JHANGO JUNIOR CHEMISTRY Kampani M.L Nthumbu E.F ‘CG , Publishers Ltd WS)TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Chapter 1: Chapter 2: Chapter 3: Chapter 4: Chapter 5: Chapter 6: References Chemical bonding Elements and the Periodic Table Acids and Bases Organic Families (Hydrocarbons) Air Soil Page 38 50 68 18 88Chapter 1: Chemical bonding : . 1.1: Meaning of chemical bond Bricks in a wall of a building are held together by cement. The cement forms a bond between the bricks. Without the cement the bricks cannot stay together to form the wall. Similarly, in any type of matter, atoms are kept together by chemical bonds (see Figure 1.1). Without the chemical bonds, atoms cannot stay together to form matter. Bond between ‘atoms in a particle Bond between bricks of matter in a wall of a building (electrostatic force) (cement) Figure 1.1: Bonds between particles Chemical bonds are formed when atoms of different elements react and form new substances. Once atoms are bonded together, it is difficult to separate them. Heat energy is required to break chemical bonds and separate the atoms. Strong bonds require more heat energy to break while weak chemical bonds require less. While cement is used to form bonds between bricks in a wall, atoms use electrons to bond to each other. The atoms join together either by: a. sharing electrons or b. transferring or accepting electrons The electrons used in chemical bonding are the ones in the valence shells. For the bricks in the wall, it requires someone to put the cement between the bricks; but no one puts the electrons between the atoms. They do it themselves. What causes them to join together? Exercise 1.1 1, Draw the atomic structures of the elements in group VIII and write their electron configurations, 2. Draw the atomic structures and write the electron configuration of the elements in period 2, groups I to VIL When is the outer shell of an element said to be full? 4, Between elements in group VIII and elements in groups I to VII, which elements have completely filled outer shells? Explain your answer. 5. Elements in group VIII do not react, and that is why they are said to be inert or stable while the elements in all the other groups react. What could be the reason(s) for that difference in their reactivities?6. Electron configuration with full outer shell is called stable electron configuration because when the outer shell is full, the atom becomes stable. Which elements in the periodic table have stable electron configuration? 7. Why do the elements in groups I to VII react? 8. What electron configurations do the atoms of the elements in groups I to VII attain after they have reacted with other atoms? A chemical bond is the force of attraction which holds atoms, ions or molecules together. An atom can form one or more bonds with other atoms. The number of bonds an atom can form with other atoms is known as its valency. The valency of an atom equals the number of electrons which an atom transfers, gains or shares with other atoms in order to obtain stable electron configuration. The valency of each element in groups J to III is equal to the number of valence electrons. In the other groups, the valency of the elements is eight minus the number of valence electrons. Exercise 1.2 ? 1. What is the valency of each of the following elements: - a) Mg dc U b) N e) Cl ul, ©) Al f) Na 2, Explain the valency of the element Ne . 1.2: Types of chemical bonds The type of chemical bond that forms between atoms depends on whether the bonding electrons are transferred from one atom to another, shared, or just removed without being accepted. Tonic bond Activity 1.1: Demonstrating formation of ions Materials r © Maize grains or white beans © Red beans r Procedure 1, Arrange the maize grains and the beans as shown in Figure 1.2 below to represent a ‘magnesium atom. Write electron configuration of the atom. t Using other maize grains or white beans, make a model of an oxygen atom. Write the electron configuration of the oxygen atom, Transfer one electron from the magnesium atom to the chlorine atom. yeepKey © Electron (maize grains) # Proton (red beans) « Neutron (white beans) Figure 1.2: Atomic model Discussion 1. Suggest a reason why electron is transferred from magnesium atom to oxygen atom and not the other way round? 2. Write an electron configuration of each element before and after the electron transfer. 3. What is the overall charge of each element: a. before electron transfer? b._ after electron transfer? 4. What is the relationship between number of electrons lost/gained and size of the charge of each element after the electron transfer? 5. What do elements achieve after transferring electrons? Meaning of ionic bonding When electrons are transferred from one atom to another, oppositely charged particles are formed. These particles are known as ions. The atom that loses electrons becomes a positively charged ion, while the atom that accepts electrons becomes a negatively charged ion. Figure 1.3 illustrates how ions are formed. ‘A positively charged ion is known as a cation, while the negatively charged ion is known as an anion. The cations and anions attract each other and join together to form ionic compounds such ‘as NaCl, and MgO. The force of attraction between the oppositely charged ions is what is known as the ionic bond. When atoms lose or gain electrons, they attain the electronic configuration of the noble gases. For example, magnesium becomes like Ne (2.8) when it loses two electrons to become a magnesium cation Mg” (2.8). ~ i Reed erat Satay oy Figure 1.3: Losing and gaining electrons C Exercise 1.3 1. How is the charge of an ion determined?2. How is the electric charge of an ion written? 4 What is the relationship between the electric charge of an ion and the valency of the element? 4. Explain the following: a, An aluminium cation is written as Al°~ What does the ‘3+’ mean? b. A chloride ion is written as CI’. What does the ‘~’ meat? 5. Explain, which elements on the periodic table will form: a. cations? b. anions? 6. Explain whether the ions, K* and $*- are stable or not. Is it possible for a sodium atom, Na, to form a dipositive sodium ion, Na" ion? Explain 8. Like which noble gases do the following elements become when they form chemical bonds: a. lithium b. fluorine cc. aluminium d. calcium e. chlorine 9. What do you understand by the term ionic bond? 10. Generalise the periods of the noble gases which metals and non metals become like when they lose or gain electron. ~ Chemical formula for ionic compounds To write a chemical formula you need to identify the elements in the compound and number of atoms of each kind. The metal element is written first followed by the non-metal element. The number of atoms of each kind of elements in the compound can be found using a cross method as illustrated in the example below. Example 1.1 Write the chemical formula for magnesium chloride given that the charge of the magnesium cation is +2 and the charge of chloride anion is -1 Working out The ions that make the compound are Mg™* and. cr. Using the cross method we have: Ton Vateney M 2 cr 1 This means that in the compound magnesium chloride, one magnesium cation combines with two chloride anions.The chemical formula for magnesium chloride is MgCl. However conventionally, when the number of the particles of an element is one, the number “I” is not written. Therefore, the chemical formula for magnesium chloride is MgCl. Exercise 1.4 1. How are the numbers of the ions of each element written in a compound? 2. Write down the chemical formula for the ionic compounds below. Use the periodic table to find the sizes of the charges on the ions and their valencies: a) sodium chloride b) calcium oxide ©) aluminium oxide 4) potassium sulphide 3. For each ionic compound in question (2) above: a) Work out the total positive charge and total negative charge. b) What is the overall charge of each compound? 4. What can you conclude about the overall charge on each ionic compound? Covalent bonding Non-metal elements want to gain electrons to achieve stable electron configuration. For example, consider hydrogen and chlorine atoms in Figure 1.4. a A a Figure 1.4: Hydrogen and chlorine atoms with incompletely filled outer shells Each one of these atoms needs to gain one electron in order to have a completely filled outer shell. Activity 1.2: Demonstrating sharing of electrons to attain stability Material © Maize grains © Red beans © White beans Procedure 1. Using maize grains, red beans and white beans to represent electrons, protons and neutrons respectively, make two models of as was done in activity 1.1. 2. Write electron configuration of each atom.3. Without adding or removing any electrons, combine the two atoms in such a way that each one of them should have eight electrons in its outer shell. 4, Draw the shells of each atom to show how the two atoms have combined. Discussion What is the electron configuration of each atom when they are combined? Explain whether the two atoms are stable after sharing the electron. Draw the outer shell of each atom to show how they have combined. Draw outer shells of two oxygen atoms of would combine to attain stability How many electrons does each of the following atoms share with other atoms in order to attain stability: a) Cl b) 0 c) N du wen Covalent bond When atoms of non metals come close to each other the positively charged nucleus of one atom attracts the electrons of the other atom in order to attain stability (Figure 1.5). force of attraction between the nucleus of one atom and electron of another atom H a Figure 1.5: Attraction of electrons and nuclei The atoms then come together and share electrons in such a way that each one of them has a completely filled outer shell (Figure 1.6). . pair of shared electrons H a Figure 1.6: Formation of covalent bondAfter sharing the electrons each one of them attains a stable electron configuration. The force of attraction formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms is referred to as the covalent bond. The group of atoms that are joined together by covalent bonds is called a molecule. One pair of shared electrons forms a single covalent bond, e.g. H-Cl. Two pairs form a double covalent bond e.g. O=O and three pairs a triple bond, The number of electrons an atom can contribute to covalent bonds equals the number of covalent bonds the atom can form with one or more other atoms. Exercise 1.5 1. How many electrons does each atom contribute to a single covalent bond formed? 2. How does the number of electrons an atom shares with other atoms relate to its valency? 3. How many covalent bonds can each of the following atoms form to obtain stable electronic configurations? Explain your answers. a 0 bc c. Ne aN 4, Electron configurations of which noble gases will those atoms in (3) above obtain after forming covalent bonds with other atoms. 5. Explain whether itis possible for metal elements to form covalent bonds or not. Chemical formulae for simple covalent compounds Chemical formulae of covalent compounds can be worked out using valencies of the elements that make the compounds. The valencies can be worked out from the valence electrons using electron configurations or from group number of the element in the periodic table. Or they may be given. The chemical formula can then be worked out using the cross method. The order of the elements in the compounds is that those on the left hand side of the periodic table are written first, followed by those elements on the right hand side of the periodic table. Exercise 1.6 1. Work out the valencies of these elements: H, Cl, N, C, 0. 2. Work out the chemical formulae of each of the following compounds. The elements that make the compounds are given in brackets beside the name of the compound. Water (oxygen and hydrogen atoms) b. Methane (carbon and hydrogen, C and H) ©. Carbon dioxide (carbon and oxygen) 4. Ammonia (hydrogen and nitrogen)Dot and cross diagrams In ionic and molecular substances, electrons are used to bond the particles of the different elements. To show that electrons from different elements have been used in the bonding, dots (¢) and the crosses (x) are used to represent the electrons from the different elements when drawing diagrams of the ionic compounds and the molecules. These diagrams are called dot and cross diagrams. When drawing dot and cross diagrams: © only electrons in the outer shell are drawn, ‘* each particle should attain stable electron configuration, * electrons should be drawn in pairs where possible. * akey should be used to denote electrons of each atom that participated in the bonding. Dot and cross diagrams illustrating ionic compounds In an ionic compound each metal element has lost electrons, while each non-metal element has gained electrons. For example, in the compound CaF, the calcium atom has lost two electrons to become a calcium cation, while each fluorine atom has gained one electron to become a fluoride anion. Figure 1.7 shows the dot and cross diagram for calcium fluoride. key 2 - 1 * Electron of F ead ye Figure 1.7: Dot and cross diagram for calcium fluoride In ionic bonds the outer shells of the ions do not overlap, the two ions are just held together by an attractive force. This is indicated by enclosing each kind of ion in square brackets. The diagram shows that the outer shell of the calcium ion, Ca°’ is empty. It also shows that the outer shell of the fluoride ion, F~ has eight electrons, All electrons are identical. The dots (e) and the crosses (x) are used just to indicate the electrons from the different atoms When drawing dot and cross diagrams, the ions are enclosed in square brackets to show that the oppositely charged ions do not overlap, but are simply held together by an attractive force When 2 or more ions of one type are present in a chemical formula, they are enclosed in round brackets and a subscript in front of the brackets indicates the number of the ions of that type. Exercise 1.7 1. Explain the following: a) Calcium ion is drawn without valence electrons b) inner shells are not drawn ©) the square bracket around the fluorine ion 4) the (2+) and the (-) dr-calcium and fluoride ion respectively. 2. Draw dot and cross diagrams for the following ionic compounds: a) Calcium oxide b) Aluminium oxidec) Magnesium oxide 4d) Sodium chloride ©) Potassium oxide Dot and cross diagrams for molecules Covalent bonds can form between atoms of the same element to form molecules of elements, or between atoms of different elements to form molecular or covalent compounds. Dots and crosses can be used to represent valence electrons of different atoms in molecules. Figures 1.8 and 1.9 show a dot and cross diagrams for chlorine and water molecules respectively. * Electron of Cl * Electron of Cl Figure 1.8: Dot and cross diagram for a chlorine molecule Key x Electron of H & Ca) «Electron of 0 Figure 1.9: Dot and cross diagram for a water molecule Exercise 1:8 1, Draw the dot and cross diagrams for each of the following molecules: a. Methane b. No c. Ammonia d. Carbon dioxide e. Oz 2. Write the electron configuration for the atom of each element in the molecules in (3) above. Metallic bonding Valance electrons in metals are loosely held. When metal atoms come close together, the valence electrons leave their individual atoms and move freely around the pos ely charged ions (Figure 1.10). A strong force of attraction between the positively charged ions and the sea of delocalized electrons keeps the metal ions together.positively charged ions sea of delocalized electrons Figure 1.10: Metallic bonding Exercise 1.9 Define a metallic bond in your own words. What are the similarities and differences between ionic bond and the metallic bond? Why are metals able to conduct heat? Most metals have high melting points and boiling points. Suggest the reason for this. Be 101.3: Chapter Review Activities 1. Copy the crossword puzzle given below. Use the clues given to complete it. Across 2. Electron configuration of Be”” is like the electron configuration of this noble gas 5. Number of bonds an atom of an element can form. 7. A subatomic particle which can be shared, gained or lost during chemical reactions 10. Anything that has mass and occupies space. 11. A particle formed when atom gains or loses electrons 12, A force of attraction between cations and a sea of free electrons is called a___ bond Down 1. A force of attraction between two nuclei and shared electrons is called a bond, ‘The name of the elements in group VII A single __ represents one pair of shared electrons. A negatively charged ion Particles which join together to form molecules ‘Type of substance formed when atoms of the same kind join together bond is formed when a cation and an anion attract each other, Pea REN i2. What do the following terms mean? a) chemical bond b) electron configuration ¢) stable electron configuration d) molecule ) alkali metals valence shell g) cation 3. Draw dot and cross diagrams of the molecules of the following substances, if the valencies of the elements are as follows; Mg=2, Br=1, N=3 a) Magnesium bromide b) Nitrogen 4. Describe how covalent bond is formed. 12Chapter 2: Elements and the periodic table 2.1: Blocks of elements in the periodic table Elements in the periodic table are categorised as metals, metalloids and non-metals as shown in Figure 2.1. Metalloids Metals Figure 2.1: Blocks of elements in the periodic table Exercise 2.1 1. The elements in the periodic table are categorized as metals, metalloids and non-metals as shown in Figure 2.1. Using the periodic table: a) List down all the elements which are metals, metalloids and non-metals. b) How would you expect the properties of metalloids to compare with the properties of ‘metals and non-metals? 2. Suggest the definition of metalloids basing on their position in the periodic table and how their properties compare with the properties of metals and non-metals. Hydrogen Hydrogen is rather a unique element because in most ways its properties resemble those of non- metals while its electron configuration resembles that of group metals. 1BExercise 2.2 1. How does the hydrogen atom attain stable electron configuration when it forms the following compounds? a. HO b. CHy ce. Lil d. MgH 2. Write the electron configuration of the hydrogen atom in the compounds represented by the formulae in question (1) above. 3. Suggest reasons why hydrogen is categorized as a non-metal? 4, In what way does the hydrogen resemble group I elements? 2.2: Trends in the periodic table These are specific pattems in the periodic table which present different aspects of certain elements. The main periodic trends include atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity electronegativity and metallic character. a. Atomic radius The atomic radius of an element is the distance from the nucleus to the outermost shell (Figure 2.2). outer shell atomic radius nucleus Figure 2.2: Radius of an atom ‘An atomic radius is just like the radius of a circle, where the centre of the circle is the nucleus, and the circumference is the outermost shell. Atomic radius may apply to isolated atoms, atoms in a molecule, or in ionized state. The values of the atomic radius can be obtained through experimental measurements, or computed from theoretical models. The atomic radii are measured in the units of angstroms, A, or &, where 1A = 10m. b. Nuclear charge, Z ‘The nuclear charge is the charge of the nucleus. Its value equals the number of the protons in the nucleus .The symbol for the nuclear charge is Z, just like the atomic number. The nuclear charge pulls the electrons towards the nucleus. 14attractive force between protons ‘and electrons in the valence shell nuclear chargé —*P ~ valence electrons inner electron. repulsive force between inner electrons and valence electrons Figure 2.3: Forces within an atom The electrons in the valence shell do not experience full nuclear charge because inner electrons intervene between the nucleus and the valence electrons. The inner electrons repel the valence electrons and are said to shield the valence electrons from the nuclear charge. The amount of positive charge on the nucleus that is experienced by an electron in the outer shell is known as the effective nuclear charge, Zen: Effective nuclear charge can be worked out as follows: Ze = Z ~ S, where S is the number of inner or shielding electrons and Z is the size of the nuclear charge. 0 m1 Vv v vo vl vir ‘nucleus © ‘outer shell OO) OO O® (C(OQO@GD®O O@ Ow) Figure 2.4: Trends in atomic radii 15Exercise 2.3 1, Calculate Zer for the elements in each period of the periodic table in Figure 2.4. 2. Consider the structures of the atoms of the elements shown in Figure 2.4. How do the atomic radii of the elements change as you move: a) across a period? b) down a group? 3. How does Ze affect the atomic radii of the elements across a period? 4, Explain the change in atomic radii as you move down a group. ¢. Ionization energy Electrons are kept in an atom by attractive force from the nucleus. Therefore, it requires energy to remove an electron from an atom. The energy required to completely remove an electron from an isolated or gaseous atom or ion is known as the ionization energy. Higher ionization energy is required to remove an electron which is strongly attracted to the nucleus of its atom and vice- versa. Exercise 2.4 1. How would you expect the ionization energies to change a, Across the periods b. Down the groups 2. Between metals and non metals, from which elements would it be easier to remove an electron? Explain 3. What factors would affect the change in ionization energy down a group? 4. What is the Zor of the following particles; a Na, c Cl b. Na’, a. cr 5. Between Na’ and CI, which one has a larger atomic radius? What is the reason? 6. What factors would affect the ionization energy of an atom? Explain. d. Electron affinity : When an electron is added to an atom, energy is given out. Energy released when an electron is, added to a neutral atom or molecule is called electron affinity. It indicates the attraction between the incoming electron and the nucleus. The strength of the attraction increases with increase in electron affinity. Electron affinity depends in the effective nuclear charge, shielding effect and the atomic radius. Exercise 2.5 1, What is the difference between electron affinity and ionization energy? 162. The use of electron affinities is usually confined to group VI and VII of the periodic table. What would be the reason for this? 3. Which of the following has the smallest electron affinity? B, C, O. or F. Explain your answer, 4. Considering the factors that affect the electron affinity, how does the electron affinity change: a) across the periods b) down the groups e. Electronegativity When atoms join together by a covalent bond, the bonding pair of electrons may not be shared ‘equally between the atoms. One atom may draw the electrons more towards itself than the other. This happens when the bonded atoms are of different elements. Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons. Electronegativity is affected by the same factors that affect electron affinity and ionization energy, i.e. effective nuclear charge, and atomic radius. Exercise 2.6 1. Which element in the periodic table would you expect to have the highest electronegativity? 2. How does the electronegativity change: a) across a period b) down a group 3. What is the difference between electron affinity and electronegativity? 4. Between metals and non metals, which elements have higher electronegativities? Explain. 5. Would you expect the noble gases to have electronegativities? Why? f. Metallic character Metals attain stable electron stability by losing electrons in their valence shells. The metallic character of an element is how readily an atom can lose an electron. Metallic character of elements increase as you move from right to left across a period and as you move down a group. Exercise 2.7 1. Why does the metallic character increase as: a) You move from right to left? b) As you move down a group? 2. Which element in the periodic table would have the highest metallic character? Explain your answer. 72.3: Properties and uses of the alkali metals Alkali metals are elements in group I of the periodic table. The metals include lithium, sodium, Potassium, ete. All these metals have one electron in their outer shell, and so they have similar chemical and physical properties. Physical properties of the alkali metals a) Flame colour Table 2.1: Flame colours of group I Element Lithium Sodium Potassium rellow lilac Flame colour Every element emits light when burned in oxygen. The flame colours of the first three group T elements are as shown in Table 2.1 mass b) Density The density of a substance is the ratio of its mass to its volume; density =—™"5. The alkali al metals have low densities such that all, except lithium, float on water. The densities increase as you move down the group, Exercise 2.8 1. As you go down group I, what happens to: a) masses of atoms? b) volumes of atoms? 2. Between the volumes and the masses of group I elements which ones change more than the other as you go down the group? Explain. c) Hardness Alkali metals are soft. They are so soft that they can be cut with a knife. Exercise 2.9 1, What does the softness of alkali metals tell us about the strength of their metallic bonds? 182. The bonding in metals involves the attraction between free electrons and positively charged metal ions, a. As we go down group I elements, how would you expect the strength of the bond to change? Explain your answer. b. How would you expect the hardness of group I elements to change as we go down the group? Give a reason for your answer. d) Melting points and boiling points Melting point is the temperature at which solid tums to liquid. Generally, the higher the cohesive energy and the stronger the bond between the atoms or ions, the higher the melting point. Table 2.2 shows the melting points and the boiling points of the alkali metals. Table 2.2: Melting points and boiling points of alkali metals Metal Meltin point(°C) Li 181 Na 98 K 63 Exercise 2.10 1, Using the information in Table 2.2: a) plot a line graph for melting point of alkali metals b) on the same axes plot another line graph for the boiling points of the alkali metals. 2. Suggest reasons for the trend in melting points of alkali metals. 3. Rubidium is another element after potassium in the periodic table. What would you expect its melting point to be? Chemical properties of the alkali metals Alkali metals have one electron in the outermost shell. They react by losing that electron in the outermost shell in order to attain stable electron configuration. Exercise 2.11 : a) As you go down group I, explain what happens to the force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons in the outermost shell? 4) Which alkali metal would you expect to be most reactive? Explain, a) Reaction of alkali metals with water lll group I elements react with water to produce hydrogen gas, Hand a hydroxide. For example 2Na(s) + 2H:0 — 2NaOH(aq) + Ha(g). 19Activity 2.1: Comparing reactivity rates of group I elements with water Materials * Sodium metal Potassium metal 2 basins of water A knife Safety precautions You can be injured by the knife, so handle it with care. Hydrogen is a chocking gas: what is the safe way of performing the experiment? Procedure Cut a small piece of the sodium metal and drop it into the basin of water. Observe what happens. Cut a similar size of potassium metal. Drop it into the other basin of water. Observe what happens yaeNe Conclusion a) Between sodium metal and potassium metal, which one reacted faster? b) Explain the reactivity of sodium and potassium with water. ©) Would you expect lithium to react faster or slower than sodium? Explain. 4) Potassium and sodium metals are kept under paraffin. Can you suggest the reason for this? e) What accident can happen if potassium metal is kept in the home in contact with water? f) What conclusion can you draw from this activity about the reactivity of alkali metals as we go down the group? b) Reaction of alkali metals with air (02) All alkali metals react with oxygen in air to form oxides. For example, 4Li + 0) > 2Li0. Exercise 2.12 1. How do the alkali metals attain stable electron configuration? 2. Which of the following reactions would be faster? Explain your answer. a. 4K +O; — 2K20 b. 4Nat+ O02 — 2Na,0 c) Reaction of alkali metals with halogens Alkali metals react with halogens to produce metal halides. Example, 2K(s) +Cl:(g)—> 2KCl (s). 20* _Itis also used in sodium bicarbonate or baking soda (NaHCOs) which is used as a leavening ingredient for cakes and other pastries. 2. In dental hygiene Sodium js used as sodium fluoride in toothpaste which hardens the enamel. 3. In health therapies + Itis used in rehydration therapy which is done for people suffering from dehydration due to diarthoea and other health problems. For example sodium chloride, potassium chloride and glucose can replenish our body’s water levels. 4. Inindust * Sodium is used as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to make soap. * tis also used to make preservatives for glues and adhesives. 5. In lighting * Sodium is used to make sodium lumps which are used as street lights. 6. In water treatment * Sodium is as sodium carbonate (NaxCOs) or sodium chloride (NaCl) to soften hard water. ‘Water softening is the process of replacing hard water ions (Mg” and Ca”) in the water with sodium ions (Na’). 7. In paper industry * Sodium is used as sodium chlorate (NaC1O3) which is used in wood pulp bleaching in order to increase the brightness of pulp. Uses of potassium Figure 2.5: Some areas where potassium is used 1, Inagriculture * Potassium is used to make fertilizers such as potassium nitrate fertilizer (Figure 2.5 (a). 2. In medicine * Potassium ions are used to stop the heart during surgery so that surgical procedures can be done in a still and bloodless environment (Figure 2.5 (b)). 23. In mining industry * Potassium is used as potassium cyanide to dissolve precious metals such as gold and silver. 4. In industries Potassium carbonate is used to manufacture glass. Potassium chromate is used to make various items such as ink, dyes and match head (Figure 2.5 (0) © Potassium hydroxide which is a base is used to neutralize acids. It is also used to make soap. 5. In photography © Potassium bromide is used to make photographie paper. Exercise 2.14 Discuss the importance of each use of the following in our life: a) Lithium b) Sodium ¢) Potassium 2.4: Properties and uses of alkaline earth metals The alkaline earth metals are the elements in group II of the periodic table. They have similar physical and chemical properties because they all have two electrons in the outer shells. Physical properties of the alkaline earth metals a, Flame colours When bumed in air, the alkaline earth metals produce flames with different colours (see Table 23). Table 2. lame colours of group Il Element colour | (Beryllium, Be | colourless | Magnesium, | Bright white | Mg. | calcium, Ca__| brick red | b. Hardness Group Il elements are harder than group I. They become softer as we go down the group. ¢. Melting points and boiling points The melting points and boiling points of group II elements are higher than those of group 1 However, the melting points and the boiling points decrease as we go down the group. 23d. Density They have low densities, but sink in water. Table 2.4: Densities of some group II elements Element Density(g/em") Be 1.85 Mg 1.74 Ca 1.55 Exercise 2.15 1. Draw a bar graph to represent the densities of the alkaline earth metals given in Table 2.4 2. What is the trend in the densities of group II elements? Chemical properties of alkaline earth metals a. Reaction of alkaline earth metals with water The reactivity of alkaline earth metals with water increases as you go down the group. For instance beryllium does not react with water. Magnesium and calcium react with water to produce hydroxides and hydrogen. For example, Ca +2H,0 — Ca(OH) 2 + Hz b. Reaction of alkaline earth metals with oxygen All alkaline earth metals react with oxygen to produce metal_oxides. Example, 2Mg + 0) > 2Mg0. c. Reaction of alkaline earth metals with halogens Alkaline earth metals react with the halogens to produce metal halides as follows: Mg + Ch — MgCl. d. Reaction of alkaline earth metals with hydrogen All alkaline earth metals react with hydrogen to produce metallic hydrides. Example, Cals) +H: > Cal Uses of alkaline earth metals Uses of beryllium 1, In telecommunication * Beryllium is used in the manufacture of computers and cellular phones. For example, battery contacts and electronic connectors in cellular phones are made with copper-beryllium alloys. 2. In transportation * Beryllium alloys are used in the connectors of the electrical systems of cars and trucks. * In commercial aircrafts, copper-beryllium is used to make landing gear bushings and bearings. 24@ () Figure 2.6: Some areas where berylium is used 3. In medicine * Beryllium is used to make X-ray tube windows (Figure 2.6 (a)) because it is stronger, more stable, more heat resistant and more transparent to X-ray radiations than glass. 4. In defence and security * Beryllium components are used in the optical system of military helicopters (Figure 2.6 (b)) to enhance surveillance and targeting systems. Pure beryllium is used to make parts of military fighter jets (Figure 2.6(c)) to reduce weight in order to improve speed and manoeuvrability and ensure sharp targeting and strike capabilities 5. In oil exploration and production Beryllium alloys are used to make oil and gas drilling equipment. Uses of magnesium 1. In transportation Magnesium is used to make airplane, and parts of cars. 2. In steel and iron industry © Magnesium is used as refractory material for the production of iron and steel 3. In medicine © Milk of magnesia (magnesium hydroxide suspended in water) is used to neutralize acid in the stomach. . Magnesium is also used as a laxative and is used to treat constipation 4. In electronics © Magnesium is used for making computers, cameras and cellular phones. 5. In photography Magnesium is used in flush photography. 25Uses of calcium 1. Inschools ‘* Calcium sulphate is used to make chalk used in schools and colleges 2. In hospitals * Calcium sulphate is used to make Plaster of Paris (P.O.P. 3. In cheese making * Calcium ions are used to coagulate milk which is necessary for cheese making. 4, In rubber production * Calcium silicate is used to reinforce rubber. 5. In industries * Calcium is used to make quick lime (CaO) and slaked lime (CaOH) which are used to make glass and paper. Lime is also used to neutralize acid in industrial waste. * Calcium carbonate is used to give finished paper smoothness and opacity. 6. Inthe human body © Calcium is used to treat and prevent rickets and poor blood clotting. 7. In medicine * Calcium carbonate is used as an antacid to relieve heart burn. Exercise 2.16 Discuss the importance of each use of the following in our life: a) Beryllium b) Caleium 2.5: Properties and uses of the halogens Elements in group VII of the periodic table are called halogens. They include fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. Halogens exist as diatomic molecules, F2, Cls, Br: and Iz, Physical properties of halogens a, Melting points of the halogens Halogens have low melting points and boiling points. ‘The bar graph in figure 2.7 shows melting points and boiling points of halogens. 26EE Melting point mms Doiling point Temperature (°C) Figure 2.7: Melting points and boiling points of the halogens Exercise 2.17 What is the state of each halogen at room temperature (25 °C)? How do the melting points and the boiling points change as you go down the group? What does the trend in the melting points and boiling points of the halogens tell us about the strength of the attractive forces between the molecules as you go down group VII? 4, How does the number of electrons in the molecules of the halogens affect the attractive forces between the molecules? b. Colour Halogens are coloured elements. Their colours get darker as you go down the group as shown in Table Table 2.5: Colours of halogens T Halogen _| Colour Fb pale yellow Lob | yellowish green Bry b 27Chemical properties of halogens Halogens lack one electron to attain a stable electronic configuration. As we go down group VIL, electrons are further away from the nucleus, hence they are less attracted to it. Exercise 2.18 1. How do the halogens attain stable electron configuration? 2. As you go down group VII, would you expect the reactivity of the elements to be faster or slower? Explain. a. Displacement reactions of the halogens w Je Chew EBr(ap KCK Br) Figure 2.8: Displacement of bromine by chlorine When a few drops of chlorine water are added to an aqueous solution of the salt potassium chloride, the solution turns reddish brown (see Figure 2.8). Exercise 2.19 1. Which halogen has a reddish brown colour? 2. Why did the solution tum reddish brown when chlorine water was added to potassium bromide solution? Activity 2.2 1. You are given the following solutions; iodine (Iz), sodium chloride, (NaCI) solution, Chlorine water (C12) (water guard), sodium iodide (Nal) solution. a) What is the colour of the following solutions: i, Todine ii. Sodium chloride iii. Chlorine iv. Sodium iodide b) Mix iodine with sodium chloride, (I:(aq) + NaCl (aq)) as follows: i, Put 2ml of sodium chloride solution in a test tube. ii, Add four drops of iodine to the sodium chloride solution. 28iii, Record your observations ¢) Mix chlorine with sodium iodide, (Cl; + Nal) as in 1(b) above 2. Conclusion: Discuss the following questions a) To what colour did the solution of sodium chloride turn when iodine was added to it? b) Did iodine displace chlorine from its compound? Explain. ¢) Write an equation to represent what happened when iodine was added to the solution sodium chloride. 4) To what colour did the solution of sodium iodide tum when chlorine was added to it? @) Did chlorine displace iodine from its compound? Explain. ) Write an equation to represent what happened when chlorine was added to the solution of sodium iodide. 2) Which halogens can displace other halogens from their compounds? h) Arrange the halogens in order of increasing reactivity. i) Complete the following equations and explain what happens when substances are mixed together. i KF+Ch > KCl+F2 > NaBr +1 iv. KI+Bn > b. Reactions of halogens with hydrogen The halogens react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides, which are colourless gaseous covalent molecules. For example; hydrogen + chlorine > hydrogen chloride, (or H: (2) + Cl; (g) + 2HCI (/)) The hydrogen halides dissolve in water to form strong acids. For example, hydrogen chloride forms hydrochloric acid (HCI) in water as follows: HCI (J) + H30 (1) > H'(aq) + CI-(aq) + H20 (1) 1. Reactions of halogens with alkali metals Halogens react with alkali metals to form salts, for example, sodium+ chlorine —+ sodium chloride, 2Na(s) + Cl(g) — 2NaCl(s) Exercise 2.20 1. How would the rate of the reaction between lithium and iodine compare with the rate of the reaction between lithium and chlorine? Explain. 2. What is the importance of the reaction of the halogens and alkali metals in our everyday life? 2. Reactions of halogens with alkaline earth metals Halogens react with the alkaline earth metals to form group II salts. For example; Mg + Cl: MgCl> 29Uses of the halogens Uses of fluorine 1, In dental hygiene * Its compounds such as sodium fluoride are used in toothpaste to prevent tooth decay, 2. In agriculture * It is used in insecticides 3. In glass industry © Hydrofluoric acid is used to make designs or pictures on a glass. Uses of chlorine 1. Inindustries * Chlorine is dissolved in sodium hydroxide to form bleach. Bleach is a substance used to make materials like clothes and paper white. In water treatment Chlorine is used to kill bacteria in drinking water and swimming pools. Uses of bromine 1. In agriculture © Bromine is used in methyl bromide to fumigate soil to kill pests. Methyl bromide is also used as fumigant for stored grain and produce. For example, methly bromide is used to kill insects and nematodes in crops such as tomatoes, strawberries and tobacco. As fire extinguishants Bromine- containing compounds such as decabromodiphenyl ether are used as extinguishing agents when accidental fires have started as shown in Figure 2.9. Figure 2.9: Extinguishing fire using bromine containing compounds 3. In brominated flame retardants 30© Brominated flame retardants are chemicals used to inhibit or reduce the spread of fire in objects such as computers, televisions, radios, video players, and in products made up of textiles and wood. They reduce the risk of fire by reducing the risk that an object will ignite, For example, when treated with flame retardants, occurrences, such as that when a computer is left on for a long time and overheats, or when a short circuit occurs in an electronic device, do not result in a fire. 4, In pharmaceuticals © Bromine is used in dextromethorphan which is used to treat coughs. ‘* Bromine is used in bromohexine which improves the performance of amoxillin in the treatment of pneumonia. 5. In water treatment Bromine compounds are used to treat water in swimming pools. They are also used to control algae and bacterial growth in industrial processes. 6. In photography ‘© Bromine compounds like silver bromide are used to make pictures capture sufficient light. Bromine compounds are used in solutions which are used to develop photographs. Exercise 2.21 1) One of the uses of bromine is in agriculture. a) Explain why the use of bromine in agriculture is important. b) The symbol in Figure 2.10 appears on the bottle of methyl bromine a chemical used in agriculture. Figure 2.10: A symbol i) What does the symbol mean? ii) What health problems can result from using the chemical? iii) What is the safe way of handling the chemical? 2) Bromine compounds can be used to extinguish accidental fires. a) What do you understand by the term accidental fire? b) What are the possible causes of accidental fires in: i, Homes ii, Schools iii, Markets c) What problems can result from accidental fires? a1Uses of iodine Figure 2.11: Some of the areas where iodine is applied In medicine/hospitals Iodine is used in disinfectants for cleaning wounds. It is also used in disinfectants for sterilizing skin before surgical procedures. Iodine is used to make X-ray radiocontrast agents. These are chemicals used to improve the quality and hence usefulness of the images of intemal structures of the body as shown in Figure 2.11 (a). Examples of radiocontrasts include iopromide (Ultravist 370). In food supplements Iodine deficiency in the body causes goitre (Figure 2.11(b)). Iodine is, therefore, added to some food supplements such as table salt to increase the chances of consumers receiving sufficient iodine through their diet. 3. _ In biology * Iodine is used to test food sample to find out if it contains starch. 4. In photography * Iodine is used in chemical compounds used in photography. For example, silver iodide is the light sensitive substance used in films. 5. In food industry * Iodine compound, erythrosine (C29Hsl;Naz0s), is used as food colouring agent. It can also be used in printing. Exercise 2.22 Discuss the importance of each use of each halogen in our life. 322.6: Properties and uses of noble gases These are the elements in group VIII of the periodic table. The elements include helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon. Physical properties of noble gases a) Light emission All noble gases emit light when they are electrically exited (see Table 2.6) Table 2.6: Colours of lights emitted by noble gases orig Ea = of light pinkish red yellow lavender blue orange | violet | (or pale violet) b) Density Noble gases have different densities Exercise 2.23 The bar graph in Figure 2.12 below shows the densities of some noble gases. Use it to answer the following questions 1. What is the density of neon? 2. What is the trend in the densities of the noble gases as we go down the group? 3. Suggest a reason for the trend in the densities of the noble gases. He! jNel Ar! i xd 4 | Density (g/dm3)) Figure 2.12: Densities of noble gases 33©) Melting points and boiling points The bar graph in Figure 2.13 below shows the boiling p s of the group VIII elements. +225 -200 -175 -150 Bolling point (°c) Figure 2.13: Melting points and boiling points of noble gases Exercise 2.24 1. Which noble gas has the highest boiling point? 2. What is the state of the elements at room temperature? 3. What do the boiling points of the noble gases suggest about the strength of the forces of attraction between their atoms compared to the forces of attraction between the atoms of the elements in the other groups? 4. Explain the trend in the boiling points of the group VIII elements. Chemical properties of noble gases The atoms of noble gases have very low tendency to react with other atoms. As such they normally exist as mono-atomic gases. Exercise 2.25 1. Why do elements react? 2. What electron configuration qualifies an element to be placed in group VIII? 3. Suggest the reason why noble gases have low tendency to react? Uses of the noble gases Uses of helium Helium is colourless, odourless, tasteless, and inert gas. It is used in our daily life in a number of ways. 1. In scuba diving ‘* Helium is used as a component in breathing gas in scuba diving. Breathing gas is a mixture of helium, oxygen and nitrogen gases which are used by deep-sea divers (see Figure 2.1a). 342. In decorations ‘© Helium gas is used to fill balloons to keep them afloat in air as ornamentation (Figure 2.14b) 3. Inare welding «Helium is used to create an inert gas shield during welding (Figure 2.14 c). chromatography © Itis used as a carrier in gas chromatography LO} Figure 2.14: Some areas where Helium is used Uses of neon 1, Inelectronies © Neon is used in vacuum tubes. A vacuum tube is a device which is used to amplify electronic signals through a vacuum, 2. In advertising © Neon is used to make advertising signs (Figure 2.15 (a) 3. In lighting © Neon is used to make fog lights (Figure 2.15(b)), and fluorescent lights. (b) Figure 2.15: Some of the areas where neon is used Argon Argon gas is colourless, odourless, tasteless, noncorrosive, non-flammable and nontoxic. It is, particularly inert even at very high temperatures, 35Uses of argon 1. In electronics industry * Argon is used as a high purity inert shield gas to create a protective environment for the manufacture of silicon and germanium crystals used in the semiconductor industry 2. In medicine/hospitals * Argon is used to perform precise cryosurgery. This is the use of extreme cold, to selectively destroy small areas of diseased or abnormal tissues particularly on the skin as shown in figure 2.16 (a). 3. In scuba diving * Argon is used to inflate dry suits (Figure 2.16 (b)) because of its low thermo conductivity. 4. In fire fighting ® Argon is used in fire extinguishers. 5. In are welding * Argon is used to create an inert atmosphere required for welding metals such as aluminium and stainless steel 6. In lighting Argon is used as a filler gas in fluorescent and incandescent light bulbs (Figures 2.16 (). This reduces oxygen and other reactive gases and reduces the evaporation (sublimation) rate of the tungsten filament thereby permitting high filament temperature (a) «© (b) Figure 2.16: Some of the areas where argon is used Exercise 2.26 Discuss the importance of each use of each noble gas in our life. 362.7; Chapter review activities 1. Misspelt words The following words have been missspelt. Use the clues given on the left to write the correct spellings of the words. Misspelt word a) SPAUTOMIS b) GREYNDOH ¢) TINSEDY d) THULIMI e) TECNISADS f) UGAIMNEMS ; g) LILYMREUB h) LUCCIUM - i) GHOANSLE i) COHRNELI k) MORNIBE 1) NONE ‘ m) MEHLIU Clue a._ This element bums with lilac flame. b._An element that can behave both as a metal and non-metal cc. Property that describes mass contained in a given volume d._ Alkali metal used to make rechargeable batteries e E 8 . Substance used to keep things dry E burns with bright white flame . This element is used to increase targeting systems in military helicopters. is used to coagulate milk in cheese making. ‘These are coloured elements Halogen used to make bleach . is used to make flame retardants — emit red-yellow light when electrically excited Halogen used as a carrier gas in gas chromatography 2. Describe four chemical properties of alkaline earth metals Magnesium reacts with iodine to produce a compound: 1) write chemical equation for the reaction b) what is the name of the compound that is formed 4, How is beryllium used in defence? 37Chapter 3: Acids and Bases The substances we use in our every day life can be categorized as acids, bases, or being neutral. An example of an acid is lemon juice, and an example of a base is baking soda and distilled water is neutral Acids have specific properties that are the same for all acids. Base or “alkalis” also have specific properties that are the same, but which are entirely different from those of acids. One can easily tell whether a substance is an acid or a base by just looking at the properties of the substance. 3.1: Acid-base indicators ‘An acid-base indicator is a chemical which can be used to tell whether a substance is an acid, a base, or neutral. Indictors make use of the fact that acids and bases change the colours of specific plant materials differently. Activity3.1 (a): Preparing acid-base indicators from hibiscus flowers Materials Hibiscus flowers (see Figure3.1) Two beakers Filter paper Funnel Burner Water Figure 3.1 Hibiscus flower Safety precaution In this activity, you will work with fire and hot liquid. What safety precautions do you need to observe when carrying out this activity. Procedure Cut the petals of hibiscus flowers into small pieces. Put the pieces in a beaker and add enough water to cover the petals. Boil until the water is the colour of the petals. Filter the water and allow the filtrate to cool. Dry the filter paper to use as indicator veer Conclusion a) What is the colour of the hibiscus juice? b) What is the colour of the filter paper? ©) The aim of the activity was to extract the juice from the flower. How else could you do that?” 4) What problems did you encounter while doing the activity? 38