III.

Crisis in the Foundations of Mathematics (Early 20th Century):

Paradoxes: The discovery of paradoxes within set theory and formal logic posed a
fundamental challenge. One of the most famous paradoxes is Russell's paradox, which
arises when considering sets that do not contain themselves. This called into question
the consistency and completeness of formal systems.

Set Theory and Axiomatic Systems:

Zermelo-Fraenkel Set Theory: In response to the paradoxes, mathematicians like Ernst
Zermelo and Abraham Fraenkel developed Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, which
introduced axioms to provide a more rigorous foundation for set theory. However,
questions about the status and nature of sets persisted, indicating the difficulty of
achieving a universally accepted and definitive set-theoretic foundation for all of
mathematics.

IV. Mathematical Intuition and Constructivism:

Intuitionism: Mathematicians like L.E.J. Brouwer challenged the classical view of
mathematics as an objective, timeless realm. By rejecting the existence of mathematical
objects unless they could be explicitly constructed, it questioned the validity of certain
mathematical principles. This debate not only touched on the nature of mathematical
entities but also on the epistemological foundations of mathematics, challenging long-
held assumptions about the nature of mathematical truth.

Formalism and Hilbert's Program:

Hilbert's Program: David Hilbert proposed a program to formalize all of mathematics
using a consistent set of axioms, with the hope of proving the consistency of arithmetic.
However, Gödel's incompleteness theorems (1931) demonstrated that any consistent
formal system capable of expressing basic arithmetic must have true statements that
cannot be proven within the system itself, revealing the inherent incompleteness of
formal systems.

V. Gödel's Incompleteness Theorems:

First and Second Incompleteness Theorems: Kurt Gödel's theorems showed that there
are limits to what can be achieved in terms of proving the consistency and
completeness of formal mathematical systems. The first incompleteness theorem
demonstrated that any consistent formal system cannot prove its own consistency,
while the second incompleteness theorem showed that it cannot prove the consistency
of a stronger system. These theorems shook the foundational aspiration of establishing
a complete and secure axiomatic basis for all of mathematics.

Philosophical Challenges:
Nature of Mathematical Objects: Questions about the ontological status of mathematical
objects, such as numbers and sets, continued to be a source of philosophical debate.
Are mathematical entities discovered or invented? This debate has profound
implications for the foundation of mathematics because it questions the very existence
and nature of the mathematical domain. It addresses the fundamental question of
whether mathematical truths are objective realities or human creations.

VI. Computability and Turing Machines:

Church-Turing Thesis: It raised questions about the nature of mathematical algorithms
and their relationship to formal computation. This had implications for the foundations of
mathematics by connecting mathematical processes to the concept of computability,
challenging traditional views on the nature of mathematical activity.
Non-Euclidean Geometry:
Challenge to Classical Geometry: The discovery and acceptance of non-Euclidean
geometries by mathematicians like Gauss, Bolyai, and Lobachevsky challenged the
classical view of geometry as necessarily conforming to Euclidean principles, expanding
the notion of what could be considered valid mathematical geometry. This expansion of
valid mathematical geometries raised questions about the nature of mathematical truth
and its dependence on the chosen axioms. It highlighted the need to reconsider
foundational assumptions about the nature of mathematical structures.

References:
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundations_of_mathematics#Philosophical_views
https://www. encyclopedia.com/science/science-magazines/mathematics-foundations-
mathematics
2. https://mathed.byu.edu/~williams/Classes/300W2012/PDFs/PPTs/Philosophies%20
of%20Mathematics%20-%20Foundations.pdf
3. https://personal.us.es/josef/pcmCrisis.pdf
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox
5. https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/science-magazines/mathematics-
foundations-mathematics