INTRODUCTION ART

Architecture is defined as the art and science of designing and constructing of buildings. The conscience use of skill, craft, and creative imagination in the production of what is
The practice of architecture has been used to express culture for all seven continents. The beautiful, appealing, or of more than ordinary significance.
earliest surviving texts on architecture were written around the 1st century AD.
SCIENCE
A branch of knowledge dealing with a body of facts or truths obtained by direct observation,
▪ The Components of Architecture
experimental investigation, and methodical study, systematically arranged and showing the
operation of general laws. ▪ Building Envelope

- Exterior Walls
This course is designed to familiarize students with the foundations of architectural
planning and design and to fully understand its nature and context. It will also introduce the - Building Fenestration

various - Roof

elements of architecture and how they are utilized to create a building mass. ▪ Building Types

OBJECTIVES FUNDAMENTALS OF ARCHITECTURE PLANNING AND DESIGN

At the end of this module, the students should be able to: WHAT IS ARCHITECTURE?

▪ Gain knowledge and understand the Fundamentals of Architecture Planning and Design
Architecture is a highly advanced field of study. The majority of individuals spend their lives in
close proximity to architecture. It provides a home, a place to work, and a place to play. With

▪ Learn how the Fundamentals of Planning and Design influence the overall concept of such a large role in influencing our experiences and such a diverse range of applications,
architecture takes on far too many forms to be exactly
Architecture
classified. While each house is essentially identical, how many distinct sizes, shapes, and
▪ Apply the Fundamentals of Architecture to define their own distinguished architectural configurations are feasible for a house? There is no one-size-fits-all formula for finding the
style optimal layout of a house or other type of structure. While architecture is limitless, it also bears
the burden of facilitating defined functions.
“Architecture depends on Order, Arrangement, Eurythmy, Symmetry, Propriety, and Economy. All
of these must be built with due reference to durability, convenience, and beauty. Durability will be
- Francis D.K Ching – Introduction to Architecture -
assured when foundations are carried down to the solid ground and materials wisely and liberally
selected; convenience, when the arrangement if the apartments is faultless and presents no THREE (3) FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE
hindrance to use, and when each class of building is assigned to its suitable and appropriate
exposure; and beauty, when the appearance of the work is pleasing and in good taste, and when its
members are in due proportion according to correct principles of symmetry.”

- Vitruvius –
UNIT I - LESSONS

A. FUNDAMENTALS OF ARCHITECTURE PLANNING AND DESIGN

▪ Three (3) Fundamental Principles of Architecture ▪ The Scale of Design


SFIRMITAS
Firmitas (firmness/durability) refers to a building’s ability to stand up to the stresses of time and
the natural elements. Its longevity can be calculated using various levels of exactitude. Certain
materials are more durable than others. This is because they have the illusion of durabilities.
UTILITAS
Utilitas (commodity/utility) are the building's ability to meet the needs of its intended
occupants. There are many types of buildings, some of which require special attention to fit
their intended inhabitants. Architect Louis Sullivan defined the concept of usefulness in 1896
with his famous dictum, “Form follows function”.
VENUSTAS
Venustas (delight/beauty) refers to a structure's aesthetic link to its surroundings. This feature
can be seen in the usage of appealing architectural or flooring materials. Venustas was a
requirement for most newly constructed buildings before the twentieth century.
However, after that, the focus switched away from building design. Some attributed this to the
advent of mass production, which involves the use of inexpensive building materials. Others
claim that the general public is no longer interested in architecture's potential for beauty. That
was because they've been around building features like lifts and air conditioners. However,
some architects today tend to keep a premium on Vitruvius Architecture's Venustas throughout
the design process.
The diverse requirements of man's developing physical, emotional, intellectual, social,
and economic activities necessitate a wide range of building forms to provide shelter. They have
affected the beginnings of architecture and its continuous evolution. The nature of the planning
and design of the resulting buildings, on the other hand, varies based on the inherent variations
in functional requirements. Their numerous applications divide them into several categories or
construction kinds. They have unique design configurations due to site conditions and other
human considerations.
Every building's solution is thus thoroughly studied and treated according to unique needs in
good architectural practice. Each
construction should be completed to do its function or serve its goal. On the other hand, while
the uses of a building may cause it to differ indefinite planning characteristics, most buildings
share some basic architectural elements. Comfort, convenience, and aesthetic satisfaction are
only a few of the essential design considerations. With few exceptions, the planning and design
of buildings can be more easily accomplished by employing a set of general principles.
THE SCALE OF DESIGN
Architecture is not just about buildings. The architectural design process can be applied
to various scales, such as designing objects, spaces, and cities. The architect must design
buildings of all sizes, both large and small. Architecture is the study of design, and these are
other aspects of design.
Designing Objects
Besides location issues, designs also cover all the finer aspects. Features are built for
specific purposes. The primary criteria is that the applicant be capable of designing on a modest
scale. Additionally,
the architect can apply these abilities to the creation of a variety of objects.They might be
architectural objects, such as a sculpture or a door handle. They might also be architect-specific
projects that utilize their skill sets.
▪ Furniture design necessitates an architect's aesthetic sense and ergonomic competence.
▪ Lighting design necessitates an architect's knowledge of light behavior as well as a desire
to create a unique lighting experience.
▪ Architects frequently pursue sculpture and painting because the compositional principles
and crafting process are so similar.
Designing Spaces
One of the most crucial aspects of architecture is space. The architect is in charge of not
only constructing a structure but also arranging the spaces within it to suit a specific purpose.
When designing spaces, an architect's knowledge of proportion, organization, light, and
material is necessary.
▪ To be configured for a certain function, a room requires an architect's grasp of design.
▪ An architect's expertise in the composition is required to define the limits of outdoor
space without completely enclosing it. ▪ Buildings are constructed through the senses. The
way an experience is perceived is influenced by the configuration of spaces. Understanding
materials, proportions, colors, textures, and environmental awareness are required.
Designing Buildings
The earliest concept of the architect's role is that of building. Buildings must be
organized to fulfill their purpose. Placing a building and adjusting it to its surroundings are also
obligations of the architect. The success of the building is reliant on both of these influences.
▪ The architect places a building on its site to establish linkages with the surrounding
structures.
▪ The architect designs a structure to serve a specific purpose.
▪ The architect allocates spaces throughout the building to ensure that its function is
suitably supported.
Designing Cities
Cities have similar traits of buildings. They are spaces, environments, and the works
have specific functions in mind. The architect has ideal conditions to affect the design, growth,
and development of urban environments. By designing buildings, architects can influence the
urban environment by directly influencing it.
▪ Cities utilize the design of space for public space and streetscapes.
▪ Buildings allow architects to control the growth of a city. ▪ Zoning influences all
relationships between functions, necessitating an architect to comprehend programmatic
relationships.
Allied Disciplines A column grid gives structure and divides space into bays, while a roof structure protects
from the elements and determines the vertical limit of the space. This chapter reveals the
Architecture is a long-standing and varied profession. It covers a wide range of topics
anatomy of architecture. The elements of buildings are as follows: For each of those elements,
that have an impact on how we live. Architecture is a form of art in and of itself. Many of the
the following are then defined: This chapter is intended to be an overview of architectural
same compositional concepts that apply to painting, sculpture, music, and literature apply to it
options, but it is by no means an exhaustive list. The nature of architecture is to continue to
as well. It is linked to other artistic fields by the concepts of design and composition.
grow through new inventions and innovation. Remember that this chapter only serves as an
introduction and the array of architectural styles is vast.
In addition, it helps to make products that make our lives easier. Architecture aligns with
BUILDING TYPES
design disciplines such as interior design, urban design, and industrial design. Historically,
urban design and interior design have both been intertwined with architecture. When designing residential homes, there are four designs to choose from: one-storey,
one-and-one-half-storey, two-storey, and split-level. Think critically about the strengths and
Both architecture and construction-based sciences are focused on form and material.
weaknesses of each design approach. Site contour, climate, cost, and convenience all have an
Allies the various construction and physical science industries. Learning how people act,
impact on a person's decision-making process.
perceive, and lead their lives is essential in designing spaces that support those things. This
alliance incorporates the social sciences. Low-rise
ARCHITECTURAL STYLES AND TYPES

The Components of Architecture

The building has to be a composite of form, space, and order. Composed relationships
are realized by employing a variety of architectural components. This range in size, complexity,
and function. To be usable, all physical objects have a handle on which they can be placed, and Describing a
are at least perceptible.
building having one, two, or three stories and
usually no elevator.

One-Storey

Advantages:
 1. Lends itself beautifully to indoor-outdoor living (patios, porches, etc.) 2. Requires a larger lot than a two storey of the same square footage
2. Absence of stairs, unless it has a basement 3. Possible heating problems
3. Low-pitched roof and short walls make outside maintenance easy
One-and-One-Half-Storey
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
1. Usually costly to build
1. Steeper roof, which allows for future expansion
2. Typically, dormers are constructed to give increased light and
ventilation. Advantages:
3. Due to the limited exterior wall area, heating expenditures are reduced.
1. Can be built on uneven terrain
Disadvantage: 2. Little or no hall space is required
3. Different living space is separated by levels
1. Appropriate ventilation and insulation are required, as one third of the ceiling area is
beneath the roof. Disadvantages:
2. Must be meticulously organized in order to accommodate everyone
1. Can only be built in certain locations
Two-Storey 2. Abundance of stairs
3. More expensive to build compared to a two-storey
Advantages:

1. Most economical to build

2. Requires a smaller lot than most other designs
3. Heating and Cooling is very economical

Disadvantages:
2. Exterior maintenance is generally costly and difficult 3. Climbing stairs
4. Does not lend itself as easily to design modifications as other house designs do.

Split-Level
 1. Stands out amongst other designs
Mid-rise

Describing a building
having a moderately
large number of
stories, usually 5 to
10, and equipped with
elevators.

Skyscraper

High-rise

Describing a building
having a comparatively
large number of stories
and equipped with
elevators.

A building of exceptional height and many stories, supported by a steel or concrete framework
from which the walls are suspended.
BUILDING ENVELOPE
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING

The envelope of a building is not just two-dimensional exterior surfaces; it is also a

transition space. Some of these interactions include the methods used to provide sunlight and
daylight into the interior, channel breezes and sounds, and divert rain. This transition space,
which forms the envelope, is a place where individuals inside get a taste of what it's like to be
outside right now, and where those outside get a glimpse of what's going on within.

A person will be most aware of the contrast between outdoors and interiors at entry,
where space is created in the transition from one environment to another.

Two different concepts of Envelope Design

1. The Closed Shell – The designer sees the building envelope as a closed shell, then
deliberately punches holes in it to make restricted and particular contacts with the
outside.

The compacted mud block shield minimizes the impact on the interior. Admitting light
and heat, the door and window face
south. By early morning, interiors are deserted for warmer south terraces.

2. The Open Frame – in heat-moist regions (or where external conditions are very close to
the desired internal ones). Once a framework is established, the building's skin is
selectively applied to only certain outdoor forces.

To prevent rain and sunlight from getting into the root zone. A raised floor avoids damp
earth and its creatures and provides breezes for its users.

BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE BUILDING ENVELOPE


▪ Walls
▪ Fenestration (Doors and Windows)
▪ Roofs
WALLS
The wall is an architectural aspect that creates an enclosure, marking the definition
between the interior and exterior boundaries.
Walls can be load-bearing, supporting a roof or floor plane, or be non load bearing, acting
simply as a division of space.
For small to medium-scale residential construction in the Philippines, we use common
Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB), which are sometimes manufactured locally. However, new
materials and processes have been introduced to the market that enables architects to build
more flexibly.
Exterior Wall
Exterior walls serve as the face of a building. It forms the spatial enclosure. Different
materials are used in building a wall, such as wood, stones, bricks, and concrete. New materials
now allow for the use of glass, and other materials to be used to enclose a building.
This advancement has made it possible for a man to redesign the aesthetic features as
well as the function of a wall. New materials have liberated the context of an exterior wall from
being bound by an
outside boundary. Below, you will find samples of various styles of wall architecture.
Interior Wall
Any interior wall that is completely enclosed by exterior walls. Bearing Wall
A wall that is capable of supporting an imposed load, such as from a building's floor or
roof. Additionally referred to as a load bearing wall.
Party Wall
A wall shared by adjacent structures that is constructed along a line dividing two parcels
of land, each of which is a distinct real estate entity.
FENESTRATION (Doors and Windows)
Wall openings let light into interior spaces, provide ventilation, and, most importantly,
allow access and exit from a building or space.
Any entrance undermines the concept of the enclosure by separating the internal and external
climates. As a result, openings must be thought of very carefully and thoroughly.
When the door opens, it signifies a building's entrance and serves as a building's
identifier. Marked thresholds are raised steps or plinths that serve to further define the point of
entry. Tent structures can also provide a sense of shelter at doorways.
Windows will be sized to reflect the wide range of activities that will occur within, along
with the building's expected light, view, and privacy. Picture windows reduce the sense of
separation between the inside and the outside.
“A City is an ecological balance of things public and things private. Fenestration is the portal
between the two.”
 - Geoff Ferrell – Sliding Windows
IMPORTANCE OF FENESTRATION
A single window with sliding operable pane, the pane can slide over the top of the other
Because fenestration is such an important aspect of building design, it must be created with
to be opened.
care and consideration for its intended usage and benefits. The social character of public areas is
influenced by fenestration. Fenestration has an impact on how friendly a building is, as well as
▪ The most common types are double-hung and horizontal sliding ▪ Have two sashes,
whether it works with adjacent structures to create a visually coordinated and immersive setting.
which slide up and down in grooves
1. It can define the architectural character and style Swinging Windows

Windows have an aesthetic and structural impact on buildings. Window kinds A window that is hinged to its frame. They are used single or in pairs within a similar
have been used to characterize architectural styles for many years. frame, where they are externally hinged.The most common types are casement, awning, hopper,
and jalousie windows.
2. It can improve the health of the occupant, especially mental health

Day lighting supports school sustainability and performance, according to CHPS
Best Practices Manual 2002. It provides better lighting for the work environment and
offers natural ventilation.
WINDOW
▪ Casement Window– hinged at the side which swing outward ▪ Awning Window – hinged
at the top and swings out at an angle like an awning
▪ Hopper Window – usually an in-swinging window, hinged at the bottom, and popular for
basements

An opening in a building's wall for admitting light and air, usually with a frame in which ▪ Jalousie – has a series of narrow horizontal glass slats Fixed Windows
moveable sashes carrying glass panes are inserted.

It's crucial to keep in mind the function of windows when choosing them. They let in
light, fresh air, and ventilation, as well as adding detail, balance, and design.
A window schedule must be accurate and contain essential information about the
windows. It can be combined with the floor plan or elevation plan on the same sheet.
Types of Windows
The purpose of the window is to provide a view and/or allow light, but not to provide
ventilation.The most common types are picture windows, circle top windows, glass block and
random shaped.
▪ Picture Window – a kind of fixed window, is a kind of large window that is used to
provide good view of the garden or greeneries outside
▪ Circle Top – can be installed by themselves or in conjunction with other windows
Skylight and Clerestory Window
Light and ventilation are admitted into places that receive little or no natural light.
▪ Skylight – located on the roof, come in a variety of shapes, but the most common is
rectangular
▪ Clerestory – is a fixed or operable window placed in the upper portion of a wall called
elevation. Thresholds, which are raised steps or plinths that serve to better define the point of
entry, are frequently used to identify doorways. At a doorway, canopies or covering structures
can also create a sense of shelter.
A door schedule should be created for each door on the floor layout. Because
specifications differ by manufacturer, it's critical to have precise information for the schedule.
There are some key considerations in selecting or designing the right door:

clerestory 1. The type of activity that occurs within the space/room 2. The materials to be
used according to its purpose
Transom Window 3. The standard width required by the laws regarding occupant load

An ancient type of window, commonly known as a fan shaped. It is a decorative window Types of Doors
that is placed above a door, or window.
Flush Doors

Arched Window with half radius

They are normally made of wood, are smooth on both sides, and are hollow on the inside
with a wood frame around the outside. Standard sizes are 1-3/8" thick, 6'8" high, and range in
Commonly features in Roman Architecture. Arched window can be operable or fixed, it
width from 2' to 3'.
is distinguished in its arched upper portion.

Bay Window Panel Doors

It features an outward frame that is commonly hexagonal and can provide additional Panel doors have a substantial outer frame and typically feature cross elements that form
space in the room. small panels. Stiles refer to the vertical members. The horizontal components are referred to as
rails.
DOOR

Swinging Doors
For opening and closing an entrance to a building, room, or cabinet, a hinged, sliding, or
folding barrier of wood, metal, or glass is used. Because it represents the point of entrance and A door that turns on hinges or pivot about a vertical edge when pushed or pulled.
often defines a building's identity, the door opening is often the most famous feature of any

▪ Single-acting Door – a door hung on hinges that permit it to swing in one direction only.
▪ Double-acting Door – a door hung on hinges that permit it to swing in either direction
from a closed position.
▪ Pivoted Door – a door carried on and swinging about on a center or offset pivot, as
distinguished from one hung on hinges.
Folding Door
A door with hinged sections that can be folded flat against one another when opened.
▪ Bi-fold Door – a folding door divided into two leaves, the inner edges of which are
suspended from an overhead track and the outside edges of which pivot at the jamb.
Sliding Door
A door that operates or moves by sliding on a track, usually parallel to a wall. Sliding or
bi-pass doors are popular where there is large opening. Frequently used as closet doors. The
width of the door is irrelevant because it is hung from a track. To avoid swinging, glides are
fitted on the floor. May be flush with the wall, paneled, or
louvered.
Pocket Doors
A sliding door that fits into and out of a recess in the wall of a doorway. Typically a
flush door, this type of door is a variant on the sliding door. It is suspended from a track mount
and sits in a pocket in the wall. Between rooms such as the kitchen and dining room, this term
is frequently used.
Accordion Door
A door with many leaves that is suspended from an overhead track and opens in the
manner of an accordion. Frequently used to close large openings where bi-fold or sliding doors
would not be acceptable. Made of a variety of materials: wood, plastic, fabric.
Dutch Door
A door divided horizontally so that each section can be opened or closed independently.
Consists of two sections: an upper and a lower. The original function of this door design was to
keep animals out of farmhouses or children in while allowing light and air to filter through the
top; it was effectively a door combined with a pretty wide window.
Revolving Door
An entrance door for preventing drafts from the interior of a building, consisting of four
leaves placed in the form of a cross and rotating about a central, vertical pivot within a
cylindrically shaped vestibule. Some revolving doors automatically fold back in the
direction of egress when pressure is applied, giving a legal path on both sides of the door pivot.
French Door
A door with rectangular glass panes running the length of it and frequently hung in pairs.
Additionally referred to as a casement door.
Roller Door
Roller Shutter Door or also known as Sectional Overhead Doors. A large door consisting
of horizontal, interlocking metal slats guided by a track on either slide opening by rolling about
and overhead drum at the head of the door opening.
 ROOF
The roof is the building's top layer, providing protection as well as a sense of safety and
security. A roof can be large, operating as a structure apart from the building or structures it
covers, or it can be small and closely tied to the outline of the building it covers.
The function of a building's roof is usually governed by that purpose, but the roof's
design will also be influenced by the building's immediate setting. If there are pitched roofs in
the area, for example, a precedent for a specific official response will very certainly be
necessitating the use of a slanted roof. A roof protects from the extreme heat in very hot climes,
while overhanging roof structures can provide additional shelter to the streets below. The roof
pitch is crucial in areas where snow is a concern, as it prevents snow from settling on the roof
surface.
Types of Roofs
Pitched Roof

established.
A pitched roof slopes down, usually in two portions at an angle from a central ridge, but
occasionally in one part, from one edge to the next. A roof's "pitch" is calculated by dividing its
The weather is also a deciding factor. Rainfall must be drained fast and efficiently,
vertical rise by its horizontal span and is a measure of its steepness.
Gable Roof

On cape cod and ranch homes, gable roofs are common. A gable roof's pitch (angle) ranges
from high-pitch roofs found on chalet and A-frame style buildings to low-pitch roofs found on
most ranch homes.
Shed roofs are flat roofs with one end being taller than the
is required. The double shed roof is a type of shed roof that is better for hillside split-level
constructions.

Supplemental videos and readings:

Hip Roof

When eave-line protection is required around the whole perimeter of the building, this ▪ https://youtube/kH8WwdAwNpM 6 Principles of Architecture by Vitruvius
form of roof is adopted. Hip roofs are very popular in warm climates because of their low
profile. ▪ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j4M0Yxof4as Building Envelope

Flat Roof ▪ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSc4Hrw950Y Building Envelope

A roof that does not have a slope or has only a small pitch to drain rainfall. On many modern ▪ https://www.echotape.com/blog/contractors-field-guide building-envelope/
residences, these roofs are added to obtain a low silhouette. Because the leaning together of
rafters requires no supports, flat roofs require significantly heavier rafters. ▪ https://www.wbdg.org/guides-specifications/building-envelope design-guide/building-

envelope-design-guide-introduction Building Envelope design guide

Shed Roof
 Reference:
▪ Introduction to Architecture by Francis D.K. Ching, James F. Eckler

other. They can be employed when there are two floors and more light
▪ Architecture Form, Space and Order by Francis D.K. Ching ▪ Unit 1 – Introduction PLATE NO. 1
to Fundamentals of Planning and Design by Ar. John Rey B. Briones, CUAP
Different Types of Doors and Windows

On an A3 (29.7cm x 42cm) size of paper manually draft the different types of doors and
windows, showing their plan and elevation projection, and perspective view.

Supplemental Sources:

▪ https://www.revereschools.org/cms/lib02/OH01001097/Domain/ 64arch%20ll-8-lesson-

WINDOWS-DOORS.pdf

▪ https://o.b5z.net/i/u/10069179/f/Plan_Symbols_1_.pdf PLATE NO. 2

Different Types of Roof

On an A3 (29.7cm x 42cm) size of paper manually draft the different types of roofs,
showing their plan and elevation projection, and perspective view.
Doors
Windows
Roofs

Guidelines:

1. The drawings should be done manually on an A3 paper. 2. Use the provided

title block for the drawings (see given sample for the title block).
3. The grading should be based on the given criteria that each student should
receive a copy for their reference and target. 4. If you want to finish the plates
smoothly and excellently avoid PROCRASTINATING and use your time
wisely.
5. Submit the plates on or before the given deadline, late submission will be
accepted but will be subjected to diminishing of points/grades based on the
rubric criteria.
6. The plates/activities should be submitted thru e-mail of in the given online
classroom platform if possible.
7. Remember: “There is always room for improvement”, Do not compare your
works with others.
▪
INTRODUCTION observable. Some are obvious, while others perform a supporting role in the structure of a
building. Others may function as qualifiers or modifiers to these signals, while others may
To put this research into context, here's a rundown of the primary elements, systems, and
transmit imagery and meaning.
orders that make up a piece of architecture. All of these elements are perceptible and
 These elements and systems should, in all situations, be interconnected to produce an
integrated whole with a unifying or coherent structure. When the organization of components
makes their relationships obvious and they are viewed as mutually reinforcing and contributing
to the singular nature of the whole, a conceptual order is established — an order that may be
more permanent than ephemeral perceptual perceptions.
“Architecture is generally conceived – designed – realized – built – in response to an existing
set of conditions. These conditions may be purely functional in nature, or they may also reflect
in varying degrees the social, political, and economic climate. In any case, it is assumed that
the existing set of conditions – the problem – is less than satisfactory and that a new set of
conditions – a solution – would be desirable. The act of creating architecture, then, is a
problem-solving or design process.”

- Francis D.K Ching, Form, Space, and Order -

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

▪ Gain knowledge and understand the Elements of Architecture and Principles of Design

▪ Apply the Elements of Architecture and Principles of Design to define their own

distinguished architectural style

UNIT II – LESSONS

A. ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

▪ Primary Elements of Design

▪ Form Articulation

▪ Circulation

▪ Principles of Design

PRIMARY ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

In the vocabulary of architectural design, each element is first considered

as a conceptual element, then as a visual element. These elements take into form
when they are visible to the eye, on paper, or in three-dimensional space. They
have solidity, shape, size, color, and texture.

▪ POINT

▪ LINE

▪ PLANE

▪ VOLUME
POINT

It marks a position in space. Conceptually, it has no length, width,

or depth, and is therefore static, centralized, and directionless.

As the prime element in the vocabulary of form, a point can serve

to mark:

▪ the two ends of a line;

▪ the intersection of two lines;

▪ meeting of the lines at the corner of a plane or volume; and ▪ the

center of a field

Although a point theoretically has neither shape nor form, it begins

to make its presence felt when placed within a visual field. At the center
of its environment, a point is stable and at rest, organizing surrounding
elements about itself and dominating its field.
 When the point is moved off-center, however, its field becomes more
aggressive and begins to compete for visual supremacy. Visual tension is created
between the point and its files.
Point Elements

A point is devoid of dimension. A point must be projected

vertically into a linear form, such as a column, obelisk, or tower, in
order to visually designate its location in space or on the ground
plane. In plan, any such columnar element is perceived as a point and
so keeps its visual qualities.
 Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome, c. 1544, Michalangelo Buonarroti.
The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius marks the center of this
urban space
Two Points

Two points denote the beginning and end of a line that connects
them. While the points limit the length of this line, it can also be
considered a part of an endlessly larger path. Additionally, two points
suggest the existence of an axis perpendicular to the line they represent
and symmetrical about which they are symmetrical. Due to the fact that
this axis can be limitless in length, it may occasionally be more dominant
than the described line.

However, in both circumstances, the stated line and perpendicular axis are
more optically prominent than the unlimited number of lines that may pass
through each of the individual points. Two points in space defined by columnar
elements or centered shapes can define an axis, a mechanism that has been utilized
to arrange architectural forms and spaces throughout history.
 Two points can symbolize a gateway in a plan, indicating movement from
one location to another. When extended vertically, the two locations define both
an entry plane and a perpendicular approach.

This lies along the axis established by the Lincoln Memorial, the Washington Monument, and
the United States Capitol Building.
LINE

When a point is expanded, it transforms into a line. A line has length but no width or depth
conceptually. Whereas a point is by definition static, a line can visually indicate direction,
movement, and growth by portraying the path of a moving point. A line is a key component of
any visual construction's formation.

A line can serve to:

The National
▪ join, link, support, surround, or intersect other visual elements ▪ describe the edges of

and give shape to planes

Mall, Washington, D.C.
▪ articulate the surfaces of planes
 Although a line has just one dimension theoretically, it must have some
degree of thickness in order to be visible. It is regarded as a line due to the fact
that its length exceeds its width. A line's character, whether stiff or limp, bold or
timid, beautiful or ragged, is defined by our perception of its length – width ratio,
contour, and degree of continuity.

Even a simple repeat of similar or identical parts can be considered a line if

it is long enough. This style of line exhibits notable textural characteristics.

The direction of a
line has an effect
on its function in a
visual construction. While a vertical line can represent an equilibrium with gravity, the human
condition, or a spatial location, a horizontal line can indicate stability, the ground plane, the
horizon, or a body at rest.

Linear Elements

Vertical linear features such as columns, obelisks, and towers have been utilized to commemorate
significant events and mark specific locations in space throughout history. A prehistoric monument comprised of an upright megalith that typically stands alone but may
occasionally be aligned with others..

Menhir

Column of Marcus Aurelius Paris, Place de la Concorde The obelisk that marked the entrance to
Luxor's Amon Temple was presented to Louis Philipe by Egypt's
Rome, A.D. 174, Piazza
viceroy, Mohamed Ali, in 1836.
Colonna. The emperor's triumph
against Germanic tribes north of
the Danube is commemorated by
this cylindrical shaft.

Obelisk of Luxor
 Vertical linear elements
can also be used to define the
volume of a translucent space. In
the illustration on the left, four
minaret towers define a spatial
area around which the
splendorous dome of the Selim
Mosque rises.

Selim Mosque, Edirne, Turkey

A.D. 1569 - 1575
Linear members with the required material strength can be used to perform structural
purposes. In these three examples, linear elements include the following:
 space
▪ express movement
Salginatobel Bridge
across space Switzerland. Robert Maillart.

In this example, linear elements express movement across space. Beams and girders
▪ provide support for an
have the bending strength to span the space between their supports and carry transverse loads.
overhead plane
Caryatid Porch, The Erechtheion
▪ form a three Athens. Mnesicles.

dimensional structural An example showing linear elements providing support for an overhead plane. The
frame for architectural sculpted female figures stand as columnar supports for the entablature.
Katsura Imperial Villa
Kyoto, Japan

In this example, linear elements form a three-dimensional structural frame for

architectural space. Linear columns and beams together form a three-dimensional framework
for architectural space.

PLANE
 A line extended in a direction than its intrinsic direction becomes a plane. Conceptually, architecture define three-dimensional volumes of
a plane has length width, but no depth. mass and space. The properties of each plane – size, shape, color, texture – as well as their
spatial relationship to one another ultimately determine the visual and the qualities of the space
they enclose.

Shape is the

primary identifying characteristic of a plane. It is

determined by the contour of the line forming the edges of a plane. Because our perception of
shape can be distorted by perspective foreshortening, we see the true shape of a plane only
when we view it frontally.

The supplementary properties of a plane – its surface color, pattern, and texture – affect Planar

its visual weight and stability.

In the composition of a visual construction, a plane serves to define the limits or
Elements
boundaries of a volume. If architecture as a visual art deals specifically with the formation of
In architectural design, we manipulate three generic types of planes:
three-dimensional volumes of mass and space, then the plane should be regarded as a key
element in the vocabulary of architectural design.
Overhead Plane – the overhead plane can be either the roof plane that spans and shelters the
interior spaces of a building from the climatic
elements, or the ceiling plane that forms the upper enclosing surface of a room.

Wall Plane – the wall plane, because of its vertical orientation, is active in our normal field of
vision and vital to the shaping and enclosure of architectural space.

Base Plane – the base plane can be either the ground plane that serves as the physical
Planes in foundation and visual base for building forms, or the floor plane that forms the lower enclosing
surface of a room upon which we walk.
 form. It can be elevated to honor a sacred or significant place; bermed to define outdoor spaces
or buffer against undesirable conditions; carved or terraced to provide a suitable platform on
which to build; or stepped to allow changes in elevation to be easily traversed.

Ground Plane Scala de Spagna

(Spanish Steps) Rome. Alessandro Specchi.
The ground plane ultimately supports all architectural construction. Along with climate
Along with climate and other environmental conditions of a site, the topographical
and other environmental conditions of a site, the topographical character of the ground plane
character of the ground plane influences the form of the building that rises from it.
influences the form of the building that rises from it. The building can merge with the ground
Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
plane, rest firmly on it, or be elevated above it. Der el-Bahari, Thebes. Senmut

The ground plane itself can be manipulated as well to establish a podium for a building Three terraces approached by ramps rise toward the base of the cliffs where the chief
sanctuary is cut deep into the rock.
Floor Plane
The floor plane is the horizontal element that sustains the force of gravity as we move around and
place objects for our use on it. It may be durable covering of the ground plane or a more artificial,
elevated plane spanning the space between its supports. In either case, the texture and density of
the flooring material influences both the acoustical quality of a space and how we feel as we walk
across its surface.
While the pragmatic, supportive nature of the floor plane limits the extent to which it can be
manipulated, it is nonetheless an important element of architectural design. Its shape, color, and
pattern determine to what degree it defines spatial boundaries or serves as a unifying element fir
the different parts of a space.
Like the ground plane, the form of a floor plane can be stepped or terraces to break the scale of a
space down to human dimensions and create platforms for sitting, viewing, or performing. It can be
rendered as a neutral ground against which other elements in a space are seen as figures.
Bacardi Office Building
(Project), Santiago de Cuba, 1958, Mies van der Rohe

Sitting Area, Lawrence House, Sea Ranch, California, 1966, MLTW

Exterior Wall Planes
Piazza San Marco
Exterior wall planes isolate a portion of space to create a controlled interior environment. Their Venice
construction provides both privacy and protection from the climatic elements for the interior
spaces of a building, while openings within or between their boundaries reestablish a connection
with the exterior environment. As exterior walls mold interior space, they simultaneously shape
exterior space and describe the form, massing, and image of a building in space.
As a design element, the plane of an exterior wall can be articulated as the front or primary façade
of a building. In urban situations, these facades serve as walls that define courtyards, streets, and
such public gathering places as squares and marketplaces.
S. Maria Novella Florence, Italy. Alberti.
 light, heat, and sound. As they increase in size, these openings begin to erode the natural sense of
enclosure walls provide. Views seen through the openings become part of the spatial experience.
Concert Hall
(Project), 1942, Mies van der Rohe

Interior Wall Planes

Interior wall planes govern the size and shape of the internal spaces or rooms within a building.
Their visual properties, their relationship to one another, and the size and distribution of openings Ceiling Plane
within their boundaries determine both the quality of the spaces they define and the degree to While we walk on a floor and have physical contact with walls, the ceiling plane is usually out
which adjoining spaces relate to one another. of our reach and is almost always a purely visual in a space. It may be the underside of an

As a design element, a wall plane can merge with the floor or ceiling plane, or be articulated as an overhead floor or roof plane and express the form of its structure as it spans the space between
element isolated from adjacent planes. It can be treated as a passive or receding backdrop for other its supports, or it may be suspended as the upper enclosing surface of a room or hall.
elements in the space, or it can assert itself as a visually active element within a room by virtue of As a detached lining, the ceiling plane can symbolize the sky vault or be the primary
its form, color, texture, or material. sheltering element that unifies the different parts of a space. It can serve as a repository for

While walls provide privacy for interior spaces and serve as barriers that limit our movement, frescoes and other means of artistic expression or be treated simply as a passive or receding

doorways and windows reestablish continuity with neighboring spaces and allow the passage of surface. It can be raised or lowered to alter the scale of a space or to define spatial zones within
a room. Its form can be manipulated to control the quality of light or sound within a space.
Hangar, Design 1,
1935, Pier Luigi Nervi.
The lamella structure expresses the way forces are resolved and channeled down to the
rood supports.

Roof Plane
The roof plane is the essential sheltering element that protects the interior of a building from
the climatic elements. The form and geometry of its structure is established by the manner in
which it spans across space to bear on its supports and slopes to shed rain and melting snow. As
a design element, the roof plane is significant because of the impact it can have on the form and
silhouette of a building within its setting.
Brick House The roof plane can be hidden from view by the exterior walls of a building or merge
New Canaan, Connecticut, 1949, Philip Johnson.
with the walls to emphasize the volume of the building mass. It can be expressed as a single
The detached vaulted ceiling plane appears to float above the bed.
sheltering form that encompasses a variety of spaces beneath its canopy, or comprise a number
of hats that articulate a series of spaces within a single building.
A roof plane can extend outward to form overhangs that shield door and window
openings from sun or rain, or continue downward further still to relate itself more closely to the
ground plane. In warm climates, it can be elevated to allow cooling breezes to flow across and
through the interior spaces of a building.
Robie House of Architecture.
Chicago. Frank Lloyd Wright.
Fallingwater
The low sloping roof planes and broad overhangs are characteristic of the Prarie School (Kaufmann House) Pennsylvania. Frank Lloyd Wright. Reinforced concrete slabs express the
horizontality of the floor and roof planes as they cantilever outward from a central vertical core.

VOLUME

A plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a volume.
Conceptually, a volume has three dimensions: length, width, and depth.
Form is the primary identifying characteristic of a volume. It is established by the shapes
and interrelationships of the planes that describe the boundaries of the volume.
 All volumes can be analyzed and understood to consist of:

▪ points or vertices where several planes come together

▪ lines or edges where two planes meet

▪ planes or surfaces that define the limits or boundaries of a

volume
As the three-dimensional element in the vocabulary of architectural design, a volume can Building forms that stand as objects in the landscape can be read as occupying volumes
be either a solid – space displaced by mass – or a void – space contained or enclosed by planes. in space.
Volumetric Elements
 In

architecture, a volume can be seen to be either a portion of

space contained and defined by wall, floor, and ceiling or roof planes,
or a quantity of space displaced by the mass of a building. It is
important to perceive this duality, especially when reading
orthographic plans, elevations, and sections.
Notre Dame du Haut
Ronchamp, France. Le Corbusier.
Palazzo Thiene In the context of this study, form suggests reference to both internal structure and
Vicenza, Italy. Andrea Paladio.
external outline and the principle that gives unity to the whole. While form often includes a
Building forms that serve as containers can be read as masses that define volumes of space. In this sense of three dimensional mass or volume, shape refers more specifically to the essential
structure, the interior rooms surround a cortile – the principal courtyard of an Italian palazzo. aspect of form that governs its appearance – the configuration or relative disposition of the lines
or contours that delimit a figure or form.
ARTICULATION
A method or manner of jointing that makes the united parts clear, distinct, and precise in
relation to each other.
Properties of Form
Form also have relational properties that govern the pattern and composition of
elements:
Position - the location of a form relative to its environment or the visual field within which it is
seen.

Orientation –

the direction of a form relative to the ground plane, the compass points, other forms, or to the
FORM ARTICULATION person viewing the form.
FORM
Form is an inclusive term that has several meanings. It may refer to an external
appearance that can be recognized, as that of a chair or the human body that sits in it. It may
also allude to a particular condition in which something acts or manifests itself, as when we
speak of water in the form of ice or steam. In art and design, we often use the term to denote the
formal structure of a work – the manner of arranging and coordinating the elements and parts of
a composition so as to produce a coherent image. Orientation – the direction of a form relative to the ground plane, the compass points, other
forms, or to the person viewing the form.
 All of these
properties of form are in reality affected by the conditions under which we view them.
▪ A changing perspective or angle of view presents different shapes or aspects of a form to
our eyes.
▪ Our distance from a form determines its apparent size. ▪ The lighting conditions under
Shape refers
to the characteristic outline of a plane figure or the surface configuration of a volumetric form.
It is the primary means by which we recognize, identify, and categorize particular figures and
forms. Our perception of shape depends on the degree of visual
contrast that exists along the contour separating a figure from its ground or between a form and
its field.

which we view a form affects the clarity of its shape and structure.

▪ The visual field surrounding a form influences our ability to read and identify it.

Visual Properties of Form

▪ SHAPE

▪ SIZE

▪ TEXTURE
In

▪ COLOR

SHAPE
architecture, we are concerned with the shapes of: ▪ Floor, wall, and ceiling planes that enclose
space
The characteristic outline or surface configuration of a particular form. Shape is the principal
▪ Door and window openings within a spatial enclosure ▪ Silhouettes and
aspect by which we identify and categorize forms.
contours of building forms
 This

examples illustrate how shaping the juncture between mass and space expresses the manner in
which the contours of a
building mass rise from the ground plane and meet the sky. Central Pavilion, Horyu-Ji
Temple, Nara, Japan, A.D. 607

Suleymaniye Mosque, Minar Sinan

Constantinople (Istanbul), 1551 – 1558,
 Villa Garches
Vaucresson, France. Le Corbusier.

This architectural composition illustrates the interplay

between the shapes of planar solids and voids.
Primary Shapes

Gestalt psychology affirms that the mind will simplify the visual environment in order to
understand it. Given any composition of forms, we tend to reduce the subject matter in our
visual field to the simplest and most regular shapes. The simpler and more regular a shape is,
From geometry we know the regular shapes to be the circle, and the infinite series of
the easier it is to perceive and understand.
regular polygons that can be inscribed within it. Of these, the most significant are the primary
shapes: the circle, the triangle, and the square.
Circle – a plane curve point of which is equidistant from a fixed point within the curve
 Triangle – a

plane figure bounded by three sides and having three Circle

angles
The circle is a centralized, introverted figure that is normally stable and self-centering in its
environment. Placing a circle in the center of a field reinforces its inherent centrality. Associating it
with straight or angular forms or placing an element along its circumference, however, can induce
in the circle an apparent rotary motion.
Square – a

plane having four equal sides and four right angles

Roman Theater according to Vitruvius

 Plan of the Ideal City of Sforzinda, 1464, Antonion Filarete

Triangle
The triangle signifies stability. When resting on one of its sides,
the triangle is an extremely stable figure. When tipped to stand on
one of its vertices, however, it can either be balanced in a precarious
state of equilibrium or be unstable and tend to fall over onto one of its
sides.
 Modern Art Museum, Caracas
(Project), Venezuela, 1955, Oscar Niemeyer

Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza, Egypt, c. 2500 B.C.

Square
The square represents the pure and the rational. It is a
bilaterally symmetrical figure having two equal and perpendicular
axes. All other rectangles can be considered variations of the square
 – deviations from the norm by the addition of height or width. Like
the triangle, the square is stable when resting on one of its sides and
dynamic when standing on one of its corners. When its diagonals are
vertical and horizontal, however, the square exists in a balance state
of equilibrium.

Agora of Ephesus, Asia Minor, 3rd century B.C.

SIZE determine the proportions of a form, its scale is determined by its size relative to other forms in
The physical dimensions of length, width, and depth of a form. While these dimensions its context.
 ▪ Temperature – relates to the feeling or warmth or coolness the color evokes; and

▪ Intensity – measures the range of a color from dull to vivid. Also called chroma and

saturation.

TEXTURE
The visual and especially tactile quality given to a surface by the size, shape, arrangement, and
proportions of the parts. Texture also determines the degree to which the surfaces of a form
reflect or absorb incident light.

COLOR
A phenomenon of light and visual perception that may be described in terms of an individual’s
perception of hue, saturation, and tonal value. Color is the attribute that most clearly
distinguishes a form from its environment. It also affects the visual weight of a form.

Parts of Color

▪ Hue – another word for color;

▪ Value – describes how light or dark the color is;

 Color Wheel
An abstract illustrative organization of color hues around a circle that
demonstrates the relationships between primary colors, secondary colors, and
tertiary colors.

▪ Primary:

Red, Blue, and Yellow

▪ Secondary:

Violet, Green, and Orange

▪ Tertiary:

Red-violet, Blue-violet, Yellow-green, Blue-green, Red-orange, and

Yellow-orange
Colors used to convey emotions:
 ▪ Warm colors:

Exhibit energy and joy (best for personal messages). They have
a tendency to appear larger.

▪ Cool colors:

Convey calmness and peace (best for office use). They have a
tendency to appear smaller next to a warm color. They often
work well as a background color.
Basic color schemes

▪ Tints

Come from adding white to hues;

▪ Shades

Come from adding black to hues;

▪ Tones

Mixing the hue with grey

▪ Achromatic

Use no color, just shades of grey, black and white. Also known as greyscale.
 ▪ TETRADIC, OR DOUBLE COMPLEMENTARY

Basic color schemes

Complementary
▪ COMPLEMENTARY
Any two colors opposite each other on the wheel. For example, blue and orange, or red and
▪ ANALOGOUS green.

▪ TRIADIC

▪ SPLIT COMPLEMENTARY
Split Complementary
Use three colors. The scheme takes one color and matches it with the two colors adjacent
to its complementary color. For example: blue, yellow-orange and red-orange.
Analogous
Any three colors next to each other on the wheel. For example: orange, yellow-orange,
and yellow.
Triadic Tetradic or Double complementary
Any three colors that are equally apart on the color wheel. For example: red, yellow, and blue. Uses four colors together, in the form of two sets of complementary colors. For example: blue
and orange is paired with yellow and violet.
SURFACES
In the transition from the shapes of planes to the forms of volumes is
situated the realm of surfaces. Surface first refers to any figure having only two
dimensions, such as a flat plane. The term, however, can also allude to a curved
two-dimensional locus of points defining the boundary of a three-dimensional
solid.
This class of curved surfaces include the following:

▪ Cylindrical surfaces are generated by sliding a straight line

along a plane curve, or vice versa. Depending on the curve, a

cylindrical surface may be circular, elliptic, or parabolic.

▪ Translational surfaces are generated by sliding a plane curve

along a straight line or over another plane curve.

▪ Ruled surfaces are generated by the motion of a straight line.

▪ Rotational surfaces are generated by rotating a plane curve

about an axis.

▪ Paraboloids are surfaces all of whose intersections by planes are

either parabolas and ellipses or parabolas and hyperbolas.

▪ Hyperbolic paraboloids are surfaces generated by sliding a

parabola with downward curvature along a parabola with

upward curvature along a parabola with upward curvature.
Primary Solids it retains its circular
The primary shapes can be extended or rotated to generate volumetric forms or solids that are shape.
distinct, regular, and easily recognizable. Circles generate spheres and cylinders; triangles
generate cones and pyramids; squares generate cubes. In this context, the term “solid” does not
refer to firmness of substance but rather to a three-dimensional geometric body or figure.

▪ SPHERE

▪ CYLINDER

▪ CONE

▪ PYRAMID

▪ CUBE

“…cubes, cones, spheres, cylinders, or pyramids are the great primary forms that light reveals
to advantage; the image of these is distinct and tangible within us and without ambiguity. It is
for this reason that these are beautiful forms, the most beautiful forms.”
Le Corbusier
Sphere
A solid generated by the revolution of a semicircle about its diameter, whose surface is at all
points equidistant from the center. A sphere is a centralized and highly concentrated form. Like
the circle from which it is generated, it is self-centering and normally stable in its environment.
It can be inclined toward a rotary motion when placed on a sloping plane. From any viewpoint,
Cylinder
A solid generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one of its sides. A cylinder is
centralized about the axis passing through the centers of its two circular faces. Along this axis,
it can be easily extended. The cylinder is stable if it rests on one of its circular faces; it becomes
unstable when its central axis is inclined from the vertical.
Cone
A solid generated by the revolution of a right triangle about one of its sides. Like the cylinder,
the cone is a highly stable form when resting on its circular base, and unstable when its vertical
axis is tipped or overturned. It can also rest on its apex in a precarious state of balance.
Pyramid
A polyhedron having a polygonal base and triangular faces meeting at a common point or
vertex. The pyramid has properties similar to those of the cone. Because all of its surfaces are
flat planes, however, they pyramid can rest in a stable manner on any of its faces. While the
cone is a soft, the pyramid is relatively hard and angular.
Cube
A prismatic solid bounded by six equal square sides, the angle between any two adjacent faces
being a right angle. Because of the equality movement or direction. It is a stable form except
when it stands on one of its edges or corners. Even though its angular profile is affected by our
point of view, the cube remains a highly recognizable form.
 Maupertius, Project for a

Conical Cenotaph, 1784,

Project for an Agricultural Lodge, 1775, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux
Etienne-Louis Boulee

Chapel,
Pyramids of
Massashusetts Intitute of Technology, 1955, Eero Saarinen and Associates
Cheops, Chepren, and Mykerinos at Giza, Egypt, c. 2500 B.C.
 A sphere can be transformed into any number of ovoid or ellipsoidal forms by elongating it
along an axis.

A pyramid
can be transformed by altering the dimensions of the base, modifying the height of the apex, or
tilting the normally vertical axis.

A cube can be

transformed into similar prismatic forms by shortening or elongating its height, width, or depth.
Transformation of Form
All other forms can be understood to be transformations of the primary solids, variations which
are generated by the manipulation of one or more dimensions or by the addition or subtraction
of elements.
Subtractive Transformation
Dimensional Transformation
A form can be transformed by subtracting a portion of its volume. Depending on the extent of
A form can be transformed by altering one or more of its dimensions and still retain its identity
the subtractive process, the form can retain its initial identity or be transformed into a form of
as a member of a family of forms. A cube, for example, can be transformed into similar
another family. For example, a cube can retain its identity as a cube even though a portion of it
prismatic forms through discrete changes in height, width, or length. It can be compressed into
is removed, or be transformed into a series of regular polyhedrons that begin to approximate a
a planar form or be stretched out into a linear one.
sphere.
Additive Transformation
Unite d’ Habitation, Firminy-Vert, France, 1963-1968, Le Corbusier
A form can be transformed by the addition of elements to its volume. The nature of the additive
process and the number and relative sizes of the elements being attached determine whether the Subtractive Transformation Creating Volumes of Space:
identity of the initial form is altered or retained.

Dimensional Transformation of a Cube into a Vertical Slab:

Gwathmey Residence, Amagansett, New York, 1967, Charles

Gwathmey/Gwathmey Stegel

Subtractive Form
We search for regularity and continuity in the forms we see within our field of vision. If
any of the primary solids is partially hidden from our view, we tend to complete its form and
visualize it as if it were whole because the mind fills in what the eyes do not see. In a similar
manner, when regular forms have fragments missing from
their volumes, they retain their formal identities if we perceive the as incomplete wholes. We
 refer these mutilated forms as subtractive forms.

Because they

Ambiguity regarding the original identity of a form will result if the portion removed from
are easily recognizable, simple geometric forms, such as the primary solids, adapt readily to
subtractive treatment. its volume erodes its edges and drastically alters its profile.
These forms will retain their formal identities if portions of their volumes are removed without The basic possibilities for grouping two or more forms are by: Spatial Tension
deteriorating their edges, corners, and overall profile. This type of relationship relies on the close proximity of the

forms or their sharing of a common visual trait, such as shape, color,

or material.

Additive or Grouping Forms additive form is produced by relating or physically attaching one or more subordinate forms to
While a subtractive form results from the removal of a portion of its original volume, an its volume.
 Edge-to-Edge Contact Form Articulation

In this type of relationship, the forms share a common edge and can pivot about that edge. A form can be articulated by:

▪ Change in material, color, texture, or pattern;

▪ Developing corners as distinct linear elements;

▪ Removing corners; and

▪ Lighting the form.

Face-to-Face Contact

This type of relationship requires that the two forms have corresponding planar surfaces The color, texture, and pattern of surfaces articulate the existence of planes and influence

which are parallel to each other. the visual weight of a form.

Interlocking

Volumes
In this type of relationship, the forms interpenetrate each other’s space. The forms need not
share any visual traits.
 Hoffman House, New York, by Richard Meier. Linear columnar elements emphasize the verticality of this high-rise structure.
Linear patterns have the ability to emphasize the height or length of a form, unify its
surfaces, and define its textural quality.

The linear sun-shading devices accentuate the horizontality of the building form.

John Deere and Company Building Moline, Illinois. by Eero Saarinen. CBS Building, New York, by Eero Saarinen.
The three-dimensional form of the openings creates a texture of light, shade, and
shadows.

IBM

Research Center
La Gaude, Var, France. by Marcel Breuer
 The pattern of the openings and cavities interrupts the continuity of the exterior wall
planes.

Everson

Museum Syracuse, New York. by I.M. Pei.

Rounded corners express continuity of surface, compactness of volume, and softness of
form.
First Unitarian Church
Rochester New York, by Louis Kahn
The unadorned corners of the forms emphasize the volume of their mass.

Einstein

Tower
 Potsdam, Germany. by Eric Mendelsohn
CIRCULATION

The path of our movement can be conceived as the perceptual thread that links the
Path-Space
spaces of a building, or any series of interior or exterior spaces, together.
Relationships – Edges, Nodes, and Terminations of the
Since we move in time through a sequence of spaces, we experience a space in relation
Path
to where we’ve been where we anticipate going.

Circulation Elements
Approach – The Distant View

Form of the

Circulation Space – Corridors, Halls, Galleries, Stairways, and Rooms

APPROACH

Prior to actually passing into the interior of a building, we approach its entrance along a
path. This is the first phase of the circulation system, during which we are prepared to see,
experience, and use the spaces within a building.
Entrance – From Outside
to Inside The approach to a building and its entrance may vary in duration from a few paces
through a compressed space to a lengthy and circuitous route. It may be perpendicular to the
primary façade of a building or be oblique to it. The nature of the approach may contrast with
what is confronted at its termination, or it may be continued on into the building’s interior
sequence of spaces, obscuring the distinction between inside and outside.

Configuratio Kinds of Approach

n of the Path – The Sequence of Spaces

▪ FRONTAL

▪ OBLIQUE
▪ SPIRAL
Frontal

A frontal approach leads directly to the entrance of a building along a straight, axial path. The
visual goal that terminates the approach is clear; it may be the entire front façade of a building
or an elaborated entrance within the plane.

Oblique

An oblique approach enhances the effect of perspective on the front façade and form of a
building. The path can be redirected one or more times to delay and prolong the sequence of the
approach. If a building is approached at an extreme angle, its entrance can project beyond its
façade to be more clearly visible.