)
is measured via the measuring connection. As electrolyte between the two poles is the
concrete or cement paste. Ion migration can only take place if sufficient water is present
in the pores of the concrete system. For the measurability it is therefore important that
the basic condition of sufficient moisture is given. The two other conditions of corrosion
(sufficient oxygen and ph-value) do not have to be fulfilled and are therefore irrelevant
for the measurement. If there is no moisture in the environment of the steel, corrosion is
not possible (one of the conditions for corrosion is missing) and on the other hand there
is no electrolyte to measure. The measurement results in no potential. This means that
there is no corrosion in the measuring area at the given time. If the hardened cement
paste is e.g. slope water, a measurement can immediately measure the corresponding
potentials.
This shows that corrosion can only be measured in the presence of moisture.
Normally, the electrochemical condition of the anchor steel can now be measured.
It is sufficient to measure the potential between the armature steel and the longitudinal
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electrode installed on the longitudinal side. This is a very simple and fast process, so
that these measurements can be carried out very quickly and at low cost. The following
pictures show examples anchors in the high mountains, which are installed in cable cars
and are checked annually.
Fig. 8.81: Hahnen- Fig. 8.83: Gamsgarten-

Fig. 8.82: Wurmkogel-
kammbahn- Stubaier-
Hochgurgl
Kitzbuehel Glacier
If we look at the other two conditions for corrosion, we must consider first of all the
sufficient oxygen content. Since in the air oxygen is sufficiently present, it is certain
that in all anchors there will always be oxygen is present in the pore system of the
cement mortar. Even with flowing water (e.g. slope water), oxygen is present close to
the surface, so that the the corrosion process is sufficiently supplied with the necessary
oxygen.
Fig. 8.84: Measurement when anchor steel is protected and not corroded
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Potential values between 0 and -300 mV have the following causes:

no ambient humidity - measured value 0 mV
low ambient humidity - measured value -20 to - 120 mV
no chloride content in the anchor grout - measured value -50 to -150 mV
medium to high chloride content - measured value -150 to -280 mV
In deeper groundwater and in standing water at greater depths, it is well known that
the oxygen content decreases with increasing depth. This leads to a situation where there
is insufficient oxygen for corrosion. Although anode and cathode can also form in this
special case, but the values are far below the usual corrosion values.
Without oxygen, water cannot divide into an (OH) group. Instead the carbon on the
steel surface takes over the cathode function. However, since there are no (OH)-parts,
the free iron ion cannot form a compound. The bonding agent is missing.
Fig. 8.85: Special case - steel ready for corrosion in cement mortar
Thus, potentials are measured which simulate a chemical reaction, In reality, how-
ever, it is only the readiness to enter into a bond. Since no oxygen is present to allow the
chemical process to take place, it does not take place. The potentials involved can drop
as low as -800 mV, a value that has not yet been measured at this level in corroding steel.
Whether the chemical process of corrosion is taking place here can only be clarified by
an additional polarization (see next chapter).
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Normally, when measuring the potential, a value between -300 and -500 mV, the cor-
rosion process is active. This means that the chemical processes are in progress.
Fig. 8.86: Corroding anchor steel in cement mortar
By contrasting the possibilities shown and illustrated it is clear how corrosion can be
clearly identified. For the assessment whether a steel is checked with the CMS electrode
and corrodes, the following simple criteria can be applied:
Potentials:
0 to -300 mV no corrosion
-300 to -350 mV passive layer of the anchor steel dissolves
-350 to -500 mV anchor steel corrodes
-500 mV and lower no oxygen present for corrosion
If there is any doubt:

Perform polarization measurement for clarification (these are relatively time-consuming
as comparative tests)
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8.6.2.5 Polarization measurement with electrodes
As already mentioned with the potential measurement, to clarify the condition whether
corrosion is occurring or not, the armature is polarized with the electrode. In the process,
a current is introduced into the anchor-electrode system, so that the anchor represents the
- pole (cathode) and the electrode represents the + pole (anode). Thus, the electrodes are
introduced into the anchor steel and can now flow to the electrode (anode). The potential
between the anchor steel and the electrode is measured.
Fig. 8.87: Polarization measurement when anchor steel is protected and not corroded
In case no corrosion is active on the anchor steel, the potential between anchor steel
and electrode increases very much and reaches its maximum after 2-3 minutes. After
this time the current is switched off, but the potential continues to be measured. There
is a relatively rapid drop in the potential, with the first 100 mV drop within one second.
This drop of the potential is called the 100 mV criterion. If it is observed, i.e. if the rapid
drop is is at least this large, then no corrosion is active on the steel.
One can compare this criterion with a leak test. If the system is tight, i.e. no electrons
escape from the anchor steel, the potential is is built up and also quickly dissipated. If
the system is not tight, it electrodes due to the corrosion process, no greater potential
can be built up, because the electrodes escape through the corrosion site. In this case,
corrosion is then clearly proven.
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Since the polarization measurement directly measures the ion flow, the condition of
the state of the steel can be clearly measured. If ion migration and thus a chemical re-
action takes place, the applied current only accelerates the chemical process, but does
not have a significant potential shift. If no chemical process takes place in the form of
corrosion, the potential between the steel and the electrode rises considerably and one
can clearly see that, compared to the corroding case there is a considerable difference.
Fig. 8.88: Polarization measurement with corroding anchor steel in cement mortar
If, however, the initial potential measurement shows values below -500 mV, corrosion
is indicated by this measurement, but a special case must be checked. This special case
is a steel ready for corrosion, but lacks the oxygen necessary for the necessary oxygen
for the chemical process. The anchor steel is usually found in stagnant water or in
bogs, where no oxygen is present. In the absence of oxygen, readiness for corrosion is
indeed indicated, but when the system is polarized, it clearly shows that the electrons do
not leave the steel and, as in the case of non-corroding steel, there is a large potential
between the anchor steel and the electrode.
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Fig. 8.89: Special case - anchor steel ready for corrosion in cement mortar
In this indicated situation, no corrosion takes place on the anchor steel. Nevertheless,
it is advisable to repeat the measurements again and again, since there are changes in
the environment throughout. This can be caused by structural or also in the course of
hydraulic engineering installations and drainage of peat bogs.
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8.6.3 For double corrosion-protected armatures
In the case of double corrosion protected anchors, the electrode is installed between the
finned tube and the anchor steel. An electrical connection to the anchor steel is made at
the anchor head. Both wires are led to a box, from where the measurements (potential
measurement and/or polarization measurement) can be carried out.
Fig. 8.90: Schematic of a bar anchor with CMS electrode
Fig. 8.91: Wire routing at the anchor head
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The double corrosion-protected bar anchors are injected in the factory between the
anchor steel and the ribbed tube, with the electrode being wrapped around the steel bar
and thus also acts as a spacer.
Fig. 8.92: Production of the bar anchors with CMS electrode in the factory
After the anchor grout has hardened, the anchors are transported to the site and stored.
Fig. 8.93: Storage of the bar anchors with CMS electrode on site
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The installation of the anchors is then carried out as usual on site in a cased borehole,
which is then injected with another anchor grout.
After the outer anchor grout has cured, the potential measurements can be started.
The time sequence of the measurements should be agreed between the designer and the
building owner and should take into account any examination time intervals.
An electronic data collection system with connected remote transmission is to be re-
garded as very meaningful, since here individual measurement distances can be more
easily taken into account and thus costs can be saved.
8.6.4 For simply corrosion-protected anchors
Simply corrosion-protected anchors are usually manufactured as self-drilling anchors

with a lost tip (Ischebeck nails, Mai nails). During the drilling process, an electrode
usualy cannot be drilled into the anchor during the drilling process, the discharge of
the drilled material in the gap between the borehole wall and the anchor steel, the rock
particles would destroy the electrode. This would result in a comparable situation as
with double corrosion-protected anchors is not possible.
Fig. 8.94: Section through retaining wall with soil nails and electrode
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However, the corrosion of simply protected anchors (soil nails) can still be measured.
For this purpose, a hole is made in the vicinity of one or near one or more soil nails, into
which a line electrode (CMS electrode) is inserted. The lateral distance to the anchors to
be measured should not exceed 5.0m.
Fig. 8.95: Retaining wall with soil nails and electrodes from front side
The depth to which the electrode has to be inserted into the subsoil now depends on
the following criteria:
• Depth of natural drying of the subsoil and any concrete structures (at least 1.5 m)
- times the length of the anchor in order to obtain a good measurement result.
• length of the anchors to be measured, the electrode located in the moist soil should
be at least 0.3 times the length of the anchor in order to obtain a good measurement
result.
For corrosion measurement in these situations the potential measurement cannot be

used, because the electrode is too far away from the anchor to be measured. There-
fore, polarization measurement must be used here, with which active corrosion can be
clearly detected. The disadvantage is that the point of the corrosion site by other types
of measurement is currently not possible.
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Fig. 8.96: Spatial view of nailed retaining wall with electrodes
Thus, it is possible to measure the corrosion of nailed retaining walls. This means
that the time of use can be extended on the basis of this corrosion measurement, and
also for the slope protections currently in use, which were dimensioned using the mea-
surements can contribute to a change in the service life in both a positive and a negative
sense. Finally, the corrosion measurement in anchors leads to a better understanding of
the situation of the anchors.
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8.7 Extending the service life of anchors 341
8.7 Extending the service life of anchors
Depending on their design and approval, anchors are approved for a certain period of
time. This service life depends on the material condition of the anchor. Since in most
cases the anchor is made of steel, the material condition is the corrosion of the steel. This
is a progressive process that leads to a narrowing of the cross-section. If this goes too
far, the anchor steel can no longer absorb the force acting on it and the anchor breaks.
Consequently, an anchor can only be in use if it can be used up to this critical point at a
certain distance (the safety) that guarantees its load-bearing capacity.
A frequently asked question is whether an anchor can also be extended in its service
life. This can actually only be answered in the affirmative if the corrosion process can be
completely prevented. With the electrochemical electrode, the electrochemical condition
of an anchor can be clearly recognized. Thus, it is actually clear that if the electrochemi-
cal process of corrosion is stopped, that the corrosion will not progress any further. This
electrochemical process is called "cathodic corrosion protection (CCP)".
This process has been known since 1824, when Sir Humphery Davy of the Society
of the British Admiralty had to develop a method of protecting ships from corrosion.
He applied zinc plates to copper cladding on ships to protect them from corrosion. This
method was called Cathodic Corrosion Protection (CCP). In this process, a metal sacri-
fices itself according to the electrical series of metals for the better metal. The natural
CCP with sacrificial anode was invented and has been used on ships since 1824.
In 1902 K.Cohen succeeded instead of the sacrificial anode with an external direct
current the cathodic protection current method in practice. Since then, we have been
talking about CCP with an external anode, whereby the direct current is initiated. This
type of corrosion protection was first developed in 1906 by Herbert Geppert (plant
manager of the Karlsruhe public utility company) for the protection of underground-
pipelines (pipe lines). The success was clearly evident, so that the the process became
established in pipeline construction.
From 1905 onwards, E. Cumberland protected railroad steam boilers with CCP and
external power, so that these boilers and their tubes no longer had to be replaced every 9
months, but were able to perform their duties undamaged for decades. Since then, this
method has been used for water boilers.
Since that time, the applications of the CCP have been extended and have recently
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also reached, for example, reinforced concrete structures such as bridges and roofs,
where it has been used in German-speaking countries since 1998.
From 2021 on, it will now be possible to use this external current method also in civil
engineering for earth and rock anchors to extend the service life. In this book, the CCP
method for anchors is explained for the first time.
8.7.1 general information on CCP
As an extension of the service life of anchors, there is the possibility of cathodic corro-
sion protection (CCP). This type of service life extension has been used successfully in
shipbuilding, pipelines and boilers for over 100 years.
The extension of the service life with cathodic corrosion protection (CCP) for anchors
is very different from traditional refurbishment. The anchor is coated with carbonated or
chloride-impregnated anchor mortar (cement mortar). This is not removed or replaced,
but the anchor steel is prevented from corroding further.
It is therefore not necessary to expose the steel parts affected by corrosion, but only
care must be taken to ensure that there is a uniformly low (electron flow) between the
cathode (anchor steel) and the anode so that there is always an excess of electrons at the
anchor steel.
Fig. 8.97: Cross-section of double corrosion-protected armature with CCP
Current (electrons) is fed in via the anchor steel (cathode) and to a counter pole (an-
ode). This counter pole consists of a precious metal wire. The current consists of elec-
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trons, which thus prevent the anchor steel from combining with the oxygen and the OH −
ions and thus producing corrosion.
Fig. 8.98: Principle of the electrical circuit in the CCP
This protection method requires about 3-10 mA/m2 of protective surface (anchor sur-
face). This is a very small amount of current that is hardly felt when touched. Thus,
a relatively large number of armatures can be supplied with a small rectifier. In sim-
plified terms, electrons are always added to the steel, so that a free electron is always
added when an electron is lost. There polarization takes place, which always produces a
surplus of electrons in the anchor steel.
This means that the anchor cannot form a chemical compound with other substances
such as O2 or OH − . As long as this polarization is upright, the steel cannot rust, it is
therefore protected. Its cross-section is maintained.
Fig. 8.99: Control of the CCP system in an anchor installation
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In this CCP control system, the anchors were grouped into 4 groups of 4 anchors each.
All the anchors can be measured via the built-in electrodes and also protected with CCP
via the anodes.
8.7.2 CCP for double corrosion protected anchors
Anchors with the longest service life are the double corrosion protected anchors. As in
the case of an electrical measurement (potential measurement) with an electrode, for pro-
tection by cathodic corrosion protection the anode must be installed inside the cladding
tube (finned tube). It can then be the direct current required for cathodic protection via
an anode. In the case of double corrosion-protected anchors, the control of the protec-
tive current must be controlled separately for each anchor. This is done based on the
monitoring results of a polarization measurement on the anchor steel.
Fig. 8.100: Longitudinal section of a double corrosion-protected anchor with CCP
A subsequent application of the CCP for double corrosion-protected anchors is cur-

rently not known at present, but theoretical possibilities exist, which are at the testing
stage and are waiting to be realized.
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8.7.3 CCP for simply corrosion-protected anchors

Soil nails or simply corrosion protected anchors essentially consist of a steel rod or tube
that is more or less well surrounded by anchor grout in the substrate. From the point of
view of cathodic corrosion protection, it is only important that the steel part is immersed
in a moisture-impregnated medium (anchor grout and/or soil). In order to prevent drying
from the earth’s surface, the anode should be installed at a depth of more than 1.5 m
from the ground surface. This leads to a minimum embedment depth of 3.0 m for an
anode (as well as for the electrode during the measurement process) is suggested.
Fig. 8.101: CCP for simply corrosion-protected anchors and soil nails
Since the steel support member (anchor) is not encased by a tube, the cathodic corro-
sion protection can also be carried out with a more distant anode. This has two advan-
tages:
• the anode can also be subsequently installed in the subsoil
• one anode can protect several soil nails (anchors)
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Appendix

B. Wietek, Slopes and Excavations, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-35853-2
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List of Figures
1.1 such excavation situations may be avoided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 lack of geotechnical treatment leads to landslides . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Fish River Canyon in Namibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.2 Initial situation of a slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Situation after the landslide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Appearance of the new embankment after removal of the deposit . . . . 9
2.5 Situation after renewed landsliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Reversed slope caused by ongoing landsliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Filling the landslide depression with erosion-resistant material . . . . . 11
2.8 Filling of the entire erosion endangered area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.9 Building a nail wall to secure the embankment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.10 Geometric shapes of slopes in unconsolidated material . . . . . . . . . 13
2.11 Slope in sand, gravel and stones <15cm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.12 Force approach for rolling slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.13 Slope with clayey fractions in the gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.14 Force approach for cohesive slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.15 Calculation example of a slope with cohesive soil . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.16 Graphical result of the slope calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.17 Slope flattening from 60 degrees to 45 degrees in Roppen . . . . . . . . 21
2.18 Sliding circle in a terrain situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.19 Sliding circle with lamella division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.20 Forces for a lamella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.21 Determination of the slip joint inclination of the lamellas . . . . . . . . 26
2.22 Table calculation of the slip circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.23 Required safeties for terrain failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.24 Landslide in slightly cohesive soil with drainages in Navis . . . . . . . 29

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350 List of Figures
2.25 Fissuring of rock: open - closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.26 Decomposition of rock: 5-20 cm range - < 2 cm range . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.27 Classification of fissures according to L.Mueller . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.28 Different slope inclination according to the cleavage location . . . . . . 33
2.29 Fissured rock without fissure filling at the Steinplatte (Tyrol) . . . . . . 34
2.30 Forces applied to a fissure body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.31 Rock without fissure filling but with vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.32 Working of rock without crevasse filling at Karlesjoch (Kaunertaler glacier) 35
2.33 Rock with rolling fissure filling at Nebelhorn (Oberstdorf) . . . . . . . 36
2.34 Rock with rolling fissure fill and permafrost at Karlesjoch (Tyrol) . . . . 37
2.35 Rock with mylonite zones as fissure filling in Kleinboden (Zillertal) . . 38
2.36 Rock with soaked clay as fissure filling in Weisbach near Lofer (Salzburg) 38
2.37 Mapping of the position sphere to the plane mesh in pole view (Wittke) 39
2.38 Entry of the cleft into the position sphere (Wittke) . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.39 Karlesjoch rockfall along 3 fissures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.40 Karlesjoch position sphere with 3 fissures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.41 Karlesjoch site sphere with registered fissure intersections . . . . . . . 42
2.42 Karlesjoch position sphere with registered fissures and the slope . . . . 43
2.43 Karlesjoch position sphere with possibility of movement of the fissure
bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.44 Karlesjoch position sphere with entered fracture friction cones . . . . . 45
2.45 Karlesjoch position sphere with registered friction areas . . . . . . . . . 46
2.46 Karlesjoch position sphere with favorable anchor direction . . . . . . . 47
2.47 Karlesjoch section of the rock situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.48 Karlesjoch grid-anchored rock slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.49 Permafrost in the summit area with glacier adjacent to the north . . . . 51
2.50 Temperature curve in the subsurface during permafrost . . . . . . . . . 52
2.51 Rock formation with fissure movements due to freeze-thaw cycle . . . . 53
2.52 Rock formation with fissure movements completely destroyed . . . . . 54
2.53 Structure on narrow rocky ridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.54 Structure with foundation elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.55 Construction of the base plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
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List of Figures 351
2.56 Wurmkogel with cable station and Top Mountain Star 2006 . . . . . . . 58
2.57 Wurmkogel wooden tie wall 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.61 Wurmkogel landslide at wooden tie wall 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.62 Wurmkogel refurbished wooden tie wall 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1 New slope near Adelsheim, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3.2 Landslide at slope near Adelsheim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.3 Neighboring structures when excavation begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.4 Excavation pit begins to deepen, depth approx. 5m . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.5 Construction progress at depths of 8m and 12m . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.6 Final depth of 16.5m achieved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.7 Crane with 60m outrigger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.8 Foundation of the crane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.9 Crane foundation failure with overturning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.10 Broken foundation of the crane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.11 Cover at excavation pit guyed foundation suspension bridge at Rappbode
Dam, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.12 Prestressed meshing in rock slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.13 System diagram of meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.14 Slope-parallel sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.15 Wedging slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.16 Input of geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.17 Input of the net for securing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.18 Method of attaching the net to the nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.19 Choice of soil or rock nails with inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.20 Design situation and damage sequence class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.21 Partial safety factors for the further calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.22 Decision about load cases to be calculated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.23 Decision about load cases to be calculated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.24 Force distribution during sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
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352 List of Figures
3.25 Calculation of the retaining nail force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

3.26 Determining the nail depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.27 Verification of the mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.28 Verification of the net attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.29 Specification of ropes for meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.30 Checking the calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.31 Cross-linking at Volders Alter Weg, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.32 Trap energy in kJ (kilo Joules) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.33 Principle sketch for the function of a rockfall net by Maccaferri . . . . . 89
3.34 Rockfall net at Kleinboden in Fuegenberg Tyrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.35 System of a small rockfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.36 Definition of the falling body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.37 Input of the geometry and the ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.38 Determining the kinetic energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.39 Definitions of the protective net arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.40 Geometric specifications of the safety gear structure . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.41 Possibility to vary the net movement and the rope sag . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.42 Steel wire nets from the Geobrugg company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.43 Trummer steel wire nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.44 Determination of the permissible wire force of the selected mesh . . . . 94
3.45 Calculation of the single wire force for different net motions . . . . . . 94
3.46 Steel ropes from Brugg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.47 Pfeifer steel ropes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.48 Solitec steel ropes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.49 Static system of rope loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.50 Calculation of rope force and rope elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.51 Angles at the column support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.52 Forces and angles at the column support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.53 Column force and bracing force with safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.54 Selected rope for bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.55 Profile values of the HE-A 120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.56 Angles and forces at the nail and rope anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
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List of Figures 353
3.57 Calculated angles and forces for nail and cable bracing . . . . . . . . . 100
3.58 DSI Simple Soil Nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.59 Self-drilling nail from MAI-IBO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.60 Ischebeck self-drilling nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.61 Landslide near traffic routes in Salzburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.62 Section for the situation of a impact wall protection . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.63 Basic geometric data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.64 Motion data of the slide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.65 Motion data of the braking distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.66 Density of slide body and impact wall load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.67 Illustration of the impact wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.68 Types of retaining walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.69 Cross section for Concrete wall for road protection in Hippach Zillertal 106
3.70 Concrete walls for road protection in Hippach Zillertal . . . . . . . . . 106
3.71 Calculation of weights and moments for the retaining wall . . . . . . . 107
3.72 Calculation of the sliding check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.73 Calculation of the overturning analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.74 Calculation of the ground failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.75 Comparison of earth pressure shapes for retaining walls with cantilever 110
3.76 Stone wall with continuous joints in Voels near Innsbruck . . . . . . . . 111
3.77 Stone filling in bond ‚Äì illustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.78 Mortared stone finishing in section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.79 Stone filling at the Kreuzjoch near Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany . 115
3.80 Stone finishing on the Wattentalstrasse in Tyrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.81 Stone filling with connection to a rock slope in the Wattental in Tyrol . . 116
3.82 Gabions for slope stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.83 Construction of a cushion wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.84 Cushion wall at Rifflsee Pitztal, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.85 Material parameters for the fill material for a cushion wall . . . . . . . 120
3.86 Earth pressure calculation in the individual layers of the cushion wall . . 120
3.87 Types of geogrid used with calculation values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.88 Example of a TT 060 geogrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
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354 List of Figures
3.89 Partial safety factors for the design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

3.90 Design of type and length of geogrid in each plane . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.91 Anchoring lengths of geogrids in each layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.92 Front element for fixing the slope geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.93 Section through a geocell stabilization system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.94 Entering the geometry, soil properties and loadings . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.95 Entering the type and size of the geocells to be used . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.96 Principle sketch with definitions of the geometry for geocells . . . . . . 126
3.97 Calculation of earth pressure for each layer of geocells . . . . . . . . . 127
3.98 Calculation of required package width of the geocells . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.99 Geocells during installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.100Installed geocells in Kitzbuehel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.101Reinforced earth as per script. Retaining structures and shoring TUM . 129
3.102Reinforced earth according to script. Retaining structures and shoring
TUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.103Possible applications of the precast wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.104Example data for the precast wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.105Calculation steps for the precast wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.106Available soil nail types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.107Calculated values of the soil nails with consideration of the abrasion rates 132
3.108Selection of the nail type and calculation of the nail length . . . . . . . 132
3.109Selection of nail type and calculation of nail length . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.110Approximate method for the calculation of moments for point-supported
slabs according to EN 1992-1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.111Design of steel fiber reinforced concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.112Selection of the thickness of the slab and existing safety . . . . . . . . . 134
3.113Verification against punching through the nail plate . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.114Verification against pull-out of the nail plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.115System slabs made of steel fiber concrete during assembly . . . . . . . 136
3.116System slabs made of steel fiber concrete for slope stabilization up to a
height of 3m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.117Slope and road stabilization with timber anchor wall in the Wattental valley137
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List of Figures 355
3.118Section through a timber anchor wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

3.119Calculating the earth pressure for a timber tie wall . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.120Design of the timbers and the support rail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.121Anchor design for a timber anchor wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.122Types and kinds of soil nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.123rust off rates to be considered for soil nails (Austria) . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.124rust off rates to be considered for structural steel (British Standards) . . 141
3.125System of the Krainer wall made of logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.126System of the Krainer wall made of precast concrete elements . . . . . 143
3.127Section through a Krainer wall at Weerberg Tirol . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.128Foundation of the Krainer wall in Navis, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.129Finished Krainer wall in the Hochgenein Zillertal project . . . . . . . . 145
3.130Working steps for soil nailing according to Ischebeck . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.131Working steps for nailing at Weerberg, Tyrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.132Division of the fields for the calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.133Example data for a nailed shotcrete wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.134Specification of the soil nails to be used (anchors) . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.135Assignment of soil nails and calculation of the respective nail length . . 149
3.136Approximation method for calculating the field and chord moments for
point-supported slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.137Calculation of moments in shotcrete wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.138Design of the shotcrete wall and choice of reinforcement . . . . . . . . 151
3.139Verification of the sliding safety of the nailed shotcrete wall . . . . . . . 152
3.140Verification of the tilt resistance of the nailed shotcrete wall . . . . . . . 152
3.141Verification of the base failure safety of the nailed shotcrete wall . . . . 153
3.142Proof of deep sliding over an anchor horizon ‚Äì system . . . . . . . . 154
3.143Verification of deep sliding above an anchor horizon - 1st and 2nd anchor
row . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.144Evidence of deep sliding over an anchor horizon - 3rd and 4th anchor row 155
3.145Verification of deep sliding above an anchor horizon - 5th row of anchors 155
3.146Verification of deep slip over two anchor horizons - system . . . . . . . 156
3.147Verification of deep slip over two anchor horizons - system . . . . . . . 156
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356 List of Figures
3.148Verification of deep slip joint over two anchor horizons - 3rd and 4th
anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.149Proof of deep sliding over two anchor horizons - 5th anchor row . . . . 158
3.150Proof of sliding with a straight slip line - System . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.151Determination of the effective nail length in each nail horizon . . . . . . 159
3.152Nail force referred to 1 m excavation pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.153Load data and determination of auxiliary quantities . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.154Calculation of driving and retaining forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.155Calculation of safety in the plane sliding joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.156Shift of the nailing plane due to underground installations . . . . . . . . 161
3.157Shotcrete reinforced with mats and nailed in Brixen im Thale . . . . . . 162
3.158Drained shotcrete reinforced with mats nailed in Kappl, Paznaun Valley 163
3.159Shotcrete reinforced with steel fibers nailed in Patsch near Innsbruck,
Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.160Excavation pit bottom station inclined elevator Ehrenbreitenstein in Koblenz,
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.161Spray test with plastic fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.162Joint formation in core specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.163Securing the ski depot in Fiss, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.164Securing at the Hotel Elisabeth in Ischgl, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.165Underground access tunnel in Oberlech, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.166Spraying work on the tunnel in Oberlech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.167Section of existing road with desired extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.168A mortared stone fill on the uphill side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.169Anchored precast wall on the uphill side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.170A half bridge made of reinforced concrete on the valley side . . . . . . 174
3.171A Krainer wall on the valley side made of precast reinforced concrete
elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3.172A wooden anchor wall on the valley side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3.173Comparison costs of the stone finishing wall variant on the uphill side . 176
3.174Comparison costs of the precast wall variant on the uphill side . . . . . 177
3.175Comparison costs of the uphill variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
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List of Figures 357
3.176Comparative costs of the half-bridge downhill variant . . . . . . . . . . 178

3.177Comparison costs of the variant Krainer wall on the valley side . . . . . 178
3.178Comparison costs of the wooden anchor wall variant on the downstream
side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.179Comparison costs of the valley-side variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.1 Terrain with limited incision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

4.2 Slip circle for terrain failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.3 Spatial view of the slip circle body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.4 Terrain without slip circle body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.5 Slip circle body with lateral load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.6 Securing the terrain in Kirchbichl-Tyrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.7 Slip circles for the terrain jump in Kirchbichl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.8 Influence of the width on the degree of utilization in Kirchbichl . . . . . 186
4.9 Terrain stabilization in Fiss-Tirol at a ski depot . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.10 Slip circles for the terrain jump in Fiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.11 Slip circles for the terrain jump in Fiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.12 Meersburg excavation pit when excavation started . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.13 Meersburg finished excavation pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.14 Slip circles for the terrain jump in Meersburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.15 Influence of width on utilization in Meersburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.16 Comparison of the degree of utilization to the ratio B/H . . . . . . . . 192
4.17 Comparison of the degree of utilization to the ratio B/H 2 . . . . . . . . 192
4.18 Excavation pit between buildings in Ischgl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.1 Definition of excavation depth, shoring depth and calculation depth . . . 195
5.2 Section for excavation shoring (example) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.3 Input data and active earth pressure on the soil side . . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.4 Input data and passive earth pressure on excavation side . . . . . . . . . 198
5.5 Resulting earth pressure on total system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.6 Graphic earth pressure representation in kN/m2 on the system . . . . . 200
5.7 Earth pressure distribution according to EAB for excavation walls . . . 201
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358 List of Figures
5.8 Redistribution of earth pressure according to EAB for anchored excava-

tion walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.9 Equivalent loads for unanchored shoring in [kN] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.10 Forces applied to a static beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.11 Moment calculation for unanchored shoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.12 Graph of moments with unanchored shoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.13 Total earth pressure converted to a rectangular shape for the anchored
shoring in the example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.14 Equivalent loads for anchored shoring in [kN] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.15 Moment calculation first without anchorage with earth pressure redistri-
bution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5.16 Details of the shoring unit and anchor horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.17 Section through shoring with anchor and moment line . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.18 Calculation of the moment line with anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
5.19 Graph of moments with simply anchored shoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
5.20 Sheet pile profiles for use in excavation pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.21 Sheet pile profiles for use in trenches and trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.22 Sheet pile profiles in U-shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.23 Sheet pile profiles in Z-shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.24 Sheet pile sections as lightweight form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.25 Sheet pile sections as flat form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.26 Channel profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.27 Chords in a sheet pile wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.28 Possible bar anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.29 Possible strand anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.30 Anchored sheet pile wall in Brixen im Thale, Austria . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.31 System of soldier pile shoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.32 Pile wall systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5.33 Anchored dissolved pile wall in Steyr, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.34 Pile wall with support ledger in Rum near Innsbruck . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.35 Drainage pile after removal with filter concrete and normal concrete . . 222
5.36 Drainage pile after removal with filter concrete and normal concrete . . 222
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List of Figures 359
5.37 Diaphragm wall excavator in operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

5.38 Production chamfers of the diaphragm wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.39 Simple joint formation with a butt joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.40 Simple joint formation with a butt joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.41 Fracture body according to Piaskowsky and Kowalewsky (DIN 4126) . 227
5.42 Fracture body according to Piaskowsky and Kowalewsky - plan and section227
5.43 Reduction factor according to Piaskowsky and Kowalewsky for earth
pressure calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.44 Geometry of the diaphragm wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.45 Soil layers with properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.46 Loading of the open slit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.47 Earth pressure coordinates according to Coulomb . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.48 Earth pressure in the calculation steps with reduction . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.49 Supporting force of the suspension in the calculation steps with safety
of the open slit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.50 Graph of the safety of the open slit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.51 Slab design for diaphragm walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.52 Securing the excavation pit with a diaphragm wall . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.53 Anchored diaphragm wall of Innsbruck University Hospital . . . . . . . 234
5.54 Application of diaphragm wall technology in subway railroad construction235
5.55 Area distribution of the use of a drainage wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.56 Construction of a drainage wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.57 Effect of GW drawdown on a drainage wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.58 Effect of GW drawdown with a one-sided drainage wall . . . . . . . . . 237
5.59 Cutter head for the CSM system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.60 Principle of wall construction of a cutter wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5.61 Control functions during production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.62 Protocol for the production of a wall lamella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.63 Milled wall as anchored excavation support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.64 Rectangular and polygonal cut-off wall for shaft construction . . . . . . 242
6.1 Measuring device for measuring structural cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

6.2 Underpinning of a wall according to DIN 4123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
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6.3 Underpinning in the village area of Ischgl, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

6.4 Underpinning of the Franciscan monastery in Innsbruck . . . . . . . . . 246
6.5 Underpinning of the Schwaz hospital with heliport with steel fiber concrete247
6.6 HDBV work sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
6.7 Types of injection used for HDBV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.8 Possible applications at HDBV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.9 Underpinning with HDBV at Villa Blanka Innsbruck ‚Äì section . . . . 250
6.10 Underpinning with HDBV at Villa Blanka Innsbruck . . . . . . . . . . 251
6.11 Underpinning with HDBV in the interior of the Chamber of Labor in
Innsbruck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.12 Underpinning with HDBV at Tannenberggasse in Schwaz . . . . . . . . 253
6.13 Determining the underpinning load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.14 Entering the soil properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.15 Entering the geometry and load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.16 Underpinning geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.17 Calculation of the individual underpinning cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.18 Calculation of the stresses and the gaping joint in the sections . . . . . . 257
6.19 Definition of the 1st anchor row for underpinning . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.20 Geometry of underpinning with 1st anchor layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.21 Calc of the individual sections of the underpinning with 1st anchor layer 259
6.22 Calc of the stresses and the gaping joint in the sections with 1st anchor
position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.23 Position of resultants without and with 1 anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.24 Definition of the 1st and 2nd anchor layer for underpinning . . . . . . . 261
6.25 Geometry of underpinning with 2 anchor layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.26 Calc of the individual sections of the underpinning with 1st + 2nd anchor
layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.27 Calc of the stresses and the gaping joint in the sections with 1st + 2nd
anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.28 Position of the resultant without and with 2nd tie position . . . . . . . . 263
7.1 Measuring device for measuring structural cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

7.2 Effect of earth pressure on or from the sliding body . . . . . . . . . . . 266
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List of Figures 361
7.3 Calculation example for spatial earth pressure determination . . . . . . 270

7.4 Plane earth pressure calculation for each layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.5 Determination of the lateral resting pressure and the frictional forces . . 271
7.6 Sliding body and lateral earth pressure wedger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
7.7 Spatial earth pressure and its earth pressure coordinate . . . . . . . . . 272
7.8 Comparison of plane and spatial earth pressure on the shaft wall . . . . 273
7.9 Comparison of earth pressure coordinates of planar and spatial earth
pressure on the shaft wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
7.10 Shaft with symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.11 Quarter shaft is statically a single-hip frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.12 Forces and moments for a single-hip frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.13 Determination of moments due to load e1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.14 Determination of the support forces due to load e1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.15 Determination of moments due to load e2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.16 Determination of the support forces due to load e2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.17 Composition of moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
7.18 Composition of the forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
7.19 graphical representation of moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.20 graphical representation of compressive forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.21 Choice of materials for shaft protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
7.22 Determination of the fiber-reinforced concrete properties and partial safety
factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
7.23 Layer-by-layer design for the shaft walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.24 necessary shotcrete thickness for the shaft walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.25 Curved shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.26 Load on shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
7.27 Determining the pressure forces in the shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
7.28 Shaft compression forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
7.29 Choice of construction materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
7.30 Characteristic values of selected fiber-reinforced concrete . . . . . . . . 284
7.31 Roughness of the excavated material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
7.32 Excavation thickness of the shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
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362 List of Figures
8.1 Definitions according to direction and load type . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

8.2 Anchors in building construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.3 Screw anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.4 Expansion anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.5 Plate anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.6 Spinning anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.7 Mountain Bob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.8 Tent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.9 Climbing frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.10 Ischebek-Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.11 Perfo- and expansion anchorsr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.12 GRP anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.13 Single-rod anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.14 Strand anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.15 Duplex anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.16 Rock nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.17 Perfo anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
8.18 expansion anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
8.19 expansion spreader head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
8.20 Spring expansion head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
8.21 DSI Standard Soil Nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
8.22 DSI Permanent Soil Nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
8.23 DSI Soil Nail Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.24 Variation of many types of soil nails from GD-Anker company . . . . . 296
8.25 Ischebeck soil nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.26 Ischebeck soil nail data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.27 MAI hollow bar nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
8.28 DSI Standard Hollow Bar Nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
8.29 Permanently corrosion-protected DSI Hollow Bar Nail . . . . . . . . . 298
8.30 Data for the DSI Hollow Bar Nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
8.31 GRP anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
8.32 Data for the GRP anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
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List of Figures 363
8.33 VSL anchor head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

8.34 Freisinet anchor head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.35 Anchor head of Polensky-Zoellner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.36 Anchor head of BBRV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.37 Anchor head of DSI single bar anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.38 DSI Single Bar Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.39 DSI Single Bar Anchor with Double Corrosion Protection . . . . . . . . 303
8.40 DSI Anchor Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
8.41 DSI Removable Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
8.42 Duplex anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.43 Structure of an individual strand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.44 DSI Temporary Strand Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.45 DSI Double Corrosion Protected Strand Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.46 DSI data for strand anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.47 GEWI-Pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
8.48 GEWI pile data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
8.49 Load assignments for anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
8.50 Service life of anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
8.51 Rust off rates for anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
8.52 Qualification test for bar anchor d=57.5mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
8.53 Specifications for anchor and press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
8.54 Specifications for anchor forces and test load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
8.55 Load case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.56 Load case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.57 Load case 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.58 Load case 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.59 Load case 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.62 Specifications for load application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
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364 List of Figures
8.65 Specifications for load application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

8.66 Load cell with pressure gauge for bar anchor d=57.5mm . . . . . . . . 316
8.67 Electronic load cell, photo DSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
8.68 Load cell for strand anchors, photo DSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
8.69 Two-part load cell from DSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
8.70 Electrochemical conditions during the formation of corrosion . . . . . . 321
8.71 Start of corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
8.72 Formation of cavities around the steel due to volume increase of the
corrosion products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
8.73 Formation of cracks in the cement mortar cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
8.74 Penetration of chlorides, destruction of the passive layer, beginning of
the corrosion (pitting) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
8.75 First pitting and depth effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
8.76 Cracks in the cement mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
8.77 Initial condition for stress corrosion cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
8.78 Beginning of crystal opening and thus first corrosion . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.79 Crack propagation in the crystal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.80 System of measurement with the CMS electrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
8.81 Hahnen-kammbahn-Kitzbuehel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
8.82 Wurmkogel-Hochgurgl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
8.83 Gamsgarten-Stubaier-Glacier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
8.84 Measurement when anchor steel is protected and not corroded . . . . . 330
8.85 Special case - steel ready for corrosion in cement mortar . . . . . . . . 331
8.86 Corroding anchor steel in cement mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
8.87 Polarization measurement when anchor steel is protected and not corroded333
8.88 Polarization measurement with corroding anchor steel in cement mortar 334
8.89 Special case - anchor steel ready for corrosion in cement mortar . . . . 335
8.90 Schematic of a bar anchor with CMS electrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.91 Wire routing at the anchor head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.92 Production of the bar anchors with CMS electrode in the factory . . . . 337
8.93 Storage of the bar anchors with CMS electrode on site . . . . . . . . . . 337
8.94 Section through retaining wall with soil nails and electrode . . . . . . . 338
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@seismicisolation
List of Figures 365
8.95 Retaining wall with soil nails and electrodes from front side . . . . . . 339
8.96 Spatial view of nailed retaining wall with electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . 340
8.97 Cross-section of double corrosion-protected armature with CCP . . . . 342
8.98 Principle of the electrical circuit in the CCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
8.99 Control of the CCP system in an anchor installation . . . . . . . . . . . 343
8.100Longitudinal section of a double corrosion-protected anchor with CCP . 344
8.101CCP for simply corrosion-protected anchors and soil nails . . . . . . . 345
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Bibliography
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Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo, 1985.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Index
100 mV criterion, 331 bedrock, 77

bend in the terrain, 24
L. Mueller, 31
bentonite, 221
Ablative corrosion, 319 binding capacity, 221
acceptance test, 301, 309 Bishop, 23
adhesion distance, 50 borehole, 64
alternating-loaded, 285 boundaries, 24
anchor, 46, 49, 69, 285, 299 boundary stresses, 255
anchor direction, 47 bracing, 214
anchor force, 208 Brown, 52
anchor grout, 215, 290 Brugg, 98
anchor inclination, 47 buckling, 60
anchor moment, 208 building, 11
anchored shoring, 205 bulk density, 16, 121
angle of fall, 39
Calc, 19
angle of friction, 121
canyon, 8
annual hydrograph, 65
carbonation, 318
anode, 318
cased borehole, 215
anodic partial reaction, 318
cathode, 318
application, 231
cathodic corrosion protection (CCP),
Arbed, 211
339
assembly conditions, 74
cathodic partial reaction, 318
avalanch, 63
CCP control system, 342
avalanches, 51
CCP method for anchors, 340
backfilling, 74 cement coating, 49
BBRV, 299 cement slurry, 246

@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
374 Index
Central Europe, 52 current, 340

chemical reaction, 318 curved side walls, 280
civil engineer, 53 cushion wall, 118
classifying anchors, 285 cutting wall, 236
claw plate, 80 cutting wheels, 236
clay layer, 16
clefts, 32 danger zone, 76
Climbing frame, 287 danger zones, 63

deep cuts, 263
CMS electrode, 326, 330
deep slip joint, 157
coefficient of friction, 91
deformation, 68, 69, 75
Cohesion, 1
diaphragm wall, 67, 221
cohesion, 19, 37, 83
double corrosion protection, 216,
cohesive force, 83
301, 305
cohesive fraction, 243
dowels, 286
cohesive slopes, 18
drainage concrete, 220
compressive forces, 280
drainage elements, 233
construction site, 64, 71
drainage pile, 220
control the anchors, 309
drainage pipes, 66
core area, 255
drainage wall, 234
corrosion, 49, 75, 211
drill bit, 290
Corrosion measurement, 309
driving force, 18
corrosion measurement, 337
DSI, 300
corrosion potential, 325
DSI soil nail, 100
corrosion process, 316
Duplex anchor, 289
corrosion protection, 292, 307
duplex anchor, 302
corrosion rate, 211 durability, 307
Coulomb, 107, 193
counter moment, 208 E-modulus, 1
crack, 67 earth pressure, 25, 107, 120, 131,
crane, 71 193, 225, 263, 269
creek, 9 earth’s surface, 7
crosslinking, 77 earthquake, 49
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Index 375
electrical energy, 318 fissure filling, 36, 38

electrical measurement, 317 fissure inclination, 33
electrical potential, 325 fissure intersection, 42
electrochemical condition, 317 flat side walls, 272
electrochemistry, 317 fleece, 76, 118
electrode, 317, 325 flood, 63
electrolyte, 325 flow force, 22
electronic load cell, 314 Force measurement, 309
embankment, 7, 8, 63, 64 foundation, 64, 72, 100, 241
embedment depth, 202 foundation failure, 72, 73
equivalent load, 205 fracture, 37
erosion, 8, 11, 22 fracture structures, 31
erosion slope, 11 fracturing, 30
erosion-resistant material, 11 free friction section, 303
excavation, 7, 193 free slope, 75
excavation pit, 193, 251 freeze-thaw cycle, 52
excavation pits, 64 freeze-thaw cycles, 54
excavation shoring, 74 Freisinet, 299
existing structure, 251 Friction angle, 1
Expansion anchor, 286 friction angle, 16, 44
expansion anchor, 291 friction cone, 47
expansion spreader head, 291 friction free area, 216
frictional force, 83, 182, 264
fall direction, 79 frost, 52
fall energy, 87 frost depth, 17
fall trajectory, 92 frost index, 52
Fellenius, 23 frost zone, 52
fiber concrete, 69, 163, 278
field sizes, 146 Gabions, 117
filter cake, 221 gaping joint, 255
Fish River Canyon, 8 Geobrugg, 90
fissure, 32 geocells, 125
fissure bodies, 46 geogrid, 118, 121
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
376 Index
geological compass, 39, 41 hazard zone plan, 63

geological history, 30 HDBV underpinning, 251
geological process, 7 Heavy-duty anchors, 289
geologist, 41 hemisphere, 39
geometric form, 30 Herbert Geppert, 339
geometric shape, 13 high mountain regions, 37
geometrical parameters, 79 high mountains, 51
geotechnic, 1 high pressure, 246
geotechnical engineer, 41, 194 high-pressure injection, 246
geotechnical processing, 39 high-pressure soil grouting, 246
GEWI, 148 Hoesch, 211
GEWI pile, 305 holding force, 18
glacier, 51 hollow bar nails, 290
glacier area, 58 hollow rod, 81
glide direction, 24 horizontal bedding, 10
global warming, 51 hydraulic gradient, 22
grain size, 15 hydraulic principle, 314
Grand Canyon, 8
granular soil material, 15 IBO, 148
granular structure, 54 ice, 36
gravity retaining wall, 105 ice loss, 61
gravity wall, 248 icing depth, 52
grease, 303 impact wall, 102
ground anchors, 288 infrastructure, 11
groundwater, 224 injection, 246
grout, 246, 251, 301 injection body, 251
grouting, 246 injection head, 246
GRP anchor, 288 inner-city properties, 243
GRP anchors, 297 Ischebeck, 148
GRP rock bolts, 297 Ischebeck self-drilling nail, 101
guide wall, 222 Ischebek-Anchor, 288
harbor wall, 236 jet grouting, 246
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Index 377
joint, 242 melting, 58

joint construction, 224 mesh, 79
joint inclination, 26 mesh baskets, 117
mesh geometry, 79
kinetic energy, 85, 102
mesh size, 80
Kowalensky, 225
micropile, 77, 305
Krainer wall, 142
moment, 27, 201
Krupp, 211
moment distribution, 205
laboratory, 1 monitoring systems, 309
lamella, 24 montmorillonite, 221
landslide, 7, 9, 51, 60, 63, 66 mortar body, 246
Larssen, 211 mortared stone wall, 113
lateral earth pressure, 270 mountain, 51
lateral surface, 269 mountain area, 51, 63
layer joint, 255 Mountain Bob, 287
Lift-off test, 313 movement, 43, 68, 70
lightweight anchor, 48 mudflow, 63
liquid phase, 221 mylonite zone, 31, 38
load bearing capacity, 309
nail wall, 12
load cell, 314
nailed shotcrete, 66, 146, 243
load cells, 301
nailed shotcrete wall, 67
load-bearing capacity, 301
natural hazards, 63
long-term components, 74
natural stone wall, 105
longitudinal force, 78
neighboring building, 67
Maccaferri, 88 neighboring structure, 241
Mai, 148 net stress, 84
MAI-IBO soil nail, 100
open slit, 225
manholes, 263
open slope, 38
material transport, 8
measuring device, 241 partial safety factor, 74
measuring rod, 68 passive foundation system, 305
Medium load anchor, 286 Peiner, 211
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
378 Index
Perfo anchor, 291 pressure tube, 289

Perfo- and expansion anchorsr, 288 prestressing, 69, 299
permafrost, 36, 49, 51, 55 pretensioning, 84
permanent, 74 protection method, 341
permanent anchor, 216 public utility lines, 263
permanent anchors, 317 pushing force, 27
permanent components, 74
rainfall, 76
Permanent Soil Nail, 292
reduced pressure, 225
permeability, 221
reduction factor, 226
Pfeifer, 96
reference electrode, 325
pH-value, 318
reinforce, 77
Piaskowsky, 225
reinforced concrete, 71, 230
pile wall, 67, 218
reinforced concrete wall, 105
Pitting corrosion, 319
reinforced earth, 129
plane slip, 15
removable anchor, 302
plastic phase, 221
required section modulus, 214
plasticity, 221
retaining structure, 66
Plate anchor, 286 retaining wall, 67, 105, 126, 131
plate tectonics, 30 ridge, 61
pneumatic driller, 48 rock, 7, 30
point of intersection, 255 rock anchors, 288
polarization, 341 rock block, 57
polarization measuremen, 330 rock formation, 54
polarization measurement, 337 rock mass, 42
Polensky-Zoellner, 299 rock nails, 78, 288
pore content, 54 rock slope, 42
potential measurement, 325, 337 rock slopes, 77
Potential values, 329 rockfall, 43, 46, 77, 87
Potentials, 330 rockfall net, 87
precast wall, 130 rolling slopes, 15
prefabricated element, 129 rolling soil, 14
pressure cell, 314 rope, 77, 96
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Index 379
rope elongation, 97 single boulder protection, 77

rough surface, 283 single strand, 303
rust off rate, 148, 308 single-bar anchors, 292
rust off rates, 140 single-hip frame, 272
rust surcharge, 49 Single-rod anchor, 289
single-rod anchors, 305
safety, 2, 19, 49, 63
single-rod nails, 305
safety factor, 29, 63
Sir Humphery Davy, 339
Screw anchor, 286
slab, 73
sealing, 53
sliding bodies, 14
security, 24
sliding body, 264
sediment, 9
sliding circle, 23
seepage, 16
sliding joint, 153
seepage water, 66
sliding mass, 102
self-drilling soil nails, 290
sliding situation, 78
settlement, 242
slip angle, 18
shaft, 263, 265
slip body, 18
shear stress, 221
sheathing tube, 303 slip circle, 183
sheet pile wall, 211 slip joint, 26, 50
shoring, 67, 193 slip plane, 83
shoring depth, 202 slippage, 264
shoring of a terrain, 105 slit, 221
shoring wall, 193 slope, 7, 43, 63
shotcrete, 12 slope stability, 17
shotcrete fields, 243 slope stabilization, 12, 125
shotcrete overlay, 60 slope-parallel sliding, 82
shotcrete shoring, 163 sloping soils, 251
shotcrete support, 278 slurry, 221
side surface, 180 Small anchors, 286
side wall, 263, 265, 269 soil, 7
Simmer, 110 soil layer, 194
Single Bar Anchor, 300 Soil mechanics, 23
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
380 Index
Soil Mixing, 236 Stress corrosion, 319

soil nail, 69, 131, 148, 290 strike angle, 39
soil nailing, 146 subgrade, 242
soil particles, 17 subsoil, 24, 63, 64
soil properties, 1, 26, 79, 227 subsoil risk, 3
Soilcrete, 246 subsurface, 8
Solar radiation, 76 suspension, 221
soldier pile wall, 217 symmetry axes, 272
solid bar anchor, 305 system anchorage, 46
solid bar nails, 290 Talobre, 44
Solitec, 96 tangential force, 26
space weight, 16 temperature, 52
spatial earth pressure, 264 temporary, 74
spatial influence, 179 temporary anchor, 216
spatial structures, 30 temporary anchors, 317
spatial terrain slopes, 179 temporary components, 74
specific surface, 221 tensile force, 49
Spinning anchor, 287 tension band, 118
spreadsheet program, 19 tension bands, 129
Spring expansion head, 291 tension-loaded, 285
stabilization, 11 Tent, 287
standard, 28 terrain stabilization, 185
Standard Soil Nail, 292 timber anchor wall, 137
standardization, 64 tixotropy, 221
steel fiber concrete, 133 trench, 211
steel grade, 81, 99 trench sheeting, 211
steel net, 77 trenches, 64
trial column, 251
steel sheet pile, 211
Trummer, 90
Stone walls, 111
type of anchor, 48
strand, 303
types of fissures, 31
Strand anchor, 289
strand anchor, 303 unanchored wall, 200
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
381
underpinning, 242, 243, 252 VSL, 299

underwater concrete, 231
wall friction angle, 196
unfractured rock, 33
water pressure, 74
urban areas, 263
waterproofing, 53
utilization factor, 19, 186
watertightness, 75
vertical force, 26 weathering, 30
viscosity, 221 wedging slip, 79
volume percent, 54 wire mesh, 77
volume weights, 16 wooden anchor wall, 12, 57
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation

Slopes and Excavations Design and Calculation Wietek 2022

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Slopes and Excavations Design and Calculation Wietek 2022

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Bernhard Wietek

Slopes and Excavations

ISBN 978-3-658-35852-5 ISBN 978-3-658-35853-2 (eBook)

All calculations were performed with LibreOffice-Calc. LibreOffice is an open source

Sistrans near Innsbruck, October 2021 Bernhard Wietek

3.2 Coverage and networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4 Securing spatial terrain slopes 181

5 Excavation Shoring 195

7 Shaft structures 265

8 Anchors and soil nails 287

8.3 Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

List of Figures 349

At a construction site, an excavation support is to be calculated. In the start-up a civil

• Friction angle ±5 degrees

• E-modulus ±20 MN/m2

© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 1

The subsoil risk is defined according to DIN 4020:

This presentation is intended to be an aid to the engineers in practice to argue against

Thus, any geotechnical treatment in the various projects should be:

Fig. 1.1: such excavation situations may be avoided

Fig. 1.2: lack of geotechnical treatment leads to landslides

2.1 Formation of slopes

Natural embankments are formed by movements of the subsoil as a result of geolog-

© Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2022 7

Fig. 2.1: Fish River Canyon in Namibia

For a simple incipient slope, the principle sequence is shown below:

Fig. 2.2: Initial situation of a slope

A stream flows below an embankment. During a heavy rainfall a landslide in the

Fig. 2.3: Situation after the landslide

Fig. 2.5: Situation after renewed landsliding

Fig. 2.6: Reversed slope caused by ongoing landsliding

Fig. 2.7: Filling the landslide depression with erosion-resistant material

Fig. 2.8: Filling of the entire erosion endangered area

Fig. 2.9: Building a nail wall to secure the embankment

2.2 Loose material

These slopes differ mainly in their geometric shape :

Fig. 2.10: Geometric shapes of slopes in unconsolidated material

From the geometric shape of slopes in unconsolidated material, it is already possible

• Hollowed out or concave sloping terrain: this is of a former landslide; particular

2.2.1 Rolling soils

Fig. 2.11: Slope in sand, gravel and stones <15cm

Fig. 2.12: Force approach for rolling slopes

If water is in the slope, two cases are distinguished:

γw .... water [10 kN/m3 ]

This is the most frequent cause of debris flows.

2.2.2 Soils with cohesive components

Fig. 2.13: Slope with clayey fractions in the gravel

Fig. 2.14: Force approach for cohesive slopes

N = G ∗ cos(δ ) and T = G ∗ sin(δ ) (2.4)

R = N ∗ tan(ϕ) = G ∗ cos(δ ) ∗ tan(ϕ) (2.6)

And thus the holding forces result to:

Now the two opposing forces can be compared.

Sa f ety η = H/T (shouldbe > 1) (2.9)

The utilization factor of the slope can also be determined:

Utilizationratio α = T /H (shouldbe < 1) (2.10)

Fig. 2.15: Calculation example of a slope with cohesive soil

Fig. 2.16: Graphical result of the slope calculation

Fig. 2.17: Slope flattening from 60 degrees to 45 degrees in Roppen

2.2.3 Terrain fracture

Fig. 2.18: Sliding circle in a terrain situation

Fig. 2.19: Sliding circle with lamella division

The following criteria apply to the division of the individual slats:

Fig. 2.20: Forces for a lamella

Fig. 2.21: Determination of the slip joint inclination of the lamellas