A.v.aids File

C.M.T.C.
COLLEGE OF NURSING
SUBJECT: NURSING EDUCATION

TOPIC: A.V. AIDS FILE
SUBMITTED BY; SUBMITTED TO:
Mr. Anosh Yunas MR.
C.M.T.C. COLLEGE OF NURSING C.M.T.C. COLLEGE OF NURSING

M. Sc. (N) I YEAR HOD OF
SUBMITTTED BY /06/2023
AUDIO VISUAL AIDS
INTRODUCTION:
In the olden education depended almost on verbal written communication. All these sources continue to
play important role in learning process, technological magic touch has changed a simple school into
systematic learning institute. Today students are learning facts, skills, attitudes from television, recorded
material, programmed lessons and other media devices. Audio visual aids is anything the audience can see
and hear that helps the speaker get his message across the audience. “it is not the material which makes
itself an audio visual aids: it is the user who gives meaning to the aid”
According to Kinder, “ audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the
learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic” Audio-visual aids, audio-visual
material, audio-visual media’ “communication technology” educational or instrumental media are learning
resources all these form broadly speaking means the same thing. Earlier the term used was audio-visual
aids in education. With the advancement in means of communication and that of technology, educators
coined new term. The use of new term “educational technology” or “instrumental technology” is primarily
due to dynamic expansion of programmed. Audio visual material must be seem in their relationship today
activity of teachers.
DEFINITION
1. Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning experience more
concrete more realistic and more dynamic.
According to Kinder S James
2. Audio-visual aids are those aids which help in completing the triangular process of learning
i.e.; motivation, classification and stimulation.
According to Corter v. Good
3. Audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which imitate or stimulate and reinforce learning
According to Burton
PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF A.VAIDS

1. Improve and make teaching effective.
2. Unable the audience to look, listen and learn.
3. Make learning interesting and profited.
4. Posters develop the knowledge.
5. Add varsity and new ness to the lesson provide vicarious experience.
6. Increase and sustain attention and concentration.
7. Increase the meaningfulness of abstract concept by stimulating correct thinking.
8. To provide an opportunity situation type of learning field trip.
9. They direct dramatize the experience.
PRINCIPLES OF AUDIO- VISUAL AIDS

1. They should be meaningful and purposeful.
2. They should be simple.
3. They should be accurate in every respect.
4. They should be cheap.
5. As far as possible they should be improvised.
7. They should be larger enough to be properly seen by students.
8. They should support the lesson objective
9. Be student centred
10. Maintain student attention and interest.
11. Encourage student participation, when appropriate.
12. Be checked prior to use for completeness and technical accuracy.
13. Contain appropriate terminology for the students
Principles of selection:
The instructional aids selected should be suitable for the level of audience, the educational objective, age
level. Grade level and the nature of the content that is to be instructed.
Principles of preparation:
This refers to cost effectiveness in preparing the a-v aids. It will be better to make the aids by using locally
available material utilizing the creativity of the student.
Principles of presentation:
1. Carefully visualize the use of teaching aids before their actual presentation
2. Adequate handling of aid to prevent damaging
3. Display properly so that all the students able to see it
4. Avoid destruction of all kinds
Principles of response:
The teacher should guide and motivate the student to respond properly to the audio visual stimuli so that
they derive the maximum benefit in learning.
Principles of evaluation:
There should be a continuous evaluation of both the a-v aids and teaching technique in the light of
realization of the desired objectives.
Principles of preservation:
All the aids that are used by the teacher or the student must be maintained properly and kept away from
dampness, dust insect, moths etc.
CONCEPTS OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

Audio visual aids are the sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning these are the planned
educational material that appeal to the sense of the people and quickens learning facilitates for clear
understanding.
1. Audio visual aids enhances clarity in communication
2. Provides diversity in method
3. Increases the forcefulness of the subject being learned or taught
4. Serves in the instructional roll in order to supplement and enrich the teachers own learning
5. Seeing-87%
6. Hearing – 7%
7. Odour – 3%
8. Touch – 2%
9. Taste – 1%
PREPARATION / PLANNING AV AIDS

When planning for audio visual aids follow these simple guidelines:
1. Do use them to summarize or show the sequence of the content
2. Do use them to visually interpret the statistics by preparing charts and graphs that illustrate what
you will say
3. Do use them to illustrate and reinforce your support statements
4. Do use them to focus the attention of the target group on key points
5. Don’t reject copies of printed or written text. Instead summarize the information and show only
the key points on the visual aid
6. Don’t put yourself in the role of aiding your visual: a presentation is primarily an oral form of
communication. if your only function is to read the information on your over heads or slides,
the target group will become easily bored
7. Don’t use copies of your transparencies as hand-outs
8. Don’t use charts, graphs or tables that contain more information than you want to provide
9. Determine the difference between what you will say and what the visual aids will show
10. Ask the audience to read or listen not both visual aids should not provide reading material while
you talk
11. Give participants paper copies of various graph aids used in your presentation
12. Assess your cost constraints
13. Seek feedback on the clarity of your visual
MAKING AV AIDS
1. Omit unnecessary words, symbols or ideas
2. The number of points to be made should be limited, key words should be shown instead of
complete letter
3. As a general rule, a visual should have- one idea;no more than 8 items; about 6 words per line;
mixed upper and lower case letters; simple; clean type faces and big enough to read easily
4. The use of colour, understanding, arrows and bolding are way to emphasis the major elements in
a visual
5. The lettering on the visual must be legible
6. The elements of the visual should fit together in a harmonious relationship
7. Easy to handle and transport
8. Good working condition
9. Convey upto date ideas
10. Avoid over writing, over -crowding, clumsiness in writing. Give space between the lines
ADVANTAGES OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

1. Antidote to the disease of verbal instruction: They help to reduce verbalism. They help in giving
clear concepts and thus help in accuracy in learning.
2. Best motivators: they are best motivators. The students work with more interest and zeal. They are
more attentive
3. Clear image: these images are formed when we see, hear, touch taste and smell our experiences are
direct and concrete and more or less permanent. Learning through these senses becomes natural and
consequently the easiest
4. Vicarious experience: it is beyond doubt that the firsthand experience is the best type of educative
experience. But it is neither predicable nor desirable to provide such experience to pupils. For eg. It is
not possible for a average man to climb Mount Everest
5. Variety: ‘mere chalk and talk’ do not help. Audio visual aids also give variety and provide different
tools in hands for the teacher like models, transparencies, etc.
6. Freedom: when audio visual aids are employed, there is great scope for children to move about, talk,
laugh and comment upon.
7. Opportunities to handle and manipulate: Many visual aids offer opportunities to students to handle
and manipulate things
8. Retentively: audio visual aids contribute to increased retentively as they stimulate response of the
whole organism to the situation in which learning takes place
9. Based on maxims teaching : the use of audio visual aids enables the teacher to follow the maxims of
teaching like ‘concrete to abstract’, known to unknown’ and ‘learning by doing’
10. Helpful in attracting attention: attention is the true factor in any process of teaching and learning.
Audio visual aids help the teacher in providing proper environment for capturing as well as sustaining
the attention and interest of the students in the classroom
11. Helpful in fixing new learning: audio visual aids help in achieving the objective by providing
several activities, experience and stimuli to the learners
DRAWBACKS OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS
These are not essential for all instructional programmes
1. These are help full for teaching but they will not substitute teachers and books
2. Possible risk of spectatorism instead of attitude of thoughtful enquiry. It requires more time
for planning and preparing
3. Tempts the teachers to narrow down the subject
4. Audio visual aids are not ends but means
PROBLEMS USING TEACHING AIDS

1. Apathy of teachers
2. Ineffectiveness of the aids preparation presentation application and discussion are necessary
CLASSIFICATION
AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
VISUAL AUDIO MATERIAL AUDIO VISUAL TRADITIONA

MATERIAL MATERIAL L MEDIA
NON-PROJECTED
 Language Demonstration  Puppets
 Chalk boards
 Bulletin boards s Films
laboratorie  Drama
 Chart Painted
 Drawing s  Folk
 Exhibits materials with
 Film strip  Radio recorded danc
 Flash card
sound Sound
 Flannel board  Sound e
 Illustrated books film strips
 Magnetic board distributio
Study trips
 Maps
n system Television
 Models
 Pictures Video
 Tape
 Posters
tapes
 Photo graphs recordin
PROJECTE Computer
D g LCD
 Silent films
 Slides
 OHP
 LCD
 Film strip
 Diorama
 3d films

LEAFLETS
INTRODUCTIO
N
Leaflets are one of the visual aids. A famous proverb state the-‘if I hear I forget, if I see I remember, if I
do I know it’. This is one of the sensitive tools used in teaching and as awareness. A leaflet helps in
giving whole information to the individuals in a single piece of paper. In leaflets we can show diagrams
and explain or with the flow graph of one topic covering all the areas.
DEFINITION:
1. Leaflet is a small material small in size containing information on a subject or specific topic
and providing opportunity of reading, learning or referring.
2. It is a simple sheet carrying helpful information on useful themes on one or both of it’s side.
3. It is a single sheet of paper folded to make a full page of printed matter on single side.
HISTORY
Flier is also called as a leaflet. In 1908.by captain Thomas Cochrane of a British royal navy. navy
constructed kites to distribute it but later on the balloons were used in 1870.
PURPOSE:
1. Provides basic information related to subject or topic.
2. Provides additional knowledge.
3. Reinforce learning.
4. Contribute to increase retention of contents.
5. Used as an effective mass media for health education of the people.
6. Act as a teaching-learning aid and can be used at any age.
GUIDELINES:
1. Spoken language should be taken into account while it is being prepared.
2. Illustration with pictures will enhance the comprehension in the learner.
3. Should be formulated with care and often without a strict time limit.
4. Pictures can be added sometimes while on certain occasions picture may not be necessary.
CLASSIFICATION
1. Persuasive –it helps to represent reasons and facts.
2. Informative- any information about the topic.
3. Directive-it helps to control the direct activities.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Makes mass education possible with high efficiency.
2. Easy to transport.
3. Can be reproduced in easy language.
4. Same time that can be spend on more complex activities such as IPR.
5. Very flexible.
6. Lasts well when given reasonable case.
7. Stimulates interest of the learners.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Some may throw it out.
2. Storing is found to be difficult.
3. Demand good typing
4. Limited feedback
5. Cannot be used for those who have not learned to react.
PREPARATION:
 HEADING –It is the most important part and it should be eye catching. In composing the
heading the propaganda must be brief, summarizing the theme by using short, forceful words.
 .SUBHEADING-it is used when it is impossible to summarize the text in the main heading
and the further explaination is needed to point out the message. they may also be used to introduce
separate paragraph in the body of the text and to bridge gaps between headline and text.
 TEXT-To gain the interest the interest of the readers within the first few words. it should contain
the facts of the message. The text should be simple and to the point, presenting the message to the
readers without confusion. it usually presents only the theme. if more then one theme is used then
it should be closely related.
 PICTURES-when pictures preferably photographs are used the picture and text must be
complement each other –convey the same idea to the reader ,each expanding the ideas of the
other.
STORAGE
1. It should be store in a pile to avoid damaging
2. Avoid unnecessary folding of the pages
3. It should be kept in a dry, moist free place.
PAMPHLETS
DEFINITION
:
Pamphlets are defined as the paper which can be folded into two, three or five, the matter will be printed
on one side or on either side. It may consist of few pages that are folded into half and stapled at the crease
to make a simple booklet. Usually it is stitched or stapled together. it is an unbound booklet without a hard
cover or binding.
HISTORY
 The word pamphlet for a small work (opuscule) issued by itself without covers came into Middle
English ca 1387 as pamphilet or panflet, generalized from a twelfth-century amatory comic poem
with an old flavor, Pamphilus, seu de Amore ("Pamphilus: or, Concerning Love"), written in Latin.
[2] Pamphilus's name was derived from Greek, meaning "friend of everyone". The poem was popular
and widely copied and circulated on its own, forming a slim codex.
 The pamphlet form of literature has been used for centuries as an economical vehicle for the broad
distribution of information.Its modern connotations of a tract concerning a contemporary issue was
a product of the heated arguments leading to the English Civil War; this sense appeared in 1642.[3]
In some European languages other than English, this secondary connotation, of a disputatious tract,
has come to the fore:[4] compare libelle, from the Latin libellus, denoting a "little book".
 Pamphlets can contain anything from information on kitchen appliances to medical information and
religious treatises. Pamphlets are very important in marketing as they are cheap to produce and can
be distributed easily to customers. Pamphlets have also long been an important tool of political
protest and political campaigning for similar reasons.
PURPOSE
1. Provides basic information related to subject or topic.
3. Reinforce learning
TYPES
1. Educational- Give information regarding service facilities offered.
2. Adentorial- To advertise something
3. Product information- To increase the sale of certain product

4. Propaganda- This is use to push one issue.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Pamphlet provides information sometime available nowhere else and they are good to supplement
a book collection.
2. It provides an inexpensive alteration source.
3. It is concise with unique data.
4. Useful for the propaganda.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Sometimes expensive.
2. Cannot store for further use.
3. Don’t contain detail information.
4. Time Consuming.
5. Problems come during distribution.
6. Illiterate people can’t use it.
STYLES FOR ORGANIZING THE PAMPHLET

The tutorial style
1. it involves easing into the topic of pamphlet so that it can be easily understandable for the reader.
2. Provide key definition of the hatdest word.
3. It can be done using different section explaining every step of the way until hopefully.
Using the frequently asked asked question style
1. It involves listing down the frequently asked question about the pamphlet topic.
2. These are the information for which the readers are curious about.
3. Each question is listed in different section and the answers are listed below afterwards.
4. This is the center of the pamphlet.
The testimonial style
1. This is basically the type of story telling mode of pamphlet.
2. This makes the learning process easy.
PREPARATION STEPS
Material required
1. Glossy paper
2. A4 size paper
3. Material for printing
Preparation steps
1. Before you start make sure that you discuss the purpose, the message, the target evidence and
the content.
2. Work out how many we need to print and what quality we can afford.
3. A good headline should be there to get people’s attention.
4. All sides should carry organizations logo or name.
5. Keep the language simple by avoiding long words or jargon.
6. All facts, right things and policy issues should be there in pamphlet if necessary.
7. Do not make the layout too dense with lots of small typing.
8. This makes it easier for people to read.
9. Vary the typing by using bold and italics as well as different size letters for headings, captions
and so on.
10. Check spelling and proof read your pamphlet carefully.
11. Before printing make a copy as printer sometimes lose or damage the master copy
STORAGE
1. It should be store in a pile to avoid damaging
2. Avoid unnecessary folding of the pages
3. It should be kept in a dry , moist free place.
HANDOUT
DEFINITION
1. a portion of food, clothing, or money given to or as if to a beggar.
2. a folder or circular of information for free distribution.
3. a prepared statement released to the news media
HISTORY
First handout was found in 1882.
OBJECTIVES
1. It is a permanent source of reference.
3. Reinforce learning.
4. Used as an effective mass media for health education of the people.
5. Act as a teaching-learning aid and can be used at any age.
6. To provide visual clue to the audience
TYPE
1. uncompleted or gapped handout
2. worksheet
3. assessment criteria
4. information sheet
GUIDELINES-
1. Use at 12 point font.
2. Use heading and page number consistently
3. Use bullet rather then continuation
4. Make good use of space
5. Keep line left justified
6. Avoid excessive use of capital letters
7. Leave plenty of space between the column
8. Avoid starting a sentence at the end of the line
9. Avoid use glossy paper.
ADVANTAGES
1. Handout provides information sometime available nowhere else and they are good to supplement
a book collection.
3. It is concise with unique data.
DISADVANTAGES:
3. Time Consuming.
PREPARATION:
1. Decide the type of the handout ,because each have different purpose.
2. Record only those items which are closely relevant
3. Recognize the key words and catch words
4. Use simple and clear language
5. Draw sketches labeled or unlabeled.
6. Write pointwise where ever possible
7. Use graphs.
8. Give tirtes and subtitles.
9. Use visual symbols and easy to recognize
10. Use color appropriately
11. Underline the important words
MATERIAL REQUIRED
1. A4 size of paper
STORAGE
 It should be store in a pile to avoid damaging
 Avoid unnecessary folding of the pages
 It should be kept in a dry , moist free place.
INFORAMTION BOOKLET
DEFINITION
It is a thin book with paper cover, typically giving information on a particular subject
PURPOSE
1. It is complicated in printing format because they need relationship with professional printing firms.
2. It helps in advertising
3. It gives information on the particular topic
4. It contain detail information
5. Effective way to give information to large group.
ADVANTAGES
1. it provides information sometime available nowhere else and they are good to supplement a
book collection.
3. It is in detail with unique data.
DISADVANTAGES:
3. Time Consuming.
PREPARATION:
1. Before you start make sure that you discuss the purpose, the message, the target evidence and
the content.
2. Work out how many we need to print and what quality we can afford.
3. A good headline should be there to get people’s attention.
4. All sides should carry organizations logo or name.
5. Keep the language simple by avoiding long words or jargon.
6. All facts, right things and policy issues should be there in pamphlet if necessary.
7. Do not make the layout too dense with lots of small typing.
8. Leave some space in between the writing either as empty white space.
9. This makes it easier for people to read.
10. Vary the typing by using bold and italics as well as different size letters for headings, captions
and so on.
11. Check spelling and proof read your pamphlet carefully.
12. Before printing make a copy as printer sometimes lose or damage the master copy.
13. Print only enough to distribute to target group.
MATERIAL REQUIRED
1. .A4 size of paper
STORAGE
 It should be store in a pile to avoid damaging
 Avoid unnecessary folding of the pages
 It should be kept in a dry , moist free place.
AUDIO AIDS
In the purely auditory aids, sound recording and reproduction, and transmission and reception equipments
some, which include radio receivers and recording equipments like disc, tape and cassette players. These
pieces of equipments can be extremely useful for teaching languages and studies lessons.
RADIO
The most common form of public education and entertainment is radio receiver. It can be seen in the
remotest villages even. The radio transmission serves as a vital agency of mass education if used
effectively. These days transistorized radio receivers are easily available, which can be rum with dry cell
batteries and these are easily portable.
In the educational radio programs, the transmitted subject matter is correlated to the syllabuses of study of
the target group. Advanced information is sent to the schools about the nature and outline of the
programmes.
USES:
1. Procedure and study in advance the nature and content of the radio lesson.
2. Prepare students for the radio lesson by informing them about the background of the lesson.
3. To set the stage for students discussions by preventing opinions of outside experts from the
remote sources.
4. To develop interest and varied sources of new knowledge and to contribute to the development
of appreciation of attitudes.
5. To develop increased skills in listening participation and evaluating what is learned.
6. Developing critical thinking, leisure time interest and appreciation.
TYPES OF RADIO PROGRAMS:
Generally three kinds of radio lessons are popular:
1. Talk
2. Discussion
3. Dramatisation
PRINCIPLES AND THE PROCEDURE FOR THE EFFECTIVE UTILISATION OF

RADIO:
1. Preparation of instructor:
 Clear objectives- it will help to determine whether to use.
 To evaluate the effectiveness of media in a particular teaching- learning situation.
 Gathering advance information.
 Motivation.
2. Develop student readiness:
 Reception involves proper listening, can be facilitated by providing suitable physical conditions
in the classroom.
 Preliminary comments, questions, defining keyword, reference readings.
3. Listening to the program:
 Encourage the students to develop good listening habits.
 Concentrate on the programme, thinking about what is said and what it really means.
 Listen with an open mind, and with willingness to hear another point of view.
 Listen quietly and with courtesy to others in the room.
(Note) talking develops the ability to determine salient points from broadcast, to state facts, issues,
arguments clearly.
4. Discussion and application:
After the programme, a group discussion should follow to clarify her thinking and enrich
critical thinking.
5. Follow up:
A proper follow up of students understanding of the information to remove fallacies
and misunderstandings.
LIMITATIONS:
1. No concentrated attention.
2. One way communication.
3. Adjustment.
4. No pre hearing and re usability.
5. Administrative problems.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Mass education.
2. Are effective for distance education.
3. Arouse positive emotions and attitude.
4. A good radio lesson can be recorded for use at an appropriate time.
STORAGE
1. It should be kept covered to prevent from environmental dust.
2. It should be kept in dry place.
3. The battery should be removed while not in use.
4. It should be kept out of reach of the child.
TAPE RECORDER
DEFINITION
1. A mechanical device for recording on magnetic tape and usually for playing back the recorded
material .
www.thefreedictionary.com
2. An electrical device for recording or palying back sound ,video ,data on magnetic
tape.
Random House Unbriged Dictionary.
3. A tape recorder is portable electronic gadget to record , reproduce , erase and record sound on
a magnetic tape.
B.T. Basavanthappa
HISTORY/INVENTION
The earliest known audio tape recorder was a non-magnetic tape recorder was a non-magnetic , non-
electric version invented by Alexander graham bell's Volta laboratory.
The history of a tape recorder begins in the year 1878 , when an recorder American machine Oberlin smith
, who was inspired by with a visit to the Edison’s lab, started to think about recording the telephone
signals with a sticky wire. During the playing the medium generates electric cycles which have identical
frequency as during the recording (the cycles are then transferred to the sonic cycles)
This principles of a magnetic recording was discovered by a Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen in 1898.
And during the next few years he manufactures the first “sonic recorder" with a steely wire ( or tape).
He obtains the patents in Denmark, USA and elsewhere . his apparatus was called telegarmphone and was
designed for recording the phone calls during the absence of the phone calls during the absence of the
called person, so the tape recorder was born from the idea of an answering machine.
ADVANTAGES OF TAPE RECORDER
1. The tape recorder is simple to operate and it is portable.
2. It is an ideal substitute for a live presentation.
3. The talks of well -known personalities can be recorded at a convenient place and brought to the
school for replay to the students .
4. On the spot can be recorded and played at an appropriate time for classroom interaction.
5. For teaching music , phones , oral reading , poetry and recitation's etc. Tape recorder is of immense
value.
6. Being a kind of voice mirror ,tape recorder can be used for improving spoken languages ; and as a
training or corrective tool for speed modulation and oral presentation of subjective matter.
7. Can serve to document or summarize topic.
8. Records to develop learner's learning skills , discussion , round tables talk.
9. It provides a change of pace and activity and this could arouse the interest of students.
10. The audio tape can be played repeatedly without changing intonation & content of the speech.
REQUIRED MATERIAL
1. Information is recorded on strips of plastic tape (usually polyster) that are coated with fine particle of
a magnetic substance ,usually an oxide of iron ,cobalt or chromium.
2. The coating is normally held on the tape with a special binder.
3. The sound to be recorded is picked up by a device such as a microphone and transformed into an
electric current.
4. The current is fed to a transducer in the recording head of the tape recorder, which converts it
into corresponding magnecting flux variations that magnetize the particles on the tape.
MECHANISM
Recording system that makes use of electromagnetic phenomena to record and reproduce sound waves.
The tape consists of a plastic backing coated with a thin layer of tiny particles of magnetic powder . The
recording head of the deck consists of a tiny c-shaped magnet with its gap adjacent to the moving tape .
The incoming sound wave , having been converted by a microphone a time varying magnetic field in the
gap of the magnet
. As the tape moves past the recording head, the powder is magnetized in such a way that the tape carries a
record of the shape of the wave being recorded.
GUIDELINES /CRITERIA /PRINCIPLES:-

The recording should be done in the following steps :-
1. First of all,choose a room with proper acoustics , a heavily curtained room in the school will do this
job . Special recording studios have the walls covered with sound absorbing materials like straw -
boards.
2. Place the tape recorder on a study table and insert in the cassette .Also ,plug in the powder cord if the
tape recorder is not to be run on the battery . Check the working of the tape recorder before
recording the lesson.
3. Locate the microphone input socket and plug in the microphone ,it is available to use external
microphone placed 25to 30cm away from the person whose voice is recorded.
4. Press the record-button ,speak into the microphone (do not blow in as iy can damage the
microphone),watch the sound level indicator meter and appropriate adjust the volume control, tone
control and treble control.
5. After testing and setting the tape recorder ,rewind the cassette completely and recorder on stop
before actual recording.
6. Record the actual material spoken into the microphone by pressing the record and play buttons
simultaneously.
7. After recording is over ,rewind and play the recorder for editing auditing and evaluation before it is
used in the classroom.
SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED

There are certain do's for using tape recorder for teaching. These are :-
1. The teacher must practice the use of tape recorder to get familiar with various controls and
techniques.
2. The teachers must make special efforts to use the tape recorder in teaching proper speaking
of language, music and social sciences.
3. The teacher must prepare and practice tape recorder lessons before use in the classroom.
4. The teacher must prepare tape recorder material and catalogue it properly.
5. The teacher must record programmers’ from other sources such as radio programes , sound tracks
, TV programmers’ , performances in and out of the school etc.
6. The teacher must use the tape recorder for interview , talk and discussions of various experts.
7. The teacher must use a tape recorder supplemented by other teaching aids for example a story
may be played back with the drawn pictures and diagrams illustrating various scenes.
STEREOGRAPH
INTRODUCTION
Stereographic projection is a particular mapping function that projects a sphere onto a plane. The
projection is defined on the entire sphere except at one point. The projection point where it is defined, the
mapping is smooth and bijective. It is conformal meaning that it preserves angles. It is neither isometric
nor area preserving, which is it preserves neither distances nor the areas of fingers. Stereographic
projection it finds use in diverse fields including complex analysis, cartography, geology and photography
a special kind of graph paper called a stereograph.
DEFINITION
Stereoscopy is also called stereoscopic or 3D imaging is any technique capable of recording three
dimensional visual information.
Two stereoscopic pictures or one picture with two super scoped stereoscopic images designed to give a
three dimensional effect when viewed through a stereoscope or special glasses.
HISTORICAL INVENTION
Stereographs an early form of three dimensional photographs, were a major vehicle for popular education
and entertainment in the later part of the nineteenth century. The stereograph today serves as a primary
source for the study of nineteenth century social history reflecting social conventions and cultural
values.additonally the various changes in card design reflect improved manufacturing methods and new
trends with in the decades that stereography was a phenomenon.
Stereograph was invented by Edward Earle (Rochester,N.Y,1979)
PURPOSE OF STEREOGRAPH
1. Stereography, where the goal is to duplicate natural human vision.
2. Sterographic vision under reflected light, yet requiring on the depth of focus as a function of
magnification.
3. Features relate to such light control means adapted for making stereographs.
4. The various forms of telescope both reflecting and refracting may refracting telescopes, from the
fact of there.
OBJECTIVE OF STEREOGRAPH
1. An extremely fast and useful technique for solving many structural problems.
2. To investigate the reliability and accuracy of faster stereography in comparison with Radiography
3. Interpretation of structural geology data for the purpose of stability analysis of rock.
CLASSIFICATION
WHEATSTONE STEREOSCOPE
The earliest type of stereoscope was invented by sir Charles wheatstone in 1838,it used a pair of mirrors
at 45 degree angles to the users eye, each reflecting a picture located off to the side. It demonstrated the
importance of binocular depth perception by showing that when two pictures stimulating left eye and right
eye views of the same object are presented so that each eye sees only the image designed for it, but
apparently in the same location, the brain will fuse the two and accept them as a view of one solid three
dimensional object. Wheatstone stereoscope was introduced in the year before the first practical
photographic process became available, so drawings were used. This type of stereoscope has the
advantage that the two pictures can be very large if desired.
BREWSTER STEREOSCOPE
Contrary to a common assertion, David Brewster did not invent the stereoscope, as he himself was often
at pains to make clear. A rival of Wheatstone , Brewester credited the invention of the device to Mr. Elliot
a teacher of mathematics from Edinburgh who according to Brewester conceived of the idea as early as
1823 and in 1839,constructed a simple stereoscope without lenses or mirrors, consisting of a wooden box
18 inches
long, 7 inches wide & 4 inches high, which was used to view drawn landscape, transperencies since
photography was had yet to be invented. Brewsters personal contribution was the suggestion to use lenses
for uniting the dissimilar pictures in 1849, and accordingly the lenticular stereoscope may fairly be said to
be his invention. This allowed a reduction in size, creating hand held devices which became known as
Brewster stereoscopes, much admired by queen Victoria, when they were demonstrated at the great
exhibition.
HOLMES STEREOSCOPE
In 1861 Oliver Wendell Holmes, created and deliberately did not patent a hand held, streamlined, much
more economical viewer than had been available before. The stereoscope which dates from the 1850
consisted of two prismatic lenses and a wooden stand to hold the stereo card. The type of stereoscope
remained in production for a century. It is primarily American although it is often named Mexican
stereoscope.
GUIDELINES
1. Two separate images are printed side by side.
2. A simple stereoscope is limited in the size of the image that may be used.
3. A more complex stereoscope uses a pair of horizontal periscope, like devices, allowing the use of
larger images that can present more detailed information in a wider field of view.
4. A moving image extension of the stereoscope has a large vertically mounted drum containing a
wheel upon which are mounted a series of stereographic cards are restrained by a gate and when
sufficient force is available to bend bend the card it slips past the gate & into view, obscuring the
preceding picture.
ADVANTAGES
1. Using positive curvature (magnifying) lenses, the focus point of the image is changed from its short
distance (about 30-40) to a virtual distance at infinity. This allows the focus of the eyes to be
consistent with the parallel lines of sight, greatly reducing eye strain.
2. The card image is magnified, offering a wider field of view & the ability to examine the detail of the
photograph.
3. The viewer provides a partition between the images , avoiding a potential distraction to the user.
PREPARATION PROCESS
 Cardboard box: A shoe box would be ideal mirrors (2 small sized * 2 big ones)
 Pen knife
 Pictures
 Glue or adhesive
 Scissors
 Pencil
 Measuring tape or scale
1. Once assembled all the material and the necessary equipment, begin with the procedure right away
with the cardboard box in place, clean the interiors of the same thoroughly. There should be no dirt
or muck lying around in the box
2. Make sure that, ready with the pictures as well. Preferably choose pictures that look scenic, do not
consider photographs that have human or animal intervention. Scenary that looks quintessential, is
what one should, ideally look out for,
3. Coming back to the cardboard box, after you have cleaned it, you need to slit off its top. The
cardboard top can be preserved for some other ventures during the activity.
4. Make a slit from the side of the box, the slit should be long enough, around 10 to 14 cm in length.
The box should be cut in a manner that they resemble pillar.
5. Now prepare the floor of the box. Make sure that there are no dents or gaps in the box. If there are
any, stick them together with glue. If the dents are too big, you may place the remaining cardboard
pieces in between, if this still does not suffice in between the cardboard flaps and then fix them
together with glue or an adhesive, this should make the surface bump free.
6. With the rectangular side of the box, make a hole with a pen knife, you may draw up a circle with a
protractor and cut the shape. You will have a view finder window to peep through.
7. With the cardboard that you were asked to keep aside, meant to be preserved, you have to cut four
squares roughly 12* 12 in size
8. The mirrors have to be taped on their sides, so that they do not hurt you due to its rough edging
9. Cut one square into halves, so that if forms a triangle. You will have two triangles out of these you
may choose the best one and keep it for use
10. With a pencil, draw a line in the middle of the square. Cut from the middle however, end the
cutting when you reach half way through the square. You may now fold the square into two halves.
11. Now bend the cardboard square and place it by gluing it on the triangle that you have chosen out of
the two
12. With the two mirrors taped and ready, you must stick them at the back of the folded cardboard
13. With a pencil and ruler, draw lines through the base of the box. The lines should be clear and
non bumpy.
14. One edge of the square that you constructed (12*12) should be placed at the vertical line at a
45degree angle. Place the other edge as well on the vertical line.
15. Now, as you have the two big mirrors remaining, you have to attach them with glue to the back of
the cardboard.
16. Place the small mirror in such a manner, that they face the big mirrors, stick the images on the
opposite side of the mirror
17. Make adjustments if necessary.
VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDER (VCR)
DEFINITION
Video cassette recorder (VCR also known as the video recorder) is an electro mechanical device that
records analog audio and analog video from broadcast television on a removable, magnetic tape video
cassette, so that the images and sound can be played back at a more convenient time.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
In 1952 Charles Paulson Ginsberg while working for Ampex started working on what we would now call
a VCR. The first VCR was sold by Sony in 1971.
The history of the video cassette recorder follows the history of videotape recording in general. Ampex
introduced the quadruplex videotape professional broadcast standard formal with its Ampex VRX – 1000
in 1956. It became the world’s first commercially successful videotape recorder using two inch (5.1cm)
wide tape. Due to its us $ 50,000 price, the Ampex VRX 1000 could be afforded only by the television
networks and the largest individual stations.
In 1959 Toshiba announced a new method of recording known as helical scan. At first, this was marketed
in reel to reel video tape recording machines but was eventually adapted for use with cassette.
In 1963 Philips introduced their EL 3400 1 helical scan recorder (aimed at the business and domestic user)
and Sony marketed the 2 PV 100 their first reel to reel VCR intended for business, medical, airline and
educational use.
OVERALL PURPOSES/ OBJECTIVES
1. The main purpose of the video recorder is recording and replaying video and audio signals
2. Playing and recording television programs and for creating home video recordings
3. The use of equipment likely to be available can produce only acceptable results which are
not considered professional
4. It can be used in educational as well as other setting also
5. Operating a VCR does not need much skill, it is easy to operate a VCR
6. Helpful in nursing education in selected situation
7. Involves students totally and they appreciates the lesson and remember it better
8. Makes students creative and alert.
CLASSIFICATION / TYPES
VHS (video Home System)
The most common of all models, the standard VCR varies in price and options. It comes in either 2 head
or 4 head play back, and 240 lines of resolution. Low priced models will usually only provide mono and
an assortment of record functions while high dollar models feature time lapse recording. Hi Fi stereo and
security related functions like an alarm, tape end buzzer, and parental controls. Prices range between $ 50
and $ 1000
S- VHS ( Super Video home System)

Super VHS is its name sake, offering a resolution of over 400 lines S VHS offers many of the same
options as a standard VCR, but differs in format. Usually, you can’t play S-VHS tapes in a VHS play back
unit, but can play VHS in S-VHS machines. On some S-VHS decks, you can record on less expensive
VHS tapes. S- VHS recorders will record digital will less picture loss than VHS.
DV/ Mini DV (Digital Video)
A DV/Mini DV VCR records and play DV and Mini Digital Video tapes. DV tapes are much larger than
Mini DV, but are still smaller than Beta tapes. Many consumer concoders feature the mini DV format,
while some professional models require DV. The strength of a DV playback unit is you can lessen wear
and tear on your camcorders when playing home movies on your TV. The format is digital and will offer a
crisp, clear image. It is important to note that you can play mini DV tapes in a DV Deck, which is
something to consider if you have access to both formats. The playback unit will have many of the same
options as other common VCRs but also boast a fire wire or 1394 connector. This deck is closely
associated with home video making and editing on a computer. DV and mini DV decks cost in the $1000
and up range.
Dual Deck
A dual deck VCR is nothing more than two VCR’s in one. Depending on the model, expect the same
features, you will find in a standard VHS recorder. But with the added benefit of being able to record tape
to tape,
play back while recording and recording two programmes at once. Dual deck recorders can cost a couple
of hundred dollars.
Combination units
An added convenience of technology is combining two different formats in one unit. Video cassette
recorders come in combo units mainly with DVD players, but can also come in S- VHS / mini DV. VCR’s
are also included in many television sets as an added feature, and should be considered for their shared
space if in tiny quarters.
Digital /HDTV
The digital VHS recorders could be the last stand for VHS as a feature consumer recording format, built
like the standard VHS, it offers high quality digital and high definition recording. They are quite
expensive for a VCR, but play VHS, S-VHS and D_VHS tapes. D-VHS tapes are made to record much
longer than standard VHS tapes. The value of a digital VHS recorder won’t be clear until digital is the
only signal available, and the public decides whether or not DVD recorders and DVR’s are more
convenient.
First two types of VCR’s

Video tape recorders were the precursor to VCRs. The first VTR player was developed by Ampex in 1956,
a prototype was given to CBS in Hollywood. The first commercially available unit, the VCR-100 was
obtained by king TV of scattle at a cost of $ 50,000. The 2 inch wide tape allowed KING to record
programs and then broadcast them at a later date- a revolutionary development at a time when all
television was broadcast live. The unit could not record in color. Sony developed a VTR for home use in
1964, but only a very few were sold.
First VCR
VTRs needed to be hand threaded through the recording machine, which was a time consuming process.
This problem was solved with the invention of VCRs, which housed a unit that would automatically thread
the tape. The first VCR produced for the home was created by Philips and released in England in 1972.
The model number was 1500 X it used square cassettes. The unit was almost 2 feet wide and could record
for one hour. It coat more than $ 2000 X was most popular with the general public.
Beta VCRs
In 1976 Sony released its version of a VCR, which was called a Beta max. the company marketed it
directly to the general public. It could only record for an hour. Sony was sued by Disney and universal
studios because the companies claimed that the ability to record television programs was copyright
infringement.
First VCR for VHS tapes
In 1977, RCA introduced a new machine to compete with the Betamax, which featured VHS tapes. The
tapes were more efficient than those produced by Philips and Sony and could record for more than twice
as long enough to record an entire football game. The longer recording time coupled with an expensive
and campaign and the fallout from the law suit, resulted in rapid sales. The VHS tapes quickly became the
standard for use in VCRs
ADVANTAGES
1. Video can be shown in normal room lighting
2. Video recording can be stopped and restarted if discussion is required during presentation
3. Video recording can be played many times
4. It is easier to re record
5. Recording tape can be re used
6. Video cassette recorders are easier to operate
DISADVANTAGES
1. The play back equipment is bulky and heavy
2. It cannot be operated in absence of power
3. Editing the content is impossible when using basic equipment. It means not a flexible medium
4. Equipment required for editing is expensive and process of editing is time consuming
5. One way communication is another disadvantage
6. Classes cannot to made to work identical timings
7. Listening to and viewing a particular TV program in school hours would very often require the
teacher to rearrange the school schedule
8. Financial problem, not all schools can afford a TV set
PREPARATION PROCESS
MATERIALS REQUIRED
CONTENTS
1. Typical VCR assemblies - 2
2. Features - 3
3. Materials of construction - 3
4. Pressure ratings - 3
5. Temperature ratings - 3
6. Testing - 3
7. Cleaning - 3
8. Ultra high purity processing - 4
9. Ordering information pressure ratings and dimensions - 3
Glands
1. Tube butt weld - 5
2. Socket - 6
3. Male weld - 7
4. Tube adapter - 7
5. Blind- 7
Bodies
1. Male connector - 8
2. Female connector - 8
3. Swagelok tube fitting connector - 9
4. Male unions - 10
5. Tube buck weld bulk head connector - 10
6. Coupling - 11
7. Reducers - 11
8. Elbows, Tee, cross - 11
MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION

Material Designator specification
316 stainless steel Ss Bar stock ASME Sa 479
ASTM A 276
Forged shapes ASME SA 182
ASTM A 314
316 stainless steel 316 L Bar stock ASME Sa 479
ASTM A 276
Forged shapes ASME SA 182
316 L, VAR stainless steel 6 Lr SEMI F 20 0305 high purity
Gasket
Nickel NI ASTM F3
316 L stainless steel Ss ASTM A 240
Copper CLI ASTM B 152
PLATING
VCR female nuts are silver plated. Avoid chemical processes used for cleaning, electropolishing and
passivation that will remove plating. If the plating is damaged or removed threat galling may occur,
damaging fitting components and preventing a proper seal
HOW TO MAKE VIDEO TAPE

1. The first step mixing, involves creating the magnetic layer or paint that will coat a tape. This magnetic
powder is first pre mixed with solvents and dispersants, typically polyurethane, which keep the powder
from floating on top of the solvent. The mixing process starts with the powder being dispersed by large
planetary mixers in large, metal tanks. When the magnetic material is dispersed, the binders, additives
and lubricants are added and mixed. The paint is then automatically on to the milling stage, when it is
milled, or rolled by large rollers. This create a shearing action that prevents agglomerations from
forming in the paint.
2. In the second step, the coating stage,, the magnetic paint is applied to the base film in a continuous
process that starts when large rolls of the base films are fed into a machine called a coater. The coater
is 120 ft (36.6m) long and used 400 kw of power. The film is drawn by six motors through the coater
at low tension. At the start of the process the tape enters the head end of the coater, which is called the
un wind end. New rolls are automatically spliced on when the coater senses the end of a roll. A
mechanical device
called a flying splice attaches the new roll of base film, cutting off the end of the old, while the rolls
are in motion. The coater head shops painting the film until the new splices goes through.
3. The coater head applies the magnetic layer to the base film. Computers monitor and control the
process, so that a thin, even layer of magnetic paint can be applied without defects. The thin layers are
measured in submicrons, or millionths of a meter. The coating method most often used is called
extrusion. In this process, the paint is applied to the film as it is blown out, by pressure through a small
opening. As the base film passes over the extruded paint, the paint sticks to the surface of the base film
in a smooth layer.
4. After coating the still wet – tape is automatically passed through a strong magnetic field which
physically orients the magnetic material in a newly coated layer. At first, the particles are randomly
arranged on the binder. As the physical alignment is important for the most effective magnetic
recording, the particles are then oriented in the same direction. This is accomplished by passing the
tape through the magnetic fiels as the binder hardens. The more uniform the dispersion and orientation
of the particles, the better the tape will perform. The magnetic layer is now ready to be dried.
5. Drying fixes the now oriented particles before they can change position. During drying, solvents used
for mixing are evaporated and recovered. The tapes magnetic layer is stabilized. When the drying is
complete, the tape passes through an X ray scanner that checks the evenness of the newly applied
layer.
6. After the drying and scanning, the tape is wound back onto large rolls measuring upto 4 ft (1.2m) in
width and over a 1000 ft (305m) long. Like the flying splice that started the process, a slit is made in
the tape and the new roll automatically starts wind up. The tension of the tape is held steady during
coating. As the newly wound roll gradually increases in size, the speed of the wind is gradually
decreased to keep the tension even from start to finish.
7. The third step involves a process called calendaring. At this point the space between the magnetic
particles has not completely set. Therefore it is possible to minimize this space by the calendaring
process, which involves compacting the layer that had just been formed between steel rollers and
elastic rollers. This increases the packing density of the magnetic layer to maximize the tapes magnetic
density, and it smoothes the surface of the magnetic layer, which provides better tape to head contact.
During the process the tape is automatically fed through a series of the rollers. The steel rollers make
contact with the back of the tape, a method that creates an wven pressure across the film. After this
process, the tapes final surface characteristics and thickness are set. The tape is now ready to be slit.
8. Before being coated into cassettes, the tapes are slit to the width determined by its format. Commonly
used tape formats include 0.5 in (1.3cm) 0.75 in (1.9cm) or 1 in (2.5cm). the tape is spliced on to a
slitter comprised of two sets of blades. As the tape is drawn through the slitter, the blades cut the tape
into the desired width. The slitting is a very precise process and it is critical to the quality of the tapes.
The process is usually monitored by lasers to detect defects such as folds or pinholes. The tape is slit
within the microns of the desired width to insure smooth operation in a VCR or concorder. A poorly
slit edge can shed oxide, base film and back coated particles. After the tape is slit, it passes over a
cleaning wipe that removes any debris accumulated during the process. The tape is then wound onto
long pancake rolls which resemble rolls of movie film. The tape is now ready for the finishing stage,
when it will be loaded into cassettes.
9. In the finishing stage, the tape cassettes are produces. The cassettes shells themselves are created from
melted plastics that are placed in a metal cavity, or mold and formed into the top and bottom halves of
the shells. These halves are held together by five screws. Components of the video cassettes shells
include two spools that hold the tape itself. A moving spring loaded door that houses the tape safely
inside the shell. Stainless steel pins and rollers that protect the tape itself against scratches, low friction
rollers that guide the tape during recording or play back, onto static leader that prevents build up of
dust and two spring loaded locks that prevent the tape from rolling around inside the shell. T empty
cassettes shells have hubs with leader attached. The leader is automatically spliced to the pancake
rolls, which are placed on an in cassette loading machine that spools a measured amount of tape into
the cassette. Next the loaded cassette are assembled with packing inserts and placed in protective
sleeves. Finally the cassettes are packaged and boxed for shipment.
OBJECTS AND CUT AWAYS

DEFINITION
An object is a thing itself in its entirely brought up from its natural setting in its classroom to supply the
type of sensory experience that will make instruction meaningful.
HISTORICAL INVENTION
1756-1827 Pastalozzi used the concept of object method in teaching.
PURPOSES
1. To give the students correct initial concepts at the time she first learns of an object or process. For eg:
in describing the structure & function of the heart, the teacher would have difficulty in explaining the
valves, partition location of vessels. By using a heart model, she is able to explain the concept far more
clearly.
2. To clarify a concept in the students mind clear cut images result from seeing an object and so give
meaning to words which name the object. Eg: to describe an artificial kidney is difficult, but to see one
implants a clear image in the students mind.
3. To intensify and vitalize an object in the students mind. The presence of 3 dimensions media can
transfer such attributes as form, size, colour, motion & other characteristics to the students mind, there
by intensifying the subject under consideration. This quality makes a subject far more interesting. To
see an object is more lifelike than to read about it or just hear it described learning becomes real rather
than merely verbal.
4. To provide concrete experience use of real combats the tendency of the teacher to become too abstract
in the classroom. Words must convey definite meaning, real give a definite example of what word
mean. A teacher may describe perfectly the preparation and administration of hypodermic, but she will
present a more concrete explanation by furnishing each student with a hyperdermic syringe & orange
which to practice.
GUIDELINE
1. Plan the teaching with certain simple and direct observations of the object being refered in.
2. Ask questions from the students to elicit more details of the feature of the object under observation.
3. Clarify and emphasize important structural details of the object under observation.
4. Provide review and practice to make learning permanent.
ADVANTAGE
S
1. Collection of objects by students requires interaction with others leading to development of social
skills & values.
2. Students when collect & display objects derive satisfaction of contributing to the school and
something worthwhile.
3. Students power of observation &first hand experience is enhanced by collection of objects.
4. Students personal collection objects can be good source of doing investigatory projects.
5. Collection of objects become an interesting educational pursuit of the teacher & students a like.
6. Objects involve all the five senses in the process of learning.
7. It heightens the reality in the classroom.
8. It makes teaching lively.
PREPARATION PROCESS
1. Materials required and preparation steps
2. Objects are collected from local markets
3. Manufacturers & factories
4. Discarded materials from the houses.
5. Plasters cast can be purchased.
6. Wild flowers, leaves, shells, stones, butterflies, moths, insects can also be procured.
STORAGE
Objects should be mounted in shallow boxes in an artistic way & the boxes should be covered with
cellophane paper. Also label each object using self adhesive paper.
CUT AWAYS
DEFINITION
Cut aways are the replicas of the orginal things to show internal parts of a thing.
ADVANTAGES
1. It illustrates the application side of certain principles and laws.
2. Models explain the complex & indicate operations in a simplified way & thus make
comphrehension easier.
3. They are lasting & ultimately work out to be cheaper teaching aids.
4. Easy to make with the help of discarded material.
5. It involves the use of all 5 senses.
LIMITATIONS
1. It requires expertise to make.
2. Time consuming.
3. Some may be very expensive.
ROLE PLAY
INTRODUCTION
Essentially every teacher creates his own teaching method in terms of his personality and experience the
purpose and subject matter of instructions he judges suitable different way choosing and adopting various
techniques learning many be stimulated and guided in many different ways. role playing is a dramatization
based on a particular theme. This helps the students to experience the situation emotionally and to develop
insight. it also encourages thinking and creativity.
MEANING
Role play or socio drama is based on the assumption that may be more effective if the situation is
dramatized by the group.
DEFINITION
1. Role playing is based on a particular theme, performed before the audience to spread the message to
the people.
2. Role playing is a dramatization along with verbalization.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
The term role play was originally coined in The by Jacob L morens, a veins psychiatrist who surmised
patient gained more knowledge from exploring their problems by acting them out then talking about
them. When the practice become popular in business and educational intuitions twenty years later the
problem solving aspect shifted to words the learning of a professional role for later real life assumption.
What astron out do in their for mission. What pilot do in learning to navigate flight simulators; what
thousands of soldiers do in the course of military exercises its all role playing teaching salespersons to
deal with customer teachers doctors to interview patients teaching teacher to deal with different situation.
.
PURPOSES OF ROLE PLAY

1. To convey information.
2. To involve everybody to work co-operatively for a common goal.
3. To try new behaviors in the presence of co-learner
4. To experience the situation emotionally and to develop insight in to the problem.
5. To develop new skills for dealing with problems.
6. To encourage thinking and creativity.
7. It helps the participants to get inside the character and enact the meaning of the character.
8. To create the motivation and involvement necessary for learning to occur.
TYPE-
1. SOCIO-DRAMA:-Deal with interaction of people with other group/individual involves

situations more than one persons and deal with problems.
2. PSYCHO-DRAMA:-deal with unique individual’s needs/problems Practiced in group sitting

mainly concerned with the unique needs and problems of a particular individual. it should not be
attempted except under guidance of a trained therapist.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ROLE PLAY
1. The role play should have clear objectives.

2. It should analyze the needs in a stimulated real life situation.
3. it should encourage independent thinking.
4. The actors are not allowed to project their own life in the role.
5. It should make the audience to participate actively.
FACTORS INFLUENCING ROLE PLAY

1. Level; it indicates the minimal level at which the activity can be carried out.
2. Time; depends on whether the students need to read articles, reports. Etc.
3. Aim; aim indicates the brooder objectives of each activity.
4. Language; language indicates the language the students will need.
5. Oragnization; it describes whether the activity involves pair work, or group work, and in the
latter ease, how many students should be in each group?
6. Preparation; it indicates anything the need to be done before class.
7. Warm- up; it involves ideas to focus the student’s attention and get them interested.
8. Procedure; the activities are performed accordingly.
9. Follow-up;it involves the activities that are done after completion of the role play.
PRINCIPLES OF ROLE PLAY
1. As a teaching techniques role play is based on the philosophy that meanings are in people not
in words or symbols
2. creating a teaching situation which can lead to the change of self concepts requires a
distinct organizational pattern.
3. should be flexible.
4. should be stimulant to think and should not be an escaped from disciplines of learning.
5. .require rehearsal is an important feature to produce effective out come and an audience to help
player interpret their role.
6. should be able to analyze and evaluate which is an essential element to gain maximum
learning benefits.
7. should be done for a period.
ADVANTAGES OF ROLE PLAY

1. It provides an opportunity to practice new skills.
2. It helps in group problem solving.
3. It helps to develop sensitivity to another feeling by having the opportunity to put oneself
in another’s position.
4. It encourages the students in independent thinking.
5. It makes a situation in an effective manner, where it con not be expressed in words.
6. It promotes activity and interest in the students.
7. It instills confidence in the students.
8. It is good for developing initiative and creative.
DISADVANTAGES OF ROLE PLAYING
1. .It is time consuming.

2. Requires careful planning preparation and rehearsal.
3. Learners may have difficulty in acting their roles.
4. The group members may be too she in participating.
5. Role plying should not be used when pressure of time is present.
USES IN ROLE PLEY IN NURSING

1. It helps in developing leadership skills and social interaction.
2. It helps in problem solving.
3. It develops to identify to observe and analyze situation.
4. To practice selected behavior in real life situation.
5. Helps to identify critical issues.
6. It encourages independent thinking and action.
7. It helps the nurse to observe and understanding patients problems
PREPARATION PROCESS
1. PREPARATION
 Define the problem.

 Create a readiness for the role.
 Establish the situation.
 Cast the characters.
 Brief and warm up.
 Consider the training.
2. PLAYING
 Acting
 Stopping
 Involving the audience
 Analyzing the discussion
 Evaluating
EXHIBITIONS
DEFINITION
1. A collection of things ( goods or work of an art etc. ) for public display.
-Advance English dictionary.
2. Many times in the school a department of the school or a class puts up their work for showing it to
the people outside the school and such a show is called exhibition .
-B.T Basavanthappa
3. The pieces of work done by the students for an exhibition are called exhibits.
-B.T Basavanthappa
4. Exhibit is an arrangement of communication media design to inform the observer about a
specific subject or topic.
-K.P Neerja
MEANING
Education exhibit offers in an interesting and unique manner of combining multiple media into a small
area. Exhibit s will be arranged in big gathering like conference like books exhibitions will be organized
by publishing or in conference to encourage the students.
OVERALL PURPOSES /OBJECTIVES
1. Exhibition provides a valuable opportunity for students prepare projects and things themselves
and therefore ,induces better learning .
2. Preparation , display and explanation of exhibits by students provide them excellent
learning opportunities .
3. Excellent teaching aids as exhibitions are able to capture interest and impart learning in relaxed mood.
GUIDELINES /CRITERIA /PRINCIPLES

For an example to be of a good standard the following requirements should be met :-
1. The exhibition should have a central them with a few subthemes to focus attention to a
particular concept.
2. The exhibits should be clean and labeled properly.
3. The concept of contrast in color and size should be used for lying out the exhibition .
4. The exhibits should be so placed so that most visitors can see them .
5. As exhibition is meant to be mainly seen the place and the exhibits should be well-lighted.
6. To capture interest and attention of visitors both motion and sound should be utilized .
7. The exhibition should have some exhibits with operative mechanism such as switches handles levers
to be operated by the visitors to observe some happenings .
8. The exhibition must include a lot of demonstration as they involve deeply the students and the both .
9. The exhibition should be able to relate various subjects areas to provide integrated learning
example existing health to issues and problems to create awareness to public .
ADVANTAGES OF EXHIBITIONS
Some of the advantages of exhibitions are as follows :-
1. Exhibitions inspire the students to learn by doing things themselves and they get a sense of involvement
.
2. Exhibition develop social skills of communication , co-operation and co-ordination .
3. Exhibitions give students a sense of accomplishment and achievement .
4. Exhibition foster better school -communality relation and make community members conscious
about the school
5. Exhibition diffuse and disseminate interesting new work among students .
6. Exhibitions couple information with pleasure .
7. Exhibitions foster creativity among a students .
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TO BE REMEMBERED

There are certain points which should be kept in mind while organizing an exhibition in the school .
1. It would be advisable that the exhibits should be prepared by the students themselves using
readily available and low-cost materials .
2. Many times . funds for the exhibition are a person , this can be overcome by raising
contribution and donations .
3. All kind of audio-visual materials relevant to the theme of the exhibition must be displayed .
MODELS
DEFINITIO
N
1. Models are the replicas or copies the real objects.
-Advance English Dictionary.
2. A model in general is pattern , plan ,representation (especially in miniature) , or description design
to show the main object or working of an objects , system or concepts.
MEANING
A model is a recognizable representation of a real thing three dimensionally that is height ,width and depth
are felt as a reality. This makes the understanding of the things easy and better .
1. Models provide the knowledge of the internal and external parts of a thing properly which is
not possible with two dimensional diagrams and charts .
2. Also big models of small things can make its structure and small things can make its structure
and working easily comprehensible to a large number of students .
3. Examples of the models often used by teachers are : clay ,models of hearts ,eye ,tooth; globe
and planetarium etc .
OVERALL PURPOSES /OBJECTIVES

1. Models enhances the learning .
2. Models is a technique to help students with physicals signs to supports clues to patients condition .
3. Training emergency response team and other medical &military personnel .
4. The real thing s may not be available in that season or may be far away from the school .
5. The real thing may be too big to be brought to the school .
6. Models simplifies reality .
7. It provides the correct concepts of an real of objects
8. A workings model explain the various processes of objects and machines .
9. Models concretize abstract concepts .
10. Models enable use to reduce or enlarge objects to an observable size.
TYPES OF MODELS
There are four main types of models .These are :-

1. Solid models .
2. Cut-away and x-ray models .
3. Working models .
4. Sand models .
1. SOLID MODELS :- A solid model is the replica of an original thing made with some suitable
material like clay, plaster of paris, wood iron, etc. To show the external parts and features of the thing.
2.CUT-AWAY AND X-RAY MODELS :- Cut - away and X-ray models are replica of the
original things to show internal parts of a thing. It may either in the form of a cross - section model
showing internal parts of a thing or may be composed of detachable parts. Cross sectional models are
difficult to make in the institutions as they require expertise to construct them.
3. WORKING MODELS :- These models are either actual working things or their miniature
replicas. For illustrating an operation ,working models are of great educational value .
4. SAND MODELS
These are the graphic layout using sand ,clay, saw dust and other objects to show trees ,
building, rivers , etc . Sand models are made using colored sand in a tray of convent size or on a table .
Generally a green field is shown by covering area with saw dust , water with blue cellphone ,
cardboard cut-outs for showing forests .
GUIDELINES /CRITERIA /PRINCIPLES
The range of methods available for making models for instructional purposes is enormous but reader may
find some of the following standard techniques useful.
1. Use of construction system such as 'meccano' and 'Fishcer-Price' to make working models .
2. Use of inexpensive materials such as card board wood and wire to make up static models of all
types (models of buildings , geometry bodies , three dimensional shapes).
3. Use of materials like modeling clay and plasticine to produce realistic models of animals ,
anatomical demonstrations .
4. Use materials like plaster like of paris and papier mache to produce landscapes .
ADVANTAGES OF MODELS
For class room teaching models should be used where ever possible these can explain intricacies of internal
structures and operations of real in things some of the advantages of models as instructional aids are as
follows :-
1. Models heightens reality of things and make learning direct and meaningful as they are
three- dimensional .
2. Models illustrate the application side of certain principles and laws .
3. Models explain the complex and intricate operations in a simplified way and thus make
comprehension easier .
4. Models are lasting and ultimately workout to be cheaper teaching aids .
5. Still models are easy to make with the help of discarded materials like empty box , pins , rage ,
and clay .
6. Models are to reasonable and convenient to handle .
7. Models involves the use of all five senses and thus make learning effective .
LIMITATIONS OF MODELS
Not all the models can be made in the educational institutions as they require expertise to make
them properly. Also models at times give a wrong impression and conception of the size of the real
things . Some of the models can be very expensive .
PREPARATION PROCESS
MATERIAL REQUIRED
1. Clay.
2. Plaster of paris .
3. Paper mache ordinary paper.
4. Card board .
5. Ordinary wood.
6. Plywood.
7. Metals.
MOULAGE
DEFINITIO
N
The art of applying mock injuries for the purpose of training medical or military personnel .
-Advance English Dictionary.
MEANING
A moulages is a mold made of plastic material (one of a diversified group of plastic suitable for
this purpose) to stimulate some life object, such as part of the body which shows evidence of
trauma , infections , surgical interventions or disease .
DESCRIPTION /HISTORICAL ASPECTS /INTERVENTION

The technique of making moulages (wax models) for the teaching of anatomy was introduced in Florence
from the late 1600s .Studding the moulage was a much more pleasant way of learning anatomy than the
alternative of dissecting dead bodies .When the tissues were undergoing postmortem decay. The history of
wax models is ancient .Wax anatomical models were first made by gaetano gintio zummo (1656-1701)
who first worked in Naples , then Florence and finally Paris where he was granted monopoly right by
Louis XIV
. Later Jules barrette (1834-1923) made more than 2000 splendid wax models in hospital saint Louis , Paris
, where more than 4000 wax models were collected , he made pleasant conversations with the patients
moulages.
In the 19th century moulage were taken of medical patients for education purposes . The prepared models
was printed to mimic the original disease .
Moulages were made for the education of dermatologists around the world but were eventually replaced by
color slides .
PREPARATION PROCESS
OBJECTIVE
1. Using moulages to create a realistic degloving wound.
ARTICLES /MATERIAL REQUIRED
1. Latex.
2. Medical glove, tan or opaque (sized as appropriate ).
3. Latex paint brush.
4. Small paint brush.
5. Make up sponge.
6. Red moulage gel.
7. Clear moulage gel.
8. White make up.
9. Flesh toned make.
10. Blood gel.
11. equipment.
12. Hot pot .
13. Scissor.
PREPARATION STEPS
1. Heat the moulage gel to 105o F. Carefully remove the fingers tips and 'rib' from both end of glove
(The rib is the rounded edge of glove , where it is the rounded edge of the glove, where it sits at
the wrist).
2. Carefully place the glove on the victim's hand ,feeding the fingers through the openings to
expose the patient's own finger tips and nail beds.
3. Using latex , secure the cut edges of the finger holes to the victim's finger by applying latex
around the ,where the skin and glove meet allow to set 1-2 min or until fully dry.
4. Remove extra glove around the finger as necessary to create a more natural from the Victim's
natural hand to the glove create skin discoloration and mottling by Using a make-up sponge or
paintbrush that has been dipped in white make-up and lightly blot the surface of the Victim's
natural skin and nail beds. Care should be taken to alternate the intensity of color placed on the
skin by the amount of pressure applied to the applicator and allowing some of the victim's natural
skin color to show through
5. Create degloving skin folds by carefully moving the base the glove forward carefully lift the
glove at the wrist and work forward on the glove the hand until the folds have reached the base of
fingers and exposed the top of the hand.
6. Using a make-up sponge that has been sipped in red moulage gel, create the degloved area by
lightly applying colorant over the entire back of the hand using a gentle blotting motion .Allow
to set for several minutes or until moulage gel is fully set.
7. Using clear moulage gel, create tendons on the back of the hand by applying a thin strip of
moulage gel, extending from the top of the hand to the bottom of the created skin fold area . Allow
to set for several minutes or until moulage gel is fully set.
8. Using a small make-up brush that has been dipped with make-up, carefully apply colorant down
the perimetes of the tendons. Apply blood gel as desired to fingers and base of glove , along skin
folds.
GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF MOULAGE
1. Degloving wounds can be made in advance, stored covered in the moulage box and
reused indefinitely.
2. When sizing gloves for victim, choose a glove one size larger than the normal to allow
for "draping" of skin folds.
3. Secure glove using later at fingers and underneath folds as needed for stability before
proceeding to "on scene".
STORAGE
1. Gentle remove the glove from hand of the patient.
2. Store the glove in a plastic bag in a refrigerator or freezer to preserve blood long term.
3. Using a soft clean cloth or make-up remove towelette , wipe away the make-up , blood and
sweat from the skin of the victim .
COMPUTER
INTRODUCTION
Computer can teaches at any level of learning from knowledge and comprehension up through application,
analysis and synthesis. They can be programmed to teach problem solving and decision learning. The
primary computer application for students in a nursing programme is computer assisted or learning by
means of computer programs.
DEFINITION
A computer is a device that accepts information (in the form of digitalized data) and manipulates it
for some result based on a program or sequence of instruction on how the data is to be processed.
A computer is a general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical
operations, since a sequence of operations can be readily changed. The computer can solve more than one
kind of the problem.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
1. The first electronic digitals computers were developed between 1940. Originally they were the size of
a large room. Consuming as much power as several hundred personal computers (PCs). In this era
mechanical analog computers were used for military application.
2. The first recorded use of word “computer” was in 1613 in a book called yong means gleanings by
English writer Richard Braithwaite.
3. The computer was first theorized by Charles Babbage.
4. In 1906, he gave a successful demonstration of use computing unit.
5. In 1910, Machine was given to the science museum in south Kensington.
6. Alan Turing is widely regarded as the father of modern computer science.
7. In 1970, integrated circuit technology and subsequent creation of microprocessors and reliability
of computer.
8. In 1980, witnessed home computer and now obiquitous personal computer.
9. In 2009, Modern smart phone are fully programmable computer.
PURPOSE
1. Emulating the machine hardware and bringing it in a format that can be manipulated and understood
by user.
2. Helping the user interface with the machine hardware through either feeding command by a
keyboard or input devices or by directly interacting with it through a graphical user interface.
3. Operating system integrating a system’s devices into a single plateform.
4. To extends our thinking.
5. To earn revenue for their vendors.
6. To solve problem caused by computer.
7. To crystallize conceptual understanding.
8. To execute man made programs and hopefully useful output.
CLASSIFICATION
Computer is mainly classified in 3. They are
1) Classification with respect to purpose
a) General purpose computers

 Those entire computer which are used for general purposes. Eg. PC.
 A personal computer used for playing games, word processing, accounting information system,
management information systems etc.
 These computers can stored a huge amount of data.
b) Special purpose computers

 It is also known as dedicated computers because these are designed to perform a particular jobs.
 It is perform a single and specific task. Eg: Games , controlling traffic light, ATM etc.
 These system have a predefined set of instructions permanently stored into them, that are designed
to perform only one task.
 They are fast in processing
2) Classification with respect to function or logic used

Types of computer
Digital Analog
Hybrid
Micro Mini Mainframe Super
a) Analog computer
 It measures and answers the question by method of “How much” the input data is not a
number infect a physical quantity like temperature, pressure, speed, velocity etc.
 It calculates the result by measuring the continuous change in these quantity.
 It does not required any storage capability because they measure and compare quantities in
a single operation.
 These system are more speedy than digital.
 Examples: speed meter, air pressure measurement devices, rain gauge etc.
 Speedometer of car measure speed in term of Km/h or M/n. the change in temperature is
measured by a thermometer in degree
b) Digital computer
 Digital computer works on discrete data.

 Discrete data is refers to discrete value such as 0,1 (Binary number).
 These computer based on the presence and absence of an electronic charge or binary 0 &1.
 These system are more accurate and precise than other.
 Examples: personal computer, digital watches etc.
c) Hybrid computer
 It is combined of best features of both digital and analog system.

 It works on both analog and digital data.
 It speedy like analog and accuracy like digital.
 They are used mainly in specialized application where both analog and digital information
needs processing.
 Examples: weather forecasting, air defense, radio controlling system, digital petrol pumps etc.
3) Classification with respect to size, speed and cost

a) Micro Computer
 These computer are small in size.

 It is used to have primary memory range from a few kilobytes to gigabytes.
 These are usually designed for personal use therefore, they are also called as personal
computer (i.e PC).
 These computer can be easily accommodated on the top of the desk due to small
size.Examples: desktop, laptop etc.
 They are highly flexible.
 Examples: IBM, APPLE,COMPAC, RADIO SHACK, COMMOBORE etc.
 A multi – core processor is a processing system composed of two or more independent
cores. These core are typically integrated onto a single integrated circuit die.
b) Mini computer
 These computer are small in size but larger as compared to micro computer.
 They are less expensive.
 Primary memory is used in Giga bytes.
 Designed for computerization of scientific research data.
 Examples: PRIME – 1995, IBM SYSTEM – 36 etc.
 It is application on departmental systems, network services.
c) Mainframe computer
 These computer are very powerful.

 They are large in size, large in memory and powerful.
 They are also capable of connecting terminals with it.
 They are used in network environment and mainly as network.
 They are very expensive. They are usually designed for the computerization of huge
business organization, universities, banks, specific laboratories, national and international
market.
 Examples: IBM – 4381, NEC – 610 etc.
d) Super computer
 Super computer is a computer that is at the frontline of processing, capacity, particularly speed
of calculation.
 They are the most powerful computer.
 They are use for problem requiring complex calculation.
 They are very difficult to design, it requires lot of research and development and at the same
time they are very much expensive to manufacture.
 The speed of a super computer is measured in “FLOPS” (10 Power 12 FLOPS).
 Application in web services and search engines, online banking (Transaction processing),
weather forecasting, climate predication, earthquake etc.
ADVANTAGES
1. It allows the student to interact in learning situation.

2. Computer can also individualize learning to an extraordinary degree.
3. It can also enhance a student’s answer with statement.
4. The non judgmental nature and endless patience of computer are also important advantage.
5. Record of the student’s performance on simulation or practice test can be kept on the computer.
6. It provide information storage like watch movies and listen to music, search content etc,
7. To chat and send email message with people.
8. It also helps in search.
DISADVANTAGES
1. They are expensive.
2. If you have little knowledge of them, it is easy to get in a lot of trouble and quite literally
destroy your computer.
3. Depending of the OS and Software/ hardware installed, they can be difficult to maintain.
4. Nothing last forever.
5. They can cost a lot.
6. It promotes laziness in human (i.e Exercising)
7. Addictive to people when using internet.
8. Hackers can interfere in your personal things.
9. They are prone to bad things.
SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED:
1. Starting the computer

2. Note that the computer actually consist of three part like TV, monitor & CPU box.
3. The procedure for switching the computer “on” will be slightly different or different brands of
computer.
4. Normally the computer switch will on the right side of cabinet.
Steps1.
1Turn on the main power supply computer box and the

monitor. 2Monitor switch to “on”.
3Shut down the computer.
Steps2.
1. Before shut down you should refresh it

INTERNET
INTRODUCTION
Internet is a global system of interconnected computer network that use the standard internet suits to
serve several billion user world wide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private,
public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad
array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range
of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide
Web (WWW), the infrastructure to support email, and peer-to-peer networks.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
 On 29 October 1969, the first two nodes of ARPANET were interconnected between
Leonard Kleinrock’s network measurement.
 In 1974, ABC interview with Arthur C. Clarke, in which he describe a future of ubiquitous
networked personal computer.
 In 1989, Australian university joined the push towards using IP protocol to unify their networking
in fracture.
 In 2000, Clinton made first web cast.
 In 2001, Wikipedia launched
 In 2002, my space launched.
 In 2003. Face book launched.
TYPES
Social
Media
Websit Blogs
e
Internet /
Types
Marketing Viral
Networkin
g
PRINCIPLES
1. Transmission control protocol and internet protocol: They are most commonly – used protocol for
using the internet.
2. Packet switching:
3. User datagram protocol: It is a protocol at the same level as TCP, above the level of IP.
4. IP Address: It was a unique address for every host computer in the world. They are registered so
that they stay unique. It is useful for testing processes.
5. Domain name: The domain name is the user – friendly equivalent of an IP address.
6. Client Server and Peers: A network application usually involves a client and a server. Eg. Game,
Chat, internet phone.
7. Port numbers: To identify a host machine. An IP address or a domain name is needed. Eg.
SMTP, FTP.
8. Sockets: A Socket is the software mechanism for one program to connect to anothers. Eg: Telephone.
9. Streams: A streams is a serial collection of data, such as can be sent to a printer, a display or a
serial file.
10. Uniform resources locator (URL): A unique identifier for any resource on the internet.
ADVANTAGES
1. E – mail is an online correspondence system. It is free when compared to telephone, fax and
postal services.
2. Internet is a virtual treasure trove of information.
3. Internet can help you to find data on any subject that you need.
4. Many services are now provided on the internet such as online banking, job seeking, application
and hotel reservation.
5. Internet is a very effective way to buy and sell products all over the world.
6. To meet up with people of similar interest and discuss common issues.
7. To meet new people, make new friend, as well as to stay in touch with old friend.
DISADVANTAGE
1. If you use the internet, your personal information such as your name, address etc can me accessed
by other people.
2. If you use a credit card to shop online, then your credit card information can be “stolen” which
could me akin to giving someone a blank check.
3. Pornographic sites on the internet can be easily found and can be determent to letting children use
the internet.
4. Sending unsolicited e – mails in bulk, which serves no purpose and unnecessarily clog up to
entire system.
SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES
DEFINITION
A social networking sites is an online service, platform or site that focuses on building and reflecting of
social networks or social relations among people, who for example – share interest and/or activities.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
 In the early 1930, Dr. Jacob Levi Mareno introduced the sociogram.
 In 1954, anthropologist J.A. Barnes used the phrase “Social network” to describe the
complex relationships.
 In 1999, bounce web was first established as a free web hosting provider.
 In 1990, new social networking method were developed.
 In 2002, my space launched.
 In 2003, face book launched.
 In 2004, James Gee suggests that affinity space instatiate participation, collaboration,
distribution, dispersion of expertise and relatedness.
 In may 2010, a child pornography social networking site was dismantled my law enforcement.
 On June 15, 2010, united state patent and trademark office awarded Amazon.com for
“Social networking system” based on its ownership of “planet all”.
 In 2013, study in the Journal cyber psychology, behavior and social networking investigated
phenomenon from perspective of face book user.
 In 2008, fraser and Dutta, social networking services in a enterprise context present the potential
of having a major impact on the world of business and work.
ADVANTAGES
1. Increase leads and sales.
2. Building customer relationship.
3. Create awareness and engage people.
4. Form alliances.
5. Good for human resources.
6. Health and education benefit.
7. Create and maintain many relationship.
8. Provide ability to participate and contribute.
9. Through these sites, they are able attract people who might be interested in the service that they
can offer.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Anyone can upload any kinds of photo, video.
2. Any comments you can pass through it. (i.e bad and good)
3. You can create any community sites. Eg: something bad for terror.
4. People loose their security by providing self information in those site.
5. Sexual offenders and stalkers could easily search your name and fined enough information to put
you in danger.
6. Companies are able to look at user’s profile and if they decide whether to hire a person based on
what they saw on the profile.
VIDEO CONFERENCING
INTRODUCTION
Video Conferencing as a term has become a misnomer. It no longer embraces the full range of technology,
or the communication styles, it is supposed to describe. In education, the situation is further complicated
by the range of teaching and learning methods applied.
DEFINITION
Video conferencing is the conduct of video conference by a set of telecommunication technologies which
allows two or more location to communicate by simultaneous two way video and audio transmissions. It
has also been called “visual collaboration”.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
 In 1968, multiple user video conferencing first being demonstrated with Stanford research
institute’s NLS computer technology.
 In 1980, digital telephony transmission network became possible, such as with ISDN network etc.
 On November, 1984, first commercial come from picture tel corp., which had initial
 In 2000, video telephony was popularized via free internet service such as skype, ichat and web
plugin and online telecommunication.
 In 2008, a Tanberg T3 high resolution tele peesence room is use.
 In 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medveder attending the Singapore APEC summit, holding a
video conference with Rashid Nurgaliyer via Tactical MXP, after an arms depots explosion in
Russia.
 In 2010, Indonesian and US students participating in an educational video conference.
PURPOSE
1. The main purpose of video conferencing is to enable face to face communication between two or
more people in different location.
2. The primary cost benefit is to business afforded by the use of video conferencing is the
reduction employee travel cost.
3. It also offer the possibility of increased profit for the business as well.
4. It helps in distance learning.
5. It helps in sharing lecture with the students.
6. It promotes job interview.
TYPES
There are commonly four steps of video conferencing system. They are –
1. Tele presence conferencing

This system give the appearance of being present in an actual meeting even through the participant are
geographically dispersed. This system can either e portable or immersion.
2. Integrated room conferencing

This type of system are mostly used in conference room, board room or class room with multiple
participant. This type of system usually consist of a centralized location for the codec and associated
hardware.
3. Set – Toi conferencing system:

Set – toi are complete video conferencing system designed to sit on a monitor. They are useful in small
conference room and other small group venous. They are often maintained on cart making it possible to
roll them around for use in different room.
4. Desktop conferencing system This type of conferencing bring video conferencing into your
personal work space. This technology can deliver full motion video conferencing from your PC. These
system provide about H.323 voice and video as well as application sharing.
PRINCIPLES
1. Video input:
It usually consist of either a video camera or a web cam. It is usually to video camera at each
location. Digital projector are used to show the presentation not only in one location but sending to
one presentation as well.
2. Video output:
It can be in the room of any video output form such as standard TV set, digital TV set, computer
monitor etc.
3. Audio input:
It takes the form of microphone. Sometimes each person might be individually milled, some video
conference how one general microphone that passed around or consist of microphone in the central
location.
4. Audio output:
It usually consist of speakers. These speaker can range from professional equipment, headphone or
even tiny speaker.
5. Data transfer:
Video conferencing uses several kind of technology including digital technology as well as analog
technological. ISNO lines, a normal broad band internet connection and radio frequencies which
include WIFI.
6. Data compression software:
In order for digital video conferencing to take place over ISNM line broad band internet and wifi
there must be a software to compress both video and audio data.
ADVANTAGES
1. It improved quality of life.
2. Reduced environmental impact.
3. It is cost sharing as it avoided the travelling cost.
4. It helps in effective communication.
5. To maintain relationship by face to face communication.
6. It helps in educational purposes.
7. It save time.
8. Provide and promote health status by using Tele medicine.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It is very expensive.
2. It is not effective until stability of computer.
3. It includes complex technology.
4. Time zone – depending on where you are in the world it may be difficult to get everyone
on sometimes.
5. Extra training – with the work of special equipment they has to be trained according to the
equipment.
6. Only limited number of user can attend conference at some time.
E – LEARNING
DEFINITION - Learning refers to the use of electronic media and information and communication
technologies (ICT) in education.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
 Early e – learning systems based on computer based learning / training often attempted to replicated.
 In 1960, the university of Illinois initiated a classroom system based in linked computer terminal
particular course while listing to lectures that were recorded via some form of remotely linked
device link television.
 In early 1960, Stanford university psychology professor Patrick suppes and Richard C. Atkinson
experimented with using computer to teach maths and reading in young children in elementary
school in east Palo alto, California.
 In 1983, graziadei descried an online computer delivered lecturer, tutorial and assessment project
using electronic e – mail.
 In 1994, first online high school has been founded.
 In 2008, the council of Europe passed a statement endoring e – learning potential to drive equality
and education improvement across the EU.
 Resent studies shows that the effectiveness of online instruction is considered equal to that of face
to face classroom instruction but not as effective as the combination of face to face and online
method.
OBJECTIVES
1. To guide the content material and teaching method.
2. To make sure to reach the goal.
3. To assess and grading of content material.
4. To developed an instrumental strategy.
5. To asses student for their expected learning outcomes and evaluation.
6. To recognize the good and bed from the civil society based on Vedas.
7. Ability to use learned material in new situation.
8. To specify the long term achievement of the course
TYPES
a) Web based training

 It is used in corporate training.
 Technology is used primarily to deliver content to end user without significant interaction with
for support from training professional or manager.
 It significant industry has grown up around this form of e – learning.
b) Supported online training
 It is used in higher education.

 The majority of the content of the course may be delivered through lecturers or through distance –
education textual material.
 But the course is categorized as a e – learning because the interaction with the instruction, the
dialogue with other students, the reaching for recourses materials and supporting material are all
conducted online.
c) Informal E – learning
 It is used in many knowledge intensive organization.

 It linked with knowledge management.
ADVANTAGES
1. Improved open access to education, including access to full degree programs.
2. Improved integration of student particularly in continuing education.
3. Provision of tools to enable student to independently solve problem.
4. Improved interaction between students and instructor.
5. Acquisition of technological skills through practice with tools and computer.
6. To pursue a degree in higher education.
7. To explain the concept in a different way.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Less effective of learning.
2. Potential distraction that hinder true learning.
3. Ease of cheating.
4. Bias towards tech – sary student over non – technical student.
5. Teachers lack of knowledge and experience to manage virtual teacher – student interaction.
6. Lack of social interaction between teacher and immediate feedback from teachers.
7. Synchronic communication hider fast exchange of question.
8. Danger of procrastination.
COMPUTER ASSISTED INTERACTION
DEFINITION
Computer assisted instruction (CAI) refers to instruction or remediation presented on a computer. Many
educational programs are available online and from computer stores and textbook companies. They
enhances teacher instruction in several ways.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
 The method was first introduce in the 1960s. since then it has evolved so that in the twenty first
century. Computers are an integral part of the education process in the developed countries.
 According to Greta G. Fein and Jerome L. Singer who studied the effect of play on children
education, the involvement in the fantasy as a whole is highly intrinsically motivating.
 According to certain studies, the combination of computer assisted instruction and teacher
assisted instruction (TAI) is highly effective in bolstering students achievements.
 The Logo project ( Papert 1980; 1993) was probably the first CAL system that was based on a
specific learning approach ( the experimental, discovery learning approach). Also known as computer
assisted instruction.
 Pioneer such as suppers ( Stanford university), Kemeny and Kirtz and Bitzer Plato, university of
Illinois (Hart 1981, 1995) were among the first to use a computer as part of learning process.
PURPOSE
1. Providing background knowledge.

2. Remediation.
3. To provide practical instruction through interactive programs that teach effectively.
4. Review and reinforcement.
5. Assessment for improving teaching.
6. Improve motivation through reward and interaction.
7. It builds confidence.
8. Problem solving.
9. Providing a tool for student self reflecting.
10. Helping in critical analysis.
11. To provide a rich diversity of environment and problems.
12. To achieve the programs developed for a single course may differ drastically.
TYPES
1. Drill and practice of nursing procedure

It provides opportunities to student and demonstrator to repeatedly practice the skills of nursing procedure
that have previously been presented and that further practice is necessary for mastery.
2. Simulation
Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality that does not require the expense of real life
and its risk.
3. Tutorial
Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information and its extension into different forms of
work, including procedures, games and simulation and games. Lecturer can be carried out through the
CAL effectively.
4. Statistical analysis:
Complicated statistical analysis can be carried out easily through statistical software.
5. Reference writing
Different types of software are available which helps the author’s and students to write reference
according to desired type or design.
PRINCIPLES
1. While lecture form of teaching has be often maligned, there are techniques for enhancing lectures
that can also apply to CAI.
2. Effective communication methods , both verbal and audio visual are as important in computer
modules as they are in face – face teaching.
3. The quality of interactive questioning and nature and timing of a feedback are critical to the success
of instruction by computer.
4. Appropriate feedback can improve retention as can use of proper distracter in multiple –
choice question.
ADVANTAGE
1. Interesting and motivating:-Classical method of teaching can monotonous, boring and even
frustrating.
Eg: “Fill in the blanks”, images, sound etc.
2. Individualization:-Its self directed learning student can decide where and what to learn.
3. Compatible learning style:- Self – place learning, self directed learning, exercising of various
sense and variety of media.
4. Promote enthusiasm: -They provide a simulating environment and promote enthusiasm.
5. It helps shy and show learner.
6. It provide responsible and easily communicable.
7. Optimal use of learning time without limited.
8. To receive maximum benefit from feedback only if it is given immediately.
9. To analyze the specific mistake that student made.
10. One to one interaction is possible to learner and teacher can devote more time to individual student.
DISADVANTAGE
1. Overwhelmed with information available.
2. Lack of trained teacher.
3. Inability to handle unexpected situation.
4. Divert the attention from content by over use of multimedia.
5. Learning becomes too mechanical.
CHARTS
INTRODUCTION
Charts are versatile and useful visual aids that have been used by teacher for long time.These usual
symbols used for summarizing, comparing, contrasting or performing other services in explaining subject
matter. Diagnostic representation of the facts and idea. Teacher has to prepare charts by incorporating his
own ideas and lines of approach of the specific topic are more useful. Edgar dale defines charts as, ‘a
visual symbol summarizing or comparing or constricting or performing other helpful services in
explaining subject matter ‘. The main function of the charts is always to show the relationship such as
comparison, relative amounts, development processes, classification and organizations.
DEFINITION
A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical or vertical material which presents a clear visual
summary.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
Most of the chart used today in data visualization among virtually all of the social sciences. Derive from
the original design of William Playfair (1759-1823).
PURPOSE
1. For showing the relationships by means of facts and figures.
2. For presenting the material symbolically.
3. To showing the continuity in process.
4. For presenting abstract ideas in visual form.
5. For creative problem and stimulating thinking.
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Charts can be carefully stored and preserved for use in future.

2. They have an educational value.
3. Usually the charts are teacher made.
4. Charts can be of any size.
5. Charts display specific information.
6. Easy to carry.
TYPES OF CHARTS
1. Wall charts
2. Narrative charts
3. Cause and effect charts
4. Chain chart
5. Evolution chart
6. Pull chart
7. Flow or organization charts
8. Bar chart
9. Pie chart
10. Tabulation chart
11. Time/Table charts
12. Genealogy chart
13. Job chart
14. Tree chart
15. Flip charts
1. Wall chart –Displays that are pinned to a wall or bulletin board and are mainly intended for casual
study outside the context of a formal lesson. The material on wall chart clearly distinguishable or
legible at a distance.
2. Narrative chart- arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing the events in the process or
development of a significant issue to its point of resolution or we can show an improvement over of
years.
3. Cause and effect chart- arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing the relationship between two
system or between right and responsibilities or between a complex of conditions and change.
4. Chain chart- arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing transitions or cycle.e.g. life cycle
of organism or individual.
5. Evolution chart- facts and ideas for expressing changes in specific items from beginning data and
its projection into the future.
6. Pull chart- it consists of written messages which are hidden by strips of thick paper. The message
can be shown to the viewer, one after another by pulling out the concealing
7. Flow or organization chart- diagrams used to show organizational element or administrative
or functional relationship.
8. Bar chart- learners abilities to recognize concepts such as ‘more’ , ‘greater than’ , ‘higher’ , ‘taller’
, ‘smaller’ etc. can easily be developed through graphs.
9. Pie chart-a circle will be drawn and the division will be made into different sections, each section
will be coded differently and coded key will be given at right corner of the chart as a legend.
10. Tabulation chart- the numerical data are presented in a tubular form, used for comparisons or for
listing advantage and disadvantage of an organization. e.g. comparison table.
11. Time/Table chart- to show the schedule of an activity or of an individual, e.g. tour chart, time table
of a class
12. Genealogy chart- to represent historical facets or growth and development of the family. Taking an
analogy from the tree, the origin is shown in a single line, rectangle, circle or other representation of
the trunk and the various changes or developments are shown , e.g. family tree.
13. Job chart- job responsibilities of specific categories will be listed out and circulated among its
members.
14. Tree chart- to show the development or growth or the types in the form of a tree, e.g. complication
or type of a specific disease.
15. Flip chart- A flip chart is a collection of large papers (pages) which are bound together at the top.
The pages are ‘flipped’ or brought up and to the back as they are used.
HOW TO USE CHARTS EFFECTIVELY
1. Involve the students in preparation of the charts.

2. Every details depicted in the charts should be visible to all pupil in the class.
3. It should display the information only about one specific area in the subject.
4. It should not contain too many details.
5. It should represent neat and tidy in appearance.
6. Teacher should make sure that there is provision for hanging the chart at a vantage point.
7. Use the pointer to point out specific factors in the chart.
8. Charts should be carefully stored and preserved for use in future.
ADVANTAGES
1. Simple to use
2. Inexpensive, portable
3. Suitable for multicolored display
4. No need of electricity
5. Effectively help to focus learner’s attention
PREPARATION PROCESS
MATERIAL REQUIRED-
1. Sheets of thick white or colored paper
2. Fiber tipped round- point
3. Chisel marker
4. Graphic material
5. Stencils
6. Drawing aid
7. Thread
PREPARATION STEPS-
1. before making a chart, one should plan the content in terms of objective and decide the layout
2. the layout should be balanced and should use the space effectively
3. one should draft the plan on a small sheet of paper with the aspect ratio i.e as is required for the chart
4. the size of the chart , the size of the letters and the contrast of the display material should be such
that it is readable by the farthest viewer
5. standard chart paper in size 19x60 cm and 70x55cm is suitable for most purose
6. the size of the letters for the captions ,labels and keywords written on a chart should be between 2
and 3 cm for a class room of depth 6 m
7. the thickness of the line should be between 2 and 3 mm
8. the display material should be contrasted with the background so that it stand out
STORAGE
1. it should be kept in a chart cover( in a rolled manner)
2. it should be rolled in between two newspaper to prevent crack and dust
3. it should be keep in dry place to prevent spoiling from moisture
SPECIAL POINT
1. teacher should use appointers to point out a specific point in a chart
2. the color should be used meaningfully
3. one chart should convey just one idea or one principle
GRAPHS
INTRODUCTION
Graphs are the visual teaching aids for presenting statistical information and contrasting the trend or
changes to certain attributes. A huge data and long list of figure is always boring but if the same is
represented by a graph, capture attention and make students think. A good graph can give a lot of
information just by shooting a glance at it.
DEFINITION
“Graphs depict numerical or quantitative relationship or statistical data that are presented in the form
of a visual symbol.”
From textbook of nursing education (Neeraja
K.P.)
Graphs make presentation of quantitative data easily interpretable and readily understood.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
A Swiss mathematician, Leonhard Euler, is who came up with graphs. He was born in 1707 and died
in 1783. He discovered graphs while working on Kaliningrad bridge in Russia. The graph theory was
used by Euler to solve a problem that a Russian city had with determining how to have seven bridges
to two islands and only cross them once.
USES
1. The shape of the graphs give clear idea of the nature of variation of one quantity with respect to
the other that is it provide us the relationship between the two quantities represented by it.
2. Inaccuracies in the data can be identified with he help of a graph.
3. With the help of a graph we can also find out the mean value from a large observation.
4. Make presentation of quantitative data easily interpretable.
5. For consisting the huge data.
PROPERTIES
1. The two edges of the graph are called adjacent or coincident if they share a common vertex.
2. The arrows of the directed graph are called consecutive if they are at the notch or at the head of
an arrow.
3. The common edge is called incident.
4. The graph with one vertex and no edge is known as trivial graph.
5. The graph with only vertices and no edges is known as edgeless graph.
6. The graph with no vertices and no edges is called null graph or empty graph.
TYPES
1. Pie graph :- Pie graph is known as circle diagram. The data are presented through the section
or portion of the circle.
2. Bar graph :- A graphic representation which extends the scale horizontally along the length of
bars. Each bars must be of same width.
3. Line graph:- To show the trends and relationship. E.g. single lines show the relation and
variation in quantity.
4. Pictorial graph:- It is an outstanding method of graphic representation. Pictures are used for
the expression of ideas; they are more attractive and easily understood.
5. Frequency polygon :- A line graph for the graphical presentation of the frequency distribution
6. Histogram or column diagram :- It presents an accurate picture of the relative proportion of

the total frequency from interval to interval.
7. Cumulative frequency graph :- A line graph drawn by plotting actual limits of the class
interval on the X-axis and the respective cumulative frequencies on the Y-axis.
8. O give :-To determine quickly and accurately the statistical data like percentile, median
deviation can be used.
GUIDE LINE
while constructing a graph the following points should be consider
1. They must have a title and index
2. The proportion between width and height should be balanced
3. Selection of scale must be appropriate
4. Footnotes may be included they are needed
5. Principle of simplicity must be kept in mind
6. Neatness and cleanliness in construction of graph must be insured.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Huge matter can be concise and represented.
2. Portable.
3. Easily available.
4. It improves skill.
5. It facilitates completion of data represented in different columns and row
DISADVANTAGES:
1. No detailed ideas about the natter can be collected.
2. Audience should have the knowledge about the graph to understand it.
3. Present only quantitative aspect
PREPARATION PROCESS
MATERIAL REQUIRED-
1. Graphic sheet
2. Geometrical instrument
3. Scale
4. Chart paper
5. Marker pen
6. Pencil
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION-
1. Pie graph-
 The surface area of a circle is to cover 360o
 The total values or frequencies are equated to 360o and then the angles corresponding to
the component part are calculated.
 Divide the circle into appropriate sectors using protractor.
 Color each section and write the corresponding percentage it represents.
 Caption the pie graph with a descriptive title.
2. Bar graphs-
 Before making the bar graphs make a rough sketch of it in a notebook.
 For drawing the bar graph use the chart paper of 50*72cm in size.
 Use two different color shades for the two contrasting groups.
 The bars should be of equi-spaced.
 Write the key to the bar graph in a box on the right hand side corner of the chart paper
 Numbers specifying the magnitude of the bars should be on the top of the bars.
POSTERS
INTRODUCTION
Posters are the graphic aids with short, quick and typical messages with attention capturing paintings.
Posters can be of different sizes. A big poster which are also called bill board or hoarding. It is good
substitute for the first hand experience.
DEFINITION
1. Posters are the graphic aids with short quick and typical messages with attention
capturing paintings.
2. Posters are good substitute for first to inspire the people and lastly it will serve as a remainder
to the group.
PURPOSE
1. Advertising an event or product.
2. Campaigning for a cause.
3. Giving a directive
4. Popularizing a slogan.
5. Drawing attention towards desirable actions and values.
6. Giving a warning.
7. Popularizing a symbol or a sign.
8. Propaganda.
9. To make an instant appeal.
10. To convey single idea or few idea.
FEATURES OF GOOD POSTER
1. Simplicity in depiction.
2. Dramatic action packed short message.
3. Colorfulness
4. Eye catching figurative design.
5. Thus, it has been seen that a poster has be both colorful and educative.
GUIDELINES
1. The message of the poster should be short simple direct and one that can be taken at glance
and easy to understand immediately.
2. The right amount of matter should be put up in the right place at the time.
3. The audience should become aware of the events, practices or ideas you want to communicate.
RULES TO PREPARE POSTER

1. To do a special job.
2. To promote one point.
3. To support local demonstration and local exhibits.
4. Planned for specified people.
5. It should stop the people and make them look.
6. Tell the message in a single glance.
7. Use bold letters (20’’x 30’’).
8. Use simple, few words which conveys idea.
9. Use pleasing colors.
10. Must be timely.
11. Poster can be developed with the help of an artist.
ADVANTAGES
1. To make an instant appeal.
2. To convey single idea or few ideas.
3. To be understood at a glance.
4. Comprehensive at a distance and sufficiently clear.
5. Suitable for patient education, presenting scientific facts, showing safety measures and many
other facts relating to health.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Effect of the poster depends on contrast of colour.
PREPARATION STEPS
1. Statement of problem(need for project).
2. Purpose of the poster (can also be clearly stated in title).
3. Description of the program and target outcome should be there.
MAPS
DEFINITION
1. “Map is defined as the graphic representation of the earth surface or portions of it are terms
as maps.
Neerja,K.P.
2. “Map is a graphic aid representing the proportionately as a diagram the surface of the earth,
world or parts there of”.
Basavanttappa.
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF MAP

A map is always drawn to a scale which is mentioned on one corner of it. Every map should have
following description on it. A caption or title a grid, a scale, a key, date on which it has been prepared.
1. A square with a flag on the top usually represented a school.
2. Width and combinations of lines represents road.
3. Washed line represents a boarder.
4. With a north arrow, a user can determine direction.
5. A neat line is the border of the map which defined the edge of the map area.
COLOR DIFFERENTIATION REPRESENTS

Brown → Mountain, Hills.
Blue → River.
Dark green → low elevation or below sea
level. White or Gray → highest elevation.
Green → Fertile region.
PURPOSE
1. A map provides information on the existence the location of and the distance between ground
features such as populated places and routes of travel and communication.
2. It give an idea of variation of heights and the extent of vegetarian cover.
3. Give knowledge of large area in a single view.
4. Convey geographical, political information etc.
TYPES
There are various types of map are present.
→ Globe-
- It is the model of the earth in the spherical shape.
- It shows the aris of the rotation of the earth and its inclination.
→ Flat Maps-
- The earth, containments, countries etc are shown on flat surface and are called flat maps
THERE ARE VARIOUS TYPES OF FLAT MAPS
1. Weather maps
2. Population maps
3. Road maps
4. Tourist maps
5. Railway maps
ADVANTAGES
1. It provides a current pictorial view of the ground the no map can equal.
2. Convey useful information in a concise manner.
3. A large area can be visualized at a time.
4. The distance, direction, poles can be easily understood.
5. It provides idea about the geographical distribution, political area differentiate.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Ground feature are difficult to identify on interpret without symbols.
2. Position location and scale are only approximate.
3. It lacks marginal data.
4. It requires more training to interpet than a map.
5. It should display the information only about one specific area in a subject.
6. It should not contain too many details.
7. It should possess neat appearance.
8. Teacher should make sure that there is provision for hanging the chart at a vantage point.
9. Use the pointer to point out specific factors in the charts.
MULTIMEDIA
DEFINITION
ACCORDING TO WIKIPEDIA
Multimedia is a media and content that uses a combination of different content form this contrast with
media that use only rudimentary computer displace such as text only or traditional forms of printed or
hand produced material . Multimedia include combination of TEXT, AUDIO, STILL IMMAGES,
ANNIMATION, VEDIO OR INTER ACTIVITY content form.
Multimedia is a computer-based interactive communications process that incorporates text, graphics,
sound, animation, and video
Multimedia presentations can be used either alone or with audience. For audience use, a good set of
stereoheadphone is necessory.even when a presentation is intended even eventually for an audience.it
would be normal for the leader of the session viewand listen to the material in advance, wether it be pre
prepared or custom written.
COMPUTER MULTIMEDIA
Computer based multimedia , two or form of communication delivered by one tool running different
software, makes instructor’s access to multimedia more accessible and varied.
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Multi-sensory experience – real world

2. Multi-sensory memory imprints
3. Different learning styles benefit
ADVANTAGES
1. Engrossing – deep involvement
2. Multi-sensory
3. Creates knowledge connections
4. Individualized
5. Teacher and student creation
MULTIMEDIA DISADVANTAGES
 Lost in cyberspace”
 Lack of structure
 Non-interactive – if one-way, no feedback
 Text intensive content
 Complex to create
 Time consuming
 Cognitive overload
 Linear content
.
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)
INTRODUCTION
Teaching is also untouched with the technology advancement presenter’s and teaching always looks for
new ways to help student to understand the course material. The use of LCD projection in class is one of
the newest tools to help meet that goal. LCD’s used with a computer project an image onto a seen or a
blank wall and provides more instructional flexibility in the types of content that can be used in a
classroom. An LCD projector can be used in the classroom to view. Educational films show lesson,
presentations or even to get students involved with interactive slides. LCD is a liquid crystal display.
DEFINITION
An LCD projector is a device that uses a liquid crystal display technology to project still images, video
and other data onto a screen or other surface.
Mukesh Chandra Sharma.
HISTORY
 In 1888, Friedrick Reinitzer (1858-1927) – discover the liquid crystalline nature cholesterol
extracted from carrots( that is, two meltings points and generation of colors) and published the
finding at a meeting of the Vienna chemical of society on may 3,1888.
 In 1904 Otto lehmann published his work Flussige Kristalle (liquid crystal).
 In 1911, charles mauguin first experimented with liquids crystal confined between plates in
thin layers.
 In the late 1960’s, pioneering work on liquid crystal was undertaken by the UK’s Royal Radal
establishment at Molvern England. The team at RRE supported ongoing work by George William
gray and his team at the university of Hull who ultimately discovered
 the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystal, which had correct stability and temperature properties for
application in LCD
 In 1972 the first active matrix liquid crystal display panel was produced in the united states
 In 1996, Samsung developed the patterning techniques that enables multi-domain LCD. Multi
domain and in plan switching subsequently remain the dominant LCD designs through 2010.
 In fourth quarter of 2007, LCD television suposed CRT’s in worldwide sales for the first time.
 LCD TV’s was projected to account 50% of the 200 million TV’s to be sleeped globely in
2008, according to display.
 In October 2011, Toshiba announced 2500into1600 pixels on 6.1 inch LCD panel suitable for use
in tablet, computer especially for Chinese corrected display.
IMPORTANCE OF LCD
1. It provides a large, clear image that students can see from anywhere in the room. Enhancing
the learning experience.
2. Easy to use, modern LCD projectors easily interface with computers by using simply attaching a
cable. In most cases, no special software needs to be installed.
3. Lecture becomes more effective and interesting.
4. Students are more attentive.
5. Benefit for visual learners.
6. Teachers can prepare presentations on a computer and display them on an LCD projector .this can
be very useful for creating lessons plans that can be used year after year.
7. Since slides are started in files on the computers, they can be made accessible to students or
other instructors.
8. Allows instructor to project videos or image directly from a book to the screen through the
LCD projector.
9. Photos, videos projected through LCD helps the students to have understanding regarding
disease condition, site or other the aspects they had not seen.
10. Presentation are easily made using PowerPoint at other software applications PowerPoint can also
be used to prepare handouts and content outlines.
GUIDELINES OF LCD
LCD’s are available to display arbitrary images or fixed images which can be displayed or hidden,
such as preset words, digits and 7-segment display as in digital clock. They use the same basic
technology, except that arbitrary images is made up of large numbers of small pixels,while other display
have larger elements.
1. Each pixel of on LCD typically consist of a layers of molecules aligned between two transparent
electrode, and 2 polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are perpendicular to each other.
without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would
be blocked by the second polarizer .
2. Before an electric field is applied the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined by
the alignment at the electrodes.
3. In a twisted nematic device ( still the most common liquid crystal device), the surface alignment
directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other and so the modules arrange
themselves in a helical structure, or twist.
4. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light and the device appears gray. It
the applied voltage is large enough the liquid crystal modules in the center of the layers are
almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the light is not rotated as it passes through
the liquid crystal layer.
5. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and
the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each
pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in vaying amounts this constituting different level of gray.
LCD with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top such that the top and bottom polaizer are
parallel.
The optical effect of a twisted nematic device in the voltage on a state is far less dependent on variations
in the device thickness then that in the voltage off state. Because of this device are usually operated
between crossed polarizer such that they appear bright with no voltage.
The device can also operated between parallel in which case the bright and dark stales are reversed.the
voltage off dark state in this configuration appears slowly however because of small variations of
thickness across the device.
Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layers material contains ionic compounds. If an electric
field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the
surface and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying on an attending current or
by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed.
Displays for a small number of individual digits and or fixed symbols can be implemented with
independence electrodes for each segment.
In constrast full alpha numeric and or variable graphics display are usually implemented with pixel
arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connecting rows on one side of the lc layer and columns on
the other side,which makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections.
The general method of matrix addressing consist of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix for
eg.by selecting the rows one by one applying the picture information on the other side at the columns
row by row.
There more to building on LCD then simply creating a sheet of liquid crystal. The combination of
four facts makes LCD possible.

1. Light can be polarized see how sunglass work far some facscinating information on polarized.
2. Liquid crystal can transmit and change polarized light.
3. The structure of liquid crystal can be changed by electric current.
4. There are transparent substance that can conduct electricity.
ADVANTAGE OF LCD
1. Very compact and light.
2. Low power consumption. Depending on the set display brightness and content being displayed
the older CCFLbacklit models typically uses 30-50% of the power a CRI moniter of the some
size viewing area would use and the modern LED backlit models typically use 10-25% of the
power of CRT monitor would use.
3. Very little heat emitted during operation due to low power consumption.
4. No geometric distoration.
5. The possible ability to have little or no flicker depending in the backlight technology.
6. Is very then compared to a CRT’s monitor which allows the monitor to be placed farther back
from the uses, reducing close focusing eye strain.
7. Razar sharp image with no bleeding/smearing when operated at native resolution.
8. Emits much less undesirable electromagnetic radiation than a CRT monitor.
9. Can be made in almost any size or shape.
10. No theoretical resolution limit.
11. Can be made to large sizes (more then 24 inches)lightly and relatively inexpensively.
12. Many LCD monitors are powered by an external 12V power supply which means that they can
also be run directly on one of the computers 12V power supply outputs removing the overhead
and quiescent power consumption of the monitors own power supply.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Limited viewing angle, causing color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary even within
the intended viewing angle,by variation in posture.
2. Uneven backlight in some monitors causing brightness distortion especially towards the edges.
3. Block levels may appear unacceptably bright due to the fact that individual liquid crystal
cannot completely black all light from passing through.
4. Fixed bit depth many cheaper LCDs are only able to display 262,000 colors.8 bit S-IPS panels can
display 16 millons colors and have significantly better black level,but are expensive and have
slower response time
5. Low refresh rate .all but a few high end monitors support no higher than 60 or 75HZ while this
doesnot cause visible flicker due to the LCD panel high internal refresh rate,the low input refresh
rate still limits the maximum frame rate that can be displayed ,negatively impacting gaming and 3D
graphics.
6. Loss of brightness and much slower response times in low temperature environment .in sub
zero environment LCD screens may cease to function without the use of supplemental heating.
7. Loss of contrast in high temperature environment .
8. Not usually designed to allow easy replacement of the backlight.
PRECAUTIONS FOR HANDLING LCD MODULES

Since the LCD modules has been assembled and adjusted with a high degree of precision ,avoid applying
excessive shock or force to the modules or making any alterations or modifications to it.
1. Don’t alter, modify or change the shape of the tob on the metal frame.
2. Do not make extra holes on the printed circuit board modify its shape or change the position
of components to be attached.
3. Donot damage or modify the pattern wiring on the printed circuit board.
4. Absolutely do not modify the zebra rubber strips or heat the seal connector.
5. Do not deep, send or twist the LCD module. In particular don’t forcible pull are bend the I/O cable
are backlight cable.
6. Store them in a sealed polyethylene bag.. If property sealed, there is no need for desicant.
7. Do not leave them for more then 160 hours at 70%.
8. Store them in dark place ,donor expose them to sunlight or fluorescent light. keep the
temperature between 0-35 Celsius.
9. They should not be left for more then 48 hours at 20 degree celsius
10. Do not press if pressure is applied to LCD orientation may be disturbed.
11. Do not swallow or touch liquid crystal. Liquid crystal may leak if the display breaks.
12. No DC voltage to LCD- DC voltage or higher voltage than specified will reduce the lifetime of
the LCD.
13. Do not put pressure on the metallic frame at disposable the LCD module.
14. Slowly peel off protective film avoids static electricity.
15. Wear gloves while handling it is preferable to wear gloves to avoid damaging the LCD.
16. Donot drop water on LCD note that presence of water drop or dew in the LCD panel may
deteriorate the polarizer or carrode the electrode.
PREPRATION
To create on LCD you take two pieces of polarized glass. A special polymer that creates microscopic
grooves in the surface is rubbed on the side of the glass that does not have the polarizing film on it.The
grooves must be in the same directions as the polarizing film. you then add a coating of nematic. Liquid
crystal to one of the filters. The grooves will causes the first layers of molecules to align with the filters
orientation. then add the second piece of glass with the polarizing film at a right angle to the first piece.
Each successive layers of the molecules will gradually twist until the uppermost layer is at 90 degree angle
to the bottom, matching the polarized glass. As the light strikes the first filters. It is a polarized the
molecules in each layers then guide the light they receive to the next layers. As the light passes through the
liquid crystal layers , the molecules also change the lights plane of vibration.to match their own
angle .when the light reaches the for side of the liquid crystal substance it vibrates at the same angle as the
final layer of molecules.if the final layers is matched up with the second polarized glass filter,then the light
will pass through.
If we apply an electric charge to liquid crystal molecules they untwisted .when they straighten out,they
chang. the angle of the light passing through them so that it no longer matches the angle of the top
polarizing filter.consequently no light can pass through that area of the LCD.which makes that area darker
than the surrounding areas. Building is a simple LCD is easier then you think. Start with the sandwich of
glass and liquid crystal described above and add two transparent electrodes to it. For eg.imagine that you
want to create the simplest possible LCD with just a simple rectangular electrode on it.
The layer would look like this.
The LCD needed to do this tab is very basic. It less a mirror.

1. In back, which makes it reflective. Then we add a piece of glass.
2. With a polarizing film on the bottom side and a common electrode plane.
3. Made of indium tin oxide on top. A common electrode plane covers the entire area of the LCD.
Above that is the layer of liquids crystal substance.
4. Next comes another piece of glass.
5. with on electrode in the shape of the rectale on the bottom and on top, another polarizing film
6. at a right angle to the first me.
The electrode is hooked up to power source like a battery. When there is no current,light entering through
the front of the LCD will simply hit the mirror and bounce right back out. But when the battery supplies
current to the electrodes, the liquid crystal between the common plane electrode and the electrode shaped
like a rectangle untwist and block the light in a that region from passing through the makes the LCD show
the rectangle as black area.
STORAGE OF LCD
LCD’s are composed of glass, liquid crystal fluid and a polarizer. Please pay attention to following item
when handling
1. keep the temperature within a specified range for use and storage. Polarization degradation,
bubble generation or polarizer peel off may occur with high temperature and high humidity.
2. Do not touch, push or rub the exposed polarizer with anything harder an on HB lead pencil(
glass. Tweezer etc.).
3. N- hexane is recommended for cleaning the adhesives used to attach the front/rear
polarizer.Reflectors made of organic substance will be damaged by chemicals such as acetone,
toluene,ethanol and isoprophyl alchohol.
4. If is display surface becomes contaminated, breathe on the surface and gently wipe it with a soft
dry cloth. If it is heavily contaminated wipe it gently with absorbent cotton or another soft material
like chamois soaked in isoprophyl alcohol or ethyl alchol . srub gently to avoid damaging the
display surface.
5. wipe off salive or water immediately ! contact with water over a long period of time may
cause deformation or color fading.
6. avoid contact with oil or any greasy substance.
7. if there is condensation on the surface and contact with the terminals while cold, it will damage, stain
or dirty the polizer after use the product is tested at low temperature, they must be warmed up in a
container before being exposed to room temperature environments.
8. Do not put or attach anything on the display area in older to avoid leaving marks.
9. Donot touch the display with bare hand .this will stain the display area and degrade the
insulation between terminals .
10. Exercise care to minimize corrosion of the electrode .corrosion of the electrodes is accelerated by
water droplets moisture condensation or a current flow in a high humidity environment.
11. As glasses fragile care should be taken to avoid chipping while handling the edges especially.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light emitting diode (LED) is a semi conductor light source. LED are used is indicator lamps in many
devices and are increasing used for general lighting. Appearing as practical electronic components in
1962, early LED’s emitted low- intensity red light, but modern version are available across the visible,
ultraviolet and infrared wave length with very light brightness.
HISTORY
Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experiments H.J. round of
marconi labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat’s whisker detector. Russian oley reported
creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Russian, German, and British scientific
journals but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades.rubin braunstein of the radio
cooperation of America reported an infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semi conducter.
Alloys in 1955. Broustain observed infrared antimonide, indium phosphide & silicon germanium alloys at
room temperature and at 77 kelvin
In 1961 American experiments James R.Biard and Gary Pitthun, walking at texas instruments found that
infrared radiation when electric current was applied.the two were able ti establish the priority of their work
based on engineering notebooks,and received the first US patent for LED.
The first protocol visible spectrum LED was developed in 1962 by Nicks Holonyak,Jr while working at
general electric company. Holonyak first reported this break through in the journal applied physics letters
on the December 1,1962. Holonyak is seen as the “Father of the light diode”.
M. george CRAFED a former student of holonyak invented the first yellow LED. And improved the
brightness of red and orange. LED’s by a factor of ten in 1972. In 1976,T.P. pearsall created the first
high brightness, high efficiency. LED for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new
semiconductor material specifically to adapted fiber transmission wavelength.
ADVANTAGES
1. Efficiency: -LED’s emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs. The efficiency of
LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.
2. Color:- LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as
traditional lighting methods needs. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
3. : - LED’s can be very small( smaller than 2mm)land are easily attached to printed circuit boards.
 On/Off Time:- LED’s light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achievefull
brightness in under a microsecond.
 Cycling: - Led’s are ideal for uses subjects to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluroscent lamps
that fails foster cycled often or lamps that requires a long time before restarting.
 Dimming: - LED’s can very easily be dimmed either by pulse width modulation is lowering
the forward current. This pulse width modulating is why LED lights viewed on camera
particularly headlight an cars, appear to be flashing or flickering.this is type of stroboscopic
effect.
 Cod light:- In contrast to most light source. LED’s radiate very little heat in the form of IR that
can cause damage to sensitive object or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the
base of the LED.
 Slow failure: - LED’s mostly failed by diming over time, rather than the abrupt failure
of Incandescent bulbs.
 Lifetime: - LED can have a relatively long useful life one report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours
of useful life, through time to complete failure may be longer.
 Shock resistance- LEDs being solid state components are difficult to damage with external
shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulb,which are fragile..
DISADVANTAGES
1. High Initial Price: - Led’s are currently more expensive, price per lumen on initial optical cost
basis, then most conventional highly technology As at 2010 the cost Per thousands lumen was
about
$18
2. Temperature Difference: - LED performance largely depends on the ambient tempreture of
the operating environment or “thermal management” properties.an adequate heat sink in is
needed to maintain long life.
3. voltage sensitivity-LEDS must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a
current below the rating .this can involve series resistors or current regulated power
supplies.
4. Light Quality: - Most cool white LED’s have spectra that differ significantly from a block
body radiators like sun or an incandencent light.
DIORAMAS
INTRODUCTION
The word diorama can either refer to a 19th century mobile theatre device, or in modern usuage, a three
dimensional full size or miniature model, sometimes enclosed in a glass. Showcase for a museum.
Dioramas are often built by hobbyist as part of related hobbies such as military modeling, miniature,
figure modeling or aircraft modeling.
DEFINITION
diorama defined as three dimensional visual presentation of a scene in a miniature form represented with
help of miniature objects with backwards in actual perspectives.
S.L. aliuwalia.
It is a three dimensional scene in depth incorpating a group of modeled object and figures in a natural
setting.the diorama scene is setup on a small stage with a group of modeled objecys kept on the
foreground,which is blended into a painted realistic background.
Dioramas is a three dimensional arrangement related object, models and cutout to illustrate a central
theme of concept. The object and models are generally placed in a bigbox or show case with a glass
covering and background painted with a shade or a scene. The word “see through” The dioramas
produced in the should be covered with cellphone paper and open a top. Even table representation will do
for the school purpose to use dioramas.as teaching aids.
HISTORY OF DIORAMAS
The word “dioramas” orginated in 1823 as a type of the camera device from the French in 1822. the
word literally means “through that which is seen” from the Greek di “through” orama that which is seen
‘ sight”. The dioramas was invented by Daquerre and Charles marie bouton first exhibited in London is
from 1902.
First use of dioramas in a museum is in Romania by professer Grigare Antipa in 1907.
TYPES OF DIORAMAS
1. MINIATURES: - Miniatures dioramas are typically much smaller and use scale models
and landscaping to create or historical scenes. Such a scale model based dioramas is used
foreg. in
Chicago’s museum of science and industry to display railroading. This dioramas employs common
model railroading scale of 1:87. hobbyist dioramas often use popular scales as 1/35 or 1/48.
2. FULL SIZE DIORAMAS: - a dioramas in the museum of natural history in Milan (Italy).
Modern museum dioramas may be seen in most major natural history museum. Typically these displays
use a plane to represents what would otherwise be level surface, incorporate a painted background of
distant objects
and often employ false perspective, carefully modifying the scale of objects placed in the plane the
reinforce the illussion through depth perception in which object of identical real world size proceed
farther from the observer appear smaller than those closer. Often the distant painted background of sky
will be painted upon a continuous curved surface so that the viewer is not distracted by corners, seams, or
edges
.all of these techniques are means of presenting realistic view of large scene in a compact space.
EDUCATIONAL DIORAMAS
Educational dioramas are widely used in the American educational system, mostly in elementary and
middle school. They are often made to represent historical events, ecological biomes, cultural scenes ar to
visuals depecit.
ADVANTAGES: -
Dioramas provides students on opportunity to project walk. Also dioramas provides a feeling
of solidity to reality because of the perpective and background painting.
DISADVANTAGES: -
1. If using paints it requires a long drying time.
2. It is very costly.
MOCKUP
A usually full sized scale model of a structure ,used for demonstration study or testing a layout of printed
matter.In manufacturing and design a mockup is a scale of full size model of a design is a device cases for
teaching, demonstration, design evaluating, promotion and other purposes. A mockups is a prototype is it
provides at least part of the functionality of a system and enables testing of a design. Mockups are used by
designers mainly to acquire feedback from uses. Mockups address the ideas captured in a popular
engineering one lines. You can fix it now on the drafting board with an eraser or you can fix it later on the
construction site with a hammer.
It emphasis the functional relationship between the device reality and it work ability .certain elements
of the orginal reality is emphasized to make it .more meaning ful for the purpose of instruction eg,.an
artificial kidney to demonstrate dialysis.
APPLICATION
Mockups are used virtually everywhere a new product is designed. Few specific eg. are the following:
1. Automotive Device:- Mockups are used in the automotive device industry as part of the product
development process, where dimension, over all impression and shapes are tested in a wind
tunnel experiments. They can also be used to test consumer reaction.
2. System Engineering: - mockups wireframes and prototypes are not so clearly distinguished in
software and system engineering.where mockup are a way of designing user interfaces on paper or in
computer images. A software mockups will look like a real things, but will not do useful walk beyond
what the user sees. A software prototype, on the other hand will look and work just like the real things.
In many cases it is best to design or prototype the user interface before source code is written as
hardware is built to avoid to go back and more expensive changes.
3. military acquisition: - mock ups are on integral part of the military acquition process. Mockups are
often used to test human factors and aerodynamics for e.g. In this context, mockups includes
wireframe models. They can also de used for public display and demonstration purpose prior to the
development of a prototype .
4. consumer goods: - mockups are used in the consumed goods industry as parts of the product
development process, where dimension human factors , overall impression and commercial art
are tested in marketing research.
5. furniture and cabintry- mockups are commonly required by designers ,architect and end users for
custom furniture and cabintry .the intentions is often to produce a full-sized replica using
inexpensive materials in order to verify a design
6. software engineering: - The most common use for mockups in software development is to create user
interfaces that show the end user what the software will look like without having to build the software.
mockups are often used to create unit test there they are usually called mock objects. The main reasons
to create such mockups is to be able to test one part of a software system without having to use
dependent modules.
mockups software can also be used for micro level evaluation foreg. to check a single function and
derive from the test to enhance the products power and visibility on the whole.
ADVANTAGES OF MOCKUPS: -
1. low cost method for verifying physical layout of custom interaction hardware.
2. May be useful in simulating environment for excersises where full interaction in not required.
DISADVANTAGES: -
1. limited to representing surface features.
2. Full captures of erganomic aspects of performance requires more expensive representation.
PUPPETS
INTRODUCTION
One of the old and popular art in Indian villages has been puppetry. Puppet can serve as an effective aid to
learning. Puppets are derived from Latin word puppa which means doll. The word puppet today means a
figure which fits over the hand like a glove and is operated from behind below by the figure.
DEFINITION
A puppet is an animate object or representational figure animated or manipulated by a puppeteer.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
A puppet is an inanimate object or representational figures animated or manipulated by a puppeteer. It is

used in puppetry. Ancient Greek terracotta puppet dolls, 5th/4th century BC, National Archaeological
Museum. Puppetry was practised in Ancient Greece and the oldest written records of puppetry can be
found in the work of Herodots and Xenophon dating from the 5th century BC. The Greek word translated
as “puppet is Nevrospasts which literally means “ drawn by strings, sting pulling, from “VEUPOV”
meaning either “sinew”, tendon, muscle, string or wire. “Aristole”(384-322) discuss puppets in his work
On the Motion of Animals. The movements of animals may be compared with those of automatic puppets,
which are set going on the occasion of tiny movements the levers are released and strike the twisted
strings against one another. In India puppetry was practised from ancient times and is known by different
names in different parts of the country. Excavation of clay dolls from Indus Valley sites serves as an
literature silappadikaram which is written around 2nd century BC.
PURPOSES
1. Developing communication skills, students can use their puppet to follow instructions, answer a
puppet question or talk to the puppet.
2. Teaching emotions puppets can share joy or sadness, they can be naughty or good, cheeky or shy and
when a student is engaged by a puppet they can learn lessons and absorb message without even
realizing there are.
3. Research has shown that children who are not anxious preoperatively recover quicker after surgery
than children who are anxious. For the professional staff there is a need to alley the Childs fears and
gain their trust.
4. Puppets can offer comfort and safety, they can be used to help children understand and what they will
experience as a patient and by doing so, they can calm the child’s fear and enhance their recovery.
5. The development of fine motor skills in a fun way by encouraging children to move their finger to
make the puppet move.
6. Providing a visual aid which makes songs and stories more enjoyable for small children the promotion
of imaginative skills by providing a material for acting out stories the demonstration of different
situation and role play scenarios.
7. They can motivate and support children with difficulties in communication and interaction.
8. They can help to develop their social and motor skills and can meet the visual, tactile and emotional
needs of the individual.
9. Puppets can assist children with special educational needs. Large human puppets with glove hands and
fingers can be used in conjunction with the different varieties of spring, adding a further dimension in
helping children with both hearing difficulties and learning disabilities.
CLASSIFICATION OF PUPPET
1. BLACK LIGHT PUPPET: A form of puppet zing where the puppets are operated on a stage lit
only with ultraviolet lighting, which both hides the puppeteer and accentuates the colour of the puppet.
The puppeteers perform dressed in black against a black background, with the background and
costume normally made of black velvet
.
2. BANRAKU PUPPET: Banraku puppet are a type of wood carved puppet originally made to stand
out through torch illumination Banraku traditionally use three puppeteers to operate a puppet that is
close to half life size.
3. ROD PUPPET: these are operated from below the stage by a combination of rods and springs.
These have jointed bodies made with stiff wires or wooden sticks attached to arms and legs.
4. STRING PUPPET: These are fingers with movable limbs and operated to arm and legs.
5. CARNIVAL PUPPET OR BODY PUPPET: It is usually designed to be part of large
spectacle. These are often used is parades and demonstrations, and are at least the size of a human and
often much larger. One or more performer are required to move the body and limbs. These puppets are
particularly associated with large scale entertainment.
6. CHIN FACE PUPPET: A type of puppet in which the puppet puppet features are drawn on , and
otherwise attached to the face.
7. FINGER PUPPET: An extremely simple puppet variant which fits onto a single finger. Finger
puppets normally have no moving parts and consist primarily of a hollow cylinder shape to cover the
figure.
8. HAND OR GLOVE PUPPET: These are puppets controlled by one hand which occupies the
interior of the puppet. Larger varieties of hand puppet place the puppeteers hand in just the puppets
head controlling the mouth and the head and the puppets body then hangs over the entire arm.
9. MARIONETTE OR STRING PUPPET : These puppets are suspended and controlled by a

number of strings, plus sometimes a central rod attached to a control bar held from above by the
puppeteer. The control bar can be either a horizontal or vertical one. Basic strings for operation are
usually attached to the head, back, hands, and just above the knee. This form of puppetry is complex
and sophisticated to operate, requiring greater manipulative control than a finger, glove or rod puppet.
10. HUMAN ARM PUPPET: Also called a two man puppet or a live hand puppet. It is similar to a
hand puppet but is larger and requires two puppeteers. This is a form of glove or hand puppetry and
rod puppetry.
11. INSTANT PUPPET: This kind of puppetry is created as part of the performance, in order to add
detail to the characterization of the puppet. The puppets are very often loosely of the rod or table top
type and can be highly articulated.
12. SHADOW PUPPET: A cut out figure held between a source of light and a translucent screen.
Untypical, as it is two dimensional in form, shadow puppets can form solid silhouettes, or be decorated
with various amounts of cut out details. Colour can be introduced into the cut out shapes to provide a
different dimension and different effects can be achieved by moving the puppet or light source out of
focus.
13. ANIMATED OR DIGITAL PUPPET: Animation is a related but essentially different process
from puppetry. Animation puppet in time based media such as film or video is a simulation of
movement created by displaying a serious of pictures, or frames, whereas puppetry is the live
manipulation of figures.
14. SOCK PUPPET: A sock puppet is a puppet made from a sock or similar garment. The puppeteers
wear the sock on hand and lower arm as if it wears a glove, with the puppet mouth begin formed by
the region between the socks heel and toe, and the puppeteers thumb acting as the jaw.
15. MAROTTE PUPPET: The marotte puppet is a simplified rod puppet that is just a head and or
body on a stick. In a marotte a main pernate, the puppeteers other arm emerges from the body to act as
the puppets arm.
16. PAPER PUPPET: Paper puppet is made up of paper. This paper puppet take no time to make and
will be a delight for the kids.
17. TICKLE BUG PUPPET: A Ticklebug is a type of hand puppet created from a human hand to
have four legs , where the puppet features are drawn on the hands itself. The middle finger is lifted as
head, and the thumb and forefinger serve as a first set of two legs on one side, while the ring finger
and little finger serve as second set of two legs on the opposite side.
18. TABLE TOP PUPPET: A table top puppet is a puppet usually operated by a rod or direct contact
behind, on a surface similar to a table top. Shares many characteristics with Bunraku.
19. JUNK PUPPET (Found Object): The simple paper bag puppet typifies the junk puppet.
Everyday objects like socks, egg cartons, mops and watering cans, manipulated by hands, strings or
rods, can become puppets. These "found objects", in the hands of a talented puppeteer, can be truly
magical.
20. VENTRILOQUIST PUPPET: Just don't call it a dummy. Ventriloquism is lots of fun, but it too
takes a great deal of practice. The puppet has a slotted mouth that works on a trigger. A good vent
figure will also have multiple eye movement and eyebrows.
21. CABLE PUPPET : One of the most expensive forms of puppet, a cable puppet uses bicycle cables
to control its motions. Whereas a rod puppet or marionette needs only one or two strings or rods to
move an arm, a cable-controlled puppet requires as many as a dozen cables. These are popular puppets
in the world of special effects. A puppet like Chucky in Child's Play requires as many as eight
puppeteers. The cables are all bundled out the back where they then branch out to the different controls
for the head, left arm, right arm, and fingers.
22. ANIMATRONIC (RADIO-CONTROLLED PUPPET): An animatronic is an externally

controlled puppet or figure. The external controls can be either cable, like a bicycle cable, or radio
signal, like a remote-controlled airplane. The puppeteer or puppeteers manipulate the figure at a
distance. This manipulation may be done in real time or recorded and played back on a computer. Also
popularized by movie special effects, the radio-controlled puppet uses model airplane controls that
send radio signals to servos inside the puppet to control the puppet's movements. Directors like radio-
controlled puppets because the puppeteers can manipulate the puppet from behind the camera with no
external controls visible. Most movie puppets combine cable, radio controls and traditional puppetry.
23. BODY SUITS (WALKABOUTS): “Walkabouts” are the costumed characters that stroll
through amusement parks. When facial animation is added, the body or “character” suit becomes a
puppet. Animation can be done with strings, cables or radio controls. Often the controls are in the pad
of the character's hand so the performer in the suit can work them.
24. PNEUMATIC PUPPET: Air pressure moving through tubes in their body parts makes these
puppets move. Air- controlled or pneumatic puppets are the large, funhouse figures seen on
fairgrounds. They are generally controlled remotely, though simply, with no puppeteers necessary. In
these cases, the puppet designer and builder is considered as the performer.
25. HYDRAULIC PUPPET: Sometimes a puppet is so big and heavy that the only way to
manipulate it is by water or oil pressure. You'll see these creatures in big theme parks. Disney's Jungle
Cruise ride shows hydraulic puppetry at its finest. Large dinosaurs in amusement parks are generally
moved by oil pressure.
PRINCIPLES OF PUPPETS
1. Puppets plays must be based on action rather than words.
2. Keep the plays short, puppet must be skilfully manipulated.
3. Do not omit the possibilities of music and dancing as part of the puppet show.
4. Adapt the puppet show in all respect to your audience. The age ,background and task of the pupils must
be related to the types of puppet used and to the play itself.
5. Do not hesitate to adopt the puppet play. There is no value in sticking to the text. If you can add interest
and points to the play
ADVANTAGES OF PUPPETS
1. The craft of puppetry is an effective aid to learning.
2. It develops co-operation among children.
3. Children develop their imagination by providing the puppets wit speech.
4. Children increase their manual dexterity through manipulation.
5. Puppet playing helps timid children express themselves more freely because they are separated from
the audience by a screen.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It needs special training for manipulation of puppets and marionettes to convey ideas.
2. Ideas convey through puppets show can be misinterapted by the audience.
3. It requires to keep on the mind the age, background and tasks of the student.
4. Puppets plays with too much action take away the attention of the audience.
PREPARATION PROCESS
MATERIAL REQUIRED: A used post cards, old newspapers, glue, two pieces of string, Indian ink, colour
box, pins, brushes, scrapes of coloured cloth, a pand and scissors needle and thread.
PROCEDURE
1. Roll the piece of used post card around your finger glue it into a firm tube which fits the finger.
2. Crumple a piece of paper into a ball of the size of your fingers, press the ball over and around the
tube on your finger and give at the sharp of a head.
3. Tie a piece of plain paper and use Indian ink to put on eyes, hair, nose, lips and etc. Put red and
black colors as needed to size it an attractive appearance.
4. Take a piece of bright colored cloth and sent into a long tube and tie the cloth on the neck and then
turn it.
5. Some puppets may be prepared to play roles of females, some of males or children. They may
have moustaches, turbans, salwars, kurtas etc. Depicting the life and characters you want to show
the audience.
6. The stages further show of puppets can be prepared by using a wooden frame, two chairs, one cot,
and two pillars of verandah.
7. The puppets should not see with the hands or body of the puppeteers. Sons or speech from the back
or recorded talk is used. Usually to puppeteers are behind the stage and so only 4 characters can be on
the stage at a time. The actual voice of man, women, children can be imitated.
8. Before the show, a brief description of the dialogue is given. There should not be silent pause.
There should be lot of actions wit and humor.
9. Everyday people and familiar situation should be used which have relationship with village problem.
STORAGE
1. Store flat.
2. Store in a sealed container as puppet are made of wool/rayon felt which can attract the wool moth.
3. If needed, iron or wool setting avoiding plastic eyes.
4. Wipe clean with damp cloth. Do not wash.
5. Delint with masking tape.
6. If necessary, repair with non toxic white glue like Elemers or Aileen’s tacky
CCTV (CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION)
DEFINITION
Closed circuit television is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place, on a limited
set of monitor. It differs from broadcast television in that the signal is not openly transmitted through it
may employ point to point, point to multipoint, or mesh wireless link.
HISTORICAL ASPECTS
The first CCTV system was installed by Siemens AG at Test stand vii in Peeneminde Germany in 1942,
for observing the launch of v-2 rockets. The noted German engineer Walter Bruch was responsible for the
technological design and installation of the system. In the US the first commercial closed circuit television
system became available in 1949, called vericon. Very little is known about vericon except it was
advertised as not requiring a government permit. The history of CCTV in the United states varies from
that of the united kingdom. One of its first appearance was in 1973 in times square New York city. The
NYPD installed it in order to determine crime that was occurring in the area however crime rates did not
appear to drop much due to cameras. During the 1990 digital multiplexing, which allowed for several
cameras at once to record and introduce time lapse and motion only recording, increased the use of cctv
across the country and increased the savings of time and money. From the mid 1990 on, police
departments across the country installed an increasing number of cameras in various public space
including housing projects, schools and public parks department. Following the September 11 attacks, the
use of video surveillance has become a common occurrence in the country to deter future terrorist attacks.
In September 1968, olean, New York was the first city in the united states to install video cameras along
its United states to install video cameras along its main business street in an effort to fight crime. CCTV
later become very common in banks and stores to discourage theft, by recording audience of criminal
activity. Their use further popularised.
OBJECTIVES
1. Preventive : To stop or intervene in criminal or antisocial behaviour.
2. Detection: To gather evidence for the police and courts.
3. Monitoring: To able to view what is going on in your business at a glance for your own
management purpose.
TYPES
1. INDOOR CAMERA: Indoor camera as its name suggest used for indoor security mechanism.
These are suitable for security in homes, schools, office, hotel e.t.c.
2. OUTDOOR CAMERA: outdoor camera is used for outdoor place. They are mostly used for entry
and exist points with limited night lighting. There cameras have hard shell vandal proof casings.
3. NIGHT CAMERA: Night camera are used for high alert security areas where surveillance needs to
happen day and night. These cameras’ are used by military personals in parking lots and high
security zones.
4. DOME CAMERA: Dome camera are installed inside a dark dome and are designed in way that
they go unnoticed by visitors. This cameras can be rotated and tited manually. Dome camera s are
used in public places like railway stations, bus terminals and other areas where there is huge
gathering of people.
5. BULLET CAMERA: Bullet camera are placed inside bullet shaped housing and they are used in
Residential places as well as commercial places. They are small in size, have an integrated design
and water proof also.
6. VANDAL PROOF CAMERA: Vandal proof camera are used as outdoor security cameras. These
camera are sheltered within soiled material and covered by a “hub” of breakproof quality of the
vedio. It difficult to break this cameras and this makes them perfect for high security.
7. HIDDEN CAMERA: Hidden camera are compact in size and are used for secret monitoring. They
are usually installed in public places like department stores, theatres, club e.t.c. Hidden cameras have
a built in recorder that records and broadcast simultaneously.
8. PAN TILT ZOOM CAMERA: Pan tilt zoom camera offers the ability to view and zoom in
all direction. We can set the camera to automatically rotate to different field of vision.
GUIDELINES
1. Basic principle of cctv system.
2. Choice and selection of equipment.
3. Positioning, legal issues.
4. Installation requirements/ regulation.
5. Fault diagnosis.
6. Legal and privacy issues.
ADVANTAGES
1. Deters crime: The presence of CCTV camera system for surveillance will reduce petty theft
and vandalism in shops, malls, and other public places.
2. Helps maintain Record: The images and videos captured by a CCTV camera system are
often recovered and stored into a database.
3. Protects Employers: This is particularly helpful in customer service centers. The employers
providing customer service may sometimes be subject to verbal abuse or physical attacks. CCTV
camera system helps to identify such instances and cut immediate .Its also helpful to keep tab on the
activities of the employees.
4. For evidence in lawsuits: In legal cases of theft and other forms of crime, videos and images
provided by the cctv camera system can serve as a valid proof and evidence against the defaulter.
DISADVANTAGE
1. Do not work always: cctv camera system cannot monitor every area of your office or home at all
time. Hence it cannot be consider as foolproof method of crime prevention.
2. Privacy concern: invasion of the privacy is the major issue when it comes to in any security system.
It lowers the employee morale and hampers productivity at times. Constant monitoring of every
activity might put the workers ill at ease.
3. Initial Costs: The initial costs incurred per camera are high. The installation may also increase
the initial expenditure. It depends upon the complexity of the CCTV camera system as well.
SPECIFIC POINT TO BE REMEMBERED

1. CCTV has become commonplace as a tool to prevent and detect criminal and antisocial behaviour
in the last few years.
2. It is important to understand what you want to achieve by installing a CCTV system in your
premise, this will dictate the number of cameras and where you place them, the location of
monitoring equipment and the style of operation you choose.
PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM
DEFINITION
PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM
DEFINITION
A public address system is an electronic sound amplification and distribution system with a microphone,
amplifier and loudspeakers, used to allow a person to address a large public, for example for
announcement of movements at large and noisy air and rail terminals.
1. The term is also used for systems which may additionally have a mixing console, and amplifiers
and loudspeaker suitable for music as well as speech, used to reinforce a sound source, such as
recorded music or person giving a speech or distributing the sound throughout a venue or building.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
Edwin Jenson and Peter Pridham of Magnavox begin experimenting with sound reproduction in the
1990,working from laboratory in Napa, California, they field the first patent for moving coil loudspeaker
in 1911. Four years latter , in 1915, they built a dynamic loudspeaker with a 1inch voice coil, a 3inch
corrugated diaphragm and a horn measuring 34 inches with a 22inch aperature. The electromagnet created
a flux field of approximately 11000. The first experiment used a carbon microphone when the 12v battery
was connected to the system, they experience one of the first example of acoustic feedback. They then
placed loudspeaker on the laboratory roof and claims say that the amplified human voice could be heard 1
mile away. Jensen and Pridham refined the systemand connect a phonograph to the loudspeaker.
PURPOSE
2. Public address system is to amplify sound and project it with sufficient quality ,volume, and
direction to later for all members of the assemble audience.
3. Public address system cab be employed at any event where the volume of performance is not
sufficient for the entire audience to hear.
MICROPHONE: Microphone absorb sound waves and convert them into electrical impulses, each of
which has a distinctive pattern according to the sound absorbed. This electrical impulses are them
amplified and outputted through speaker.
AMPLIFIER: Amplifier is an electronic device that increases the power of a signal. It does this by
taking energy from a power supply and controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with a
large amplitude. In this sense, an amplifier modulates the output of the power supply.
LOUD SPEAKER: The loud speaker is a small sound driver fitted within a mobile phone , or other
communication device, which is used to produce sound.
GUIDELINES
1. Note the special characteristics of microphone, amplifier, and speaker.
2. Connect the microphone into amplifier.
3. Connect loudspeaker to proper output terminal of amplifier.
4. Connect amplifier to proper power supply.
5. Switch on amplifier and see that its pilot lamp glows.
6. Test microphone, repeat work like testing never blow air from your mouth, it is moist and
damage sensitive microphone.
ADVANTAGES
1. Project the speakers voice.
2. Best when communicating to a crowd.
3. Its light weight and easy to take around.
4. Does not require any technical knowledge before use.
5. Low maintenance.
6. Meet regular compliance.
STEPS INVOLVED IN ARRANGING A PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM

1. Table or floor stands are used if hand held or neck microphones are not used.
2. Proper connection is made to the amplifier using shield cables and connections and the amplifier
is earthed.
3. The amplifier is connected to power supply with the gain controls at minimum position.
4. It is desirable to connect the out of the amplifier to loud speaker or speakers matching impedance
and keeping in view the amplifier wattage and capacity of speaker.
5. The amplifier is switched on.
6. Loud speaker should not to be near the microphone of facing it.
7. Loud speaker should be located near the windows.
8. The speaker should talk or sing with lips about 20-30cms from the microphone.
9. The tone controls may be used if necessary.
SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE REMEMBER

1. The speaker or the teacher should be aware of the fact that proper selection of loud speaker,
distribution of speaker in hall and location of the same are very important for effective listening
and comprehension.
2. The teacher should maintain regularly for good working condition.
3. There should a register should be maintained for inventory.
4. If any repair and damage needs to be corrected immediately.
5. One person or electrician needs to be assigned separately for maintenance
TELEVISION
INTRODUCTION
Television has invaded India in a big way. Television is being acknowledged as powerful medium of mass
education. It is being used for imparting information and distance education television can bring the real
outside world into the class room in the real sense. It has the ability to bring the events and happening to
the viewer in action. It has the ability to bring the events into reality pictures. Television is being
prescribed as an electronic chalkboard.
MEANING
Television is the electronic means by which sound and light energy are transmitted from one place to
another. It is an electromechanical system of covering the energy contained and light pattern into electrical
and electromagnetic energy whence it is then reconverted back into sound and light.
DEFINITION
Television is an instrument of encoding, transforming, transmitting or projecting, or retransforming and
the presenting the encoded patterns of meaningful information. (Year 1957)
HISTORICAL ASPECT OF TELEVISION
Television was not invented by a single person; instead many people working together and alone over the
years contributed to the evolution of television by experimented with researchers.
Early invention attempted to either build a mechanical television system based on the technology of Paul
nipkow’s rotation disc, or they attempted to build electronic television system using a cathode ray tube
developed independently in1907 by English inventor A.A.Campell Swinton and Russian scientist Boris
Rosin. Electronic television system worked better and eventual replaced mechanical system.
 Paul Gottieb Mechanical History

German Paul Nipkow developed a rotating disc technology to transmit pictures over wire in 1984 called
the Nipkow disc. Paul Nipkow was the portion of an image is successively analyzed and transmitted.
PURPOSES OF TELEVISION
1. It helps the people to know what is happening far away.
2. In our home we watch television, films, or events taking place in other cities, countries and
other continents.
3. The artificial satellites have made it possible to watch events in other countries directly.
4. It is very fine medium of entertainment .It brings musicians, singers and singing acting close to us.
5. Television can be used to teach uneducated people.
6. Through television we can improve knowledge of our students and educate people. We can present on
T.V. Educational programme of different categories.
TYPES OF TELEVISIONS
There are two popular types of televisions.
1. Tube-based television:- it is made of a glass tube placed in a plastic enclosure.
2. Flat-screen: - It is made out of thin glass and liquid crystals.
TUBE-BASED TELEVISION
Tube based television begin with a series of parts.
1. The materials required include: the plastic enclosure, audio and speaker system, a picture tube, and
a collection of electronics.
2. The process begins with the construction of the television's enclosure/housing.
3. Injection molding is used to shape the plastic casing to fit the television..
4. After the mold is created it is trimmed, cleaned, and sanded to make sure the edges fit together perfectly.
5. The next step is the construction of the picture tube.
6. The CRT (cathode ray tube) is made of glass that is carefully shaped to have a slight curve.
7. The glass is then coated in a special chemical compound and then covered with a thin film of
aluminum that allows electrons to pass through to prevent light reflecting into the tube.
8. The sound portion of the television is usually manufactured as one part..
9. The necessary electronics are connected together and attached to a pair of speakers that fit inside of
the casing. The audio system is usually specific to the brand and made by the manufacturer.
FLAT SCREEN
1. First, a large sheet of glass is cut to the size of the television's screen.
2. This sheet is usually made up from a much large sheet that is cut into several different pieces.
3. After the glass is cut, two panels are placed together. In between the panels, a special gas is added
that reacts to electricity. Three different sections are created, one red, one green, and one blue. Each
color combines to form the image on the screen.
4. After the glass and gasses are placed together, they are sent on to a machine that adds chemicals to
the glass. These chemicals are used to protect the integrity of the glass. Afterward, custom printed
circuit boards are added. Each circuit is designed to send electricity to a pixel on the screen.
5. Once the screen is complete, all of the additional components are added.
6. The speakers, control modules (for the remote and inputs), and casing are placed together completing
the television set. Finally, the television goes through a testing process to ensure its quality.
7. Afterward it is packaged and shipped out to stores and customers.
TELEVISION: BASIC PRINCIPLES

1. The Sound and Light Spectrum
2. Video is a combination of light and sound, both of which are made up of vibrations or frequencies.
3. We are surrounded by various forms of vibrations: visible, tangible,
4. Audible and many other kinds that our senses are unable to perceive.
5. We are in the midst of a wide spectrum which extends from zero to many millions of vibrations
per second.
6. Sound vibrations occur in the lower regions of the spectrum, whereas light vibrations can be found
in the higher frequency areas.
7. The sound spectrum ranges from 20 to 20,000 Hertz (Hz). Light vibrations range from 370 trillion
to 750 trillion Hz. When referring to light, we speak of wavelengths rather than vibrations.
8. As a result of the very high frequencies and the speed at which light travels (300,000 km per
second), the wavelength is extremely short, less than one thousandth of millimeter.
9. The higher the vibration, the shorter the wavelength.
10. The spectrum of visible light ranges from wavelength of 780 nm to a wavelength of 380 nm. We
perceive the various wavelengths as different colors.
11. The longest wavelength (which corresponds to the lowest frequency) is seen by us as the color red
followed by the known colors of the rainbow: orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet which
are the shortest wavelength (and highest frequency). White is not a color but the combination of the
other colors.
12. Wavelengths which we are unable to perceive (occurring just below there and just above the violet
area), are the infrared and ultraviolet rays, respectively. Nowadays, infrared is used for such
applications as remote control devices.
13. Visible light is only visible because we can see the source and the object being illuminated. The light
beam itself cannot be seen.
14. The beams of headlights in the mist for instance, can only be seen because the small water drops
making up the mist reflect the light.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Children can be exposed to programming that is not appropriate for their age. A adults
frequently spend many hours each day watching television to the detriment of work or family
life.
2. Television is often the main or only source of information about current events and biased
or inadequate reporting can deliver inaccurate or misleading information and opinion.
3. Family discussion and conversation can be reduced or eliminated with by the television being
the focus of attention. Because of violent news, such as killings and bombings, we may develop
an inflated sense of danger the more that television is watched; the less exercise people tend to
get.
PREPARATION PROCESS OF TELEVISION

Housing
1. Almost all television housings are made of plastic by the process of injection molding, in
which precision molds are made and liquid plastic is injected under high pressure to fill the molds.
2. The pieces are released from the molds, trimmed, and cleaned. They are then assembled to complete
the housing.
3. The molds are designed so that brackets and supports for the various components are part of the
housing.
Picture tube
1. The television picture tube, or cathode ray tube (CRT), is made of precision glass that is shaped to
have a slightly curved plate at the front or screen.
2. It may also have a dark tint added to the face plate glass, either during production of the glass or
by application directly to the inside of the screen. Darker face plates produce improved picture
contrast.
Audio system
1. The housing also contains fittings for speakers, wiring, and other parts of the audio system.
2. The speakers are usually made by a specialized manufacturer to the specifications of the
television manufacturer, so they are assembled in the set as components or a subassembly.
3. Electronic sound controls and integrated circuitry are assembled in panels in the set as it travels along
the assembly line.
Electronic parts
1. when the picture tube and the audio speakers and attachments are assembled in the set, other electronic
elements are added to the rear of the set.
2. The antennae, cable jacks, other input and output jacks, the electronics for receiving remote control
signals, and other devices are prepared by specialty contractors or as subassemblies else-where on the
assembly line. They are then mounted in the set, and the housing is closed.
FILMS & FILMSTRIP
Films are produced by recording people and objects with cameras or by creating them using animation
technique and special effect. They compromise a series of individual frames, but when these images are
shown rapidly in succession, the illusion of motion is given to the viewer.
MEANING OF FILMS
A thin flexible strip of plastic or other material coated with light- sensitive emulsion for exposure in a
camera used to produce photographs or motion picture.
A story or event recorded by a camera as a set of moving images and shown in a cinema or on television.
DEFINITION
A form of entertainment that enacts a story by sound and sequence of images giving the illusion of
continuous movement
A BRIEF HISTORY OF FILM
 Experiments in motion pictures began in the United States and Europe during the late 19th century.
 American inventor Thomas Alva Edison patented the first movie machine, the Kinetoscope, in 1891.
 Four years later, French inventors Louis and Auguste Lumiere demonstrated the camera-projector
called the cinematographe. American filmmaker Edwin S.
 Porter's eight-minute The Great Train Robbery (1903) launched the movies as mass
entertainment. American filmmakers soon became preeminent.
 Major studios were situated in New York, with D.W. Griffith the medium's most influential director.
 In dozens of films, he developed a grammar of shots and lighting effects to evoke audience emotion.
 His highly successful The Birth of a Nation (1915) pioneered the idea of film as art.
PURPOSE OF MOTION PICTURE
1. Selected learning situation

2. Development of study habit
3. Reproduction of knowledge
4. Real learning situation
5. Quickness of movements
6. Recreation
7. Vividness
8. Motivation
9. Controls the time factors
10. Illustrations of all learning situation
11. Retention of knowledge
TYPES OF FILMS
1. Documented:-
2. Narrative films:-
3. Dramatic film:-
4. Discursive film
5. Informational film:-
6. Advertising film:-
7. Evidential film:-
8. Drill film:-
PRINCIPLES OF FILM
1. The first principle is Function. Most films have many different characters and storylines that serve
a certain function for the overall effect of the movie.
2. The next Principle is Similarity and Repetition. This is central to all films because without it you
would not be able to focus the plot onto one character or general message.
3. Third principle Difference and Variation. This is crucial to maintaining the interest of your
audience. Without it you would be doomed to one spectacular failure of a film.
4. The fourth Principle we have is Development. Development is the “roller coaster” that writers
and directors take you on throughout the movie.
5. Lastly we have Unity and Disunity. These are two approaches to a story one that follows a more
predictable and usually more wholesome story, one that leaves you with a sense of entertainment and
cohesion.
ADVANTAGES OF FILMS AND FILMSTRIP
1. Films are considered to be an important part art form.

2. Films entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audience. Films help to spread knowledge
3. It helps to develop a study habit and educational picture motivates the students.
4. Through motion picture the learners can learn clearly and vividly.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Recapitulation is not possible on the spot
2. The whole process is expensive
3. Generally the teachers are not trained to handle the projector and organize the show.
4. It needs electricity therefore cannot be played in institution where generator is not available
during power shut down.
PROCESS OF PREPARATION
1. Development — The first stage in which the ideas for the film are created, rights o books/plays
are bought etc., and the screenplay is written. Financing for the project has to be sought and green lit.
2. Pre-production—Preparations are made for the shoot, in which cast and film crew are hired,
locations are selected, and sets are built.
3. Production—the raw elements for the film are recorded during the film shoot.
4. Post-Production—The images, sound, and visual effects of the recorded film are edited.
5. Distribution—the finished film is distributed and screened in cinemas and/or released on Home
entertainment.
MICROFILM
HISTORY
Pre 1920s
John Benjamin Dancer, an English scientist, known as the "Father of Microphotography," began to
experiment with and manufacture micro produced novelty texts as early as 1839.
 In 1853 he successfully sold microphotographs as slides to be viewed with a microscope.

Utilizing Dancer's techniques, a French optician, Rene Dagron, was granted the first patent for
microfilm in 1859.
 He also began the first commercial microfilming enterprise, manufacturing and selling micro
photographic trinkets.
 Dagron, in the fall and winter of 1870-71, during the Franco-Prussian War, demonstrated a practical
use for microforms when carrier pigeons were used to transport microfilmed messages across German
lines
to the besieged city of Paris.
1940's
 The war also brought a threat of destruction to the records of civilization.

 This threat added the urgency for the microfilming of records, documents, archives and collections.
 During the closing war years and immediate post-war years, there was a flurry of microfilming
by occupying nations.
1950's and 1960's

After the war, the of using microforms for active information systems and just for preservation of
microfilm.
PURPOSES OF MICROFILM
1. Copying records in order to destroy the original and reduce the space needed for records.
2. Copying records to take advantages for technology and process.
3. To provide standards for microfilming of public
4. Records to assure that the film, photographing methods, processing ,handling and storage in
accordance with methods’ ,procedure and space fixation designed to protect and preserve such records
on microfilm
TYPES OF MICROFILMS
Flat film
Flat film is used for micro image of every large engineering drawings .These may carry little of
photograph or written along one edge 2.80x2.80 meters that is 79x110in these films are started as
microfiche.
Microfilm
16mmor 35mm to motion picture standard is used .Roll microfilm is stored on open reels or put into
cassette.
Aperture card
A hole has been cut .A 35mm microfilm chip is monitored in the hole inside of a clear plastic sleeve or
secured over the aperture an adhesive tape.
Microfiche
A microfiche is a flat film 105x148mm in size that is 150 Ab.It carries of micro images. The most
commonly used format is a portrait image of abou10x14mm.
Ultarfiche
It is a exceptionally compact version of microfiche, storing analog data at much higher density.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MICROFILM
1. Strength & Stability

 Microfilm is much stronger than traditional film as it is made of polyester instead of cellulose.
Therefore microfilm breaks less often, and thinner films can be used.
 The polyester is also more stable and will not change or react with time, humidity or temperature.
2. Permanent Records
 Many types of microfilm, including vesicular film and Diazo film will become damaged if exposed
to high temperature and high humidity.
 High heat and pressure will damage the bubbles that create the image with vesicular film.
 Diazo microfilm will also fade if exposed to light for too long. Therefore frequent usage of this
microfilm will deteriorate the image.
 Storage of the microfilm in a room with a controlled environment is extremely important
 . Additionally microfilm, is one of the smallest forms of film, so less storage space is needed,
when compared to storing traditional, paper documents or photographs.
Data Retrieval
 oy Open reel microfilm can make data retrieval time consuming as you will need to search
sequentially through the reel.
 Unitized microfilm is preferred as information can be retrieved very quickly. Additionally, open-reel
microfilm can become damaged if it is not loaded through the reader properly.
 The microfilm must be threaded by hand through the reader. Cartridge forms of microfilm have some
of the same problems as open reel, though the data-retrieval equipment is much more expensive than
the reader for open-reel microfilm.
 One advantage to this type of data retrieval is that you do not have to worry about the technology
going out of date.
 The system for microfilm data retrieval does not change with technology advances.
PREPARATION PROCESS OF MICROFILM
 Operation of microfilm equipment to produce copies of historical documents and related materials.
 35mm microfilm machine
 Material to determine best copy, repair materials for filming when necessary
 Loads camera
STORAGE
1. Store microfilm in cool, dry free of oxidizing glasses or vapor
POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Microfilms are usable and legible reproduction of the original records.

2. Microfilm copies contain all significant details shown on the original records.
BLACK BOARD / CHALK BOARD
INTRODUCTION
The most commonly available aid in classroom situation is the blackboard. It is helpful in meetings and a
group discussion. It is the oldest and best friend of a teacher. It is the mirror through which students
visualize all about the teachers mind regarding as a while.
It is the cheapest teaching device and continues to be since our educational system. Writing on clay and
sand was the ancient form of black board writing. It helps crystallizing the main points, summarizing and
reviewing.
HISTORY
 In Indian schools since 11th century writing on slate has started.

 The blackboard was introduced into the US education system from Europe in 1810. This occurred at
west point, where George Baron, an English mathematician, used chalkboard for lecture.
 The origin of chalkboard traces back to 1823 when a minister and educator named Samuel reed hall
painted pine boards black. Chalk could then be used to write on board and then cleaned off.
 Some debate surrounds the question of who actually invented the chalkboards it became known
James Pillans headmaster of old high school of Edinburgh, Scotland is often credited with inventing
chalkboard.
USES OF CHALKBOARD
1. Used in conducting literacy classes, opportunity, and creativity.

2. It makes group instruction more concrete and understandable.
3. If it is properly used, it can set standards of neatness, accuracy and speed
4. It can restore the attention of a group.
5. For jotting down spontaneous thoughts, time saving.
6. To work out formulate like drug and solutions, biochemistry equation etc
7. For listing topics
8. Many vague statements can be clarified by writing words, graphs, drawing, pictures or sketches,
outlines, diagrams, directions, summaries, map etc. they can be used again and again, as they can be
easily cleaned with duster.
9. Initiates oral, visual sensation, helps in learning.
10. It can be used for recording progress and status.
11. It provides many educational opportunities in all curricular and co-curricular activities, e.g. we can
present the facts, principles, processes, procedure, making assignments etc.
12. Practicing individual drill or creative work, graphic demonstrations, screen for still pictures, projected
symbolic representations, review the total lesson, announcements, closely supervise student activities
etc.
13. To state questions to cite examples of work desired to pose problems and to list sources for study.
14. To illustrate forms of charting and to provide opportunity for nursing students to practice charting
15. It provides lots of scope in creative and decorative work.
16. Inexpensive and no electricity required.
TYPES OF CHALKBOARD
1. Fixed black board
2. Black board or easel
3. Roller black board
4. Graphic board
5. Magnetic board
1. Fixed black board: fixed in the wall facing the class and normally made of wood or concrete cement.
2. Black board or easel: a portable and adjustable black board put on a wooden easel can be taken out
in the classroom while taking classes in the open.
3. Roller black board : made of thick canvas wrapped on a roller mostly used for teaching higher classes
4. Graphic board: it has graphic lines and is used for teaching mathematics, science, and statistics,
5. Magnetic board: a board which enable teacher to make three dimensional demonstrations with
objects on a vertical surface. Small magnet are used to hold suitable objects fixed whether hold
suitable objects fixed whether they are put on this vertical surface
Sr.no Color of chalk board Color of chalk

1 Green chalk board White or yellow chalk
2 Gray board Yellow
3 Red chalk board Green, yellow
4 Orange chalk board Blue or light green
5 Yellow chalk board Blue
6 Rose chalk board Purple, dark blue
7 Black chalk board Any color
GUIDELINES
1. Avoid spelling mistakes
2. Use colored chalk if necessary, e.g. To draw the diagrams and different parts can be drawn by using
different colors like anatomy diagrams.
3. Use pointer if necessary
4. You may prepare, a diagram, a figure etc in advance to save time it may be very motivating for the
children in creating reading readiness.
DISADVANTAGES
1. No illustrate moving part
2. It won’t convey sound .
3. Limited for small group of audience
4. Prone for chalk dust allergy.
ADVANTAGES
1. It is cheap.
2. It is easily erasable.
3. Chalkboard requires no special care.
4. Chalk is an order of magnitude cheaper.
PREPARATION PROCESS
Material Required:
 A piece of board
 Matte dark paint(usually green or black)
PREPARATION STEP
1. Writing should be in a straight line.
2. Extreme lower corner should not be used, as total member cannot see.
3. Do not stand in front of board stand to one side so that learner may see what and how you are writing.
4. Do not talk while writing
5. Board should be kept clean always and uniform strokes with eraser can be made to clean the board.
6. Write the letter and drawing should be in large or bold size, legible, so that learner can be able to
see it.
7. Writing should start from top to left corner.
8. Duster and not hand or handkerchief should be used to clean the board.
WHEN USING WHITE BOARD (GUIDELINES...)
1. Include a whiteboard plan in your lesson outline that determines which aspects of the lesson will
be illustrated on the board list of concepts to be learned, timelines outline, for the day’s
presentation.
2. Bring plenty of spare markers to the class.
3. Use different color marker to highlight important aspects of lesson.
4. Write neatly and horizontally, making certain your handwriting is large enough for students to read.
5. Give students time to copy what was been written
6. Talk to student, not to board.
CARTOON
INTRODUCTION
The medium of cartoon is very old one .A famous palette from the down of phrenic Egypt shows king
Warmer (Menes) Stirling what appears to be a defeated enemy in front of a falcon, symbols go the god
Horus
.It is unlikely Norm personality dispatched all his enemies & even more unlikely that he contrived to have
a fall on present to Watch events.
DEFINITION
A cartoon is humorous caricature which gives a suitable message .In a cartoon the features of the objects
and the people are extra created along with generally recognized the symbols. Cartoon has an
instantaneous visual appeal and tickling message.
PURPOSE OF CARTOON
1. The purpose of cartoon is to entertain viewer, they can also teach the viewer.
2. Depending on why the cartoon was made ,the purpose will be different .For one example ,
3. The little cartoon that is shown before a movie at the theatre is to inform the viewer that the feature
is about beginning…
4. It’s most easy and funny indirect way to learn kids and teens what should they learn in life.
ADVANTAGES OF CARTOONS
ADVANTAGES OF CARTOONS
1. A cartoon can be effectively used to initiate certain lesson.

2. A Cartoon can be used to motivate students to start lesson distribution.
3. A cartoon a can be used for mailing lesson lively interesting.
USES OF CARTOONS
1. These are very good attention capturing devices and motivate the students.
2. The be reveal that truth or reality about the people events and incidents in as interesting way.
3. These are useful in modifying behaviour and developing positive attitude interest and a characters of
learners.
4. These are capable of creating humour and interest among the viewers and explaining various concepts.
PREPARING CARTOONS
 Cartoons can provide information and knowledge about various and current issues in an interesting
way.
 Teachers should prepare cartoons according to do classrooms needs and students should be involved
in the process of preparation to maximize learning experience.
1. It should be suitable to the age, class experience and level of students.

2. The writing and graphics used to cartoons should be meaniful and intelligent to them.
3. The writing of cartoons should be adequate size, so that the details can be made usable to the
entire class.
PHOTOGRAPHS AND PICTURES
DEFINITION
PHOTOGRAPHS AND PICTURES
DEFINITION
A Photography or photo is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface usually

photographic film or an electronic image such as a CCD (Charge- Coupled Device) chip. Most
photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scene’s visible
wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the human eye would see. The process and
practice of creating photographs is called Photography.
HISTORICAL ASPECT
The word “Photograph” was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek.
Photo, meaning “light”and Graphic, meaning “drawing, writing” , together meaning “drawing
with the light”.The first permanent photograph was made in 1822 by a French inventor, Joseph
Nicephore Niepce, building on a discovery by Johann Heinrich Schultz (1724): that a silver and
chalk mixture darkens under exposure to light. Niepce and Louis Daguerre refined this process.
Daguerre discovered that exposing the silver first to iodine vapour, before exposure to light, and
then to mercury fumes after the photographs was taken, could form a latent image, bathing the
plate in a salt bath then fixes the image. These ideas led to the famous daguerreotype.
The daguerreotype had its problems, notably the fragility of the resulting picture, and that it was
a positive-only process and thus could not be re-printed. Inventors set about looking for improved
processes that would be more practical. Several processes were introduced and used for a short
time between Niepce’s first image and the introduction of the Collodion process in 1848.
Collodion based wet-glass plate negatives with prints made on albumen paper remained the
preferred photographic method for sometimes, even after the introduction of the even more
practical gelatine process in 1871. Adaptions of the gelatine process have remained the primary
black-and- white photographic process to this day, differing primarily in the film material itself,
originally glass and then a variety of flexible films.
Photography became much more popular with the introduction of Autochrome Lumiere in 1903,
which was replaced by Kodachrome, Ilfochrome and similar processes. For many years these
processes were used almost exclusively for transparencies (in slide projectors and similar
devices), but colour prints became popular with the introduction of the chromogenic negative,
which is the most used system in the C-41 process.
OVERALL PURPOSES
1. Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such as Eadweard
Muybridge’s Study of human and animal locomotion in 1887.
2. Artists are equally interested by these aspects but also try to explore avenues other than
the photo-mechanical representation of reality, such as the pictorialist movement.
3. Military, Police, and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognition and
data storage.
4. Photography is used by amateurs to preserve memories to capture special moments, to
tell stories, to send messages, and a source of entertainment.
5. High speed photography allows for visualizing events that are too fast for the human eye.
TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS
Non-digital photographs are produced with a two-step chemical process. In the two-step the
light- sensitive film captures a negative image (colours and lights/ darks are inverted). To produce
a positive image, the negative is most commonly transferred (printed) onto photographic paper.
Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to manufacture motion picture films.
Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, yielding positive transparencies.
Such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in
digital photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness
and accuracy of colour rendition. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on colour
transparency film. Originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in colour.
Although methods for developing colour prints were available as early as 1861, they did not
became widely available until the 1940s or 50s, and even so, until the 1960s most photographs
were taken in black and white. Since then, colour photography has dominated popular
photography, although black and white is still used, being easier to develop than colour.
Panoramic format images can be taken with cameras like Hasselblad Xpan on standard film.
Since the 1990s, panoramic photos have been available on the Advanced photo system film. APS
has became less popular and is being discontinued.
The advent of microcomputer and digital photography has led to the rise of digital prints.
CAMERA PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
 Lens –It draws the light into the camera and focuses it on the film plane.
 Shutter-It open and closes to control the length of time light strikes the film. There are two
types of shutters: a leaf shutter, located between or just behind the lens elements, and a focal
plane shutter, located in front of the film plane.
 Shutter release-The button that releases or “trips” the shutter mechanism.
 Film Advance Lever or Knob-It transports the film from one frame to the next on the roll
of film.
 Aperture-It dilates and contracts to control the diameter of the hole that the light
passes through, to let in more or less light. It is controlled by the f-stop ring.
 Viewfinder-The “window” through which look to frame picture.
 Film Rewind Knob-This knob rewinds the film back into the film cassette.
 Camera Body-The casing of the camera which holds the encloses the camera parts.
 Flash Shoe-This is the point at which the flash or flash cube is mounted or attached.
 Self Timer-This mechanism trips the shutter after a short delay –usually 7 to 10 seconds,
allowing everyone to be in the photograph.
 Shutter Speed Control-This knob controls the length of the time the shutter remains open.
Typical shutter speeds are measured in fractions of a second, such as: 1/3 1/60 1/125 1/250
1/500 1/1000 of a second.
PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
 Simplicity-Simplicity is the key to most good pictures .The simpler and more direct a
picture is, the clearer and stronger is the resulting statement. There are several things to be
considered when discuss simplicity:
1. First, select a subject that lends itself to a simple arrangement; for example instead of
photographing an entire area that would confuse the viewer, frame in on some important
element within the area.
2. Second, select different viewpoints or camera angles. Move around the scene or object
being photographed. View the same through the camera view finder.
3. Look at the foreground and background.
4. Try high and low angles as well as normal eye-level view points.
5. Evaluate each view and angle. Only after considering all possibilities should take the
picture.
6. Last point of simplicity-tell only one story.Ensure there is only enough material in the
picture to convey one single
 Distractions –Avoid them. Be sure there is nothing in the background to distract the
viewer’s attention from the main point of the picture.
 Likewise, check to see there is nothing objectional in the foreground to block the
entrance of the human eye into the picture.
 Do not allow the scene to be cluttered with confusing elements and lines that distract
from the primary point of the picture.
 Select a viewpoint that eliminates distractions. So the principal subject is readily

recognized.
 Cropping-Do this with the camera first. Capture the most important part of the picture-the
part that makes the story and cutting these pictures in small or big photo sheets needed.
 Perspective –Try to get interesting perspective that other photographers have not tried, or
that have not often seen. Bend knees, and tippy-toe whenever necessary. Standing on a
bench, chair, ladder etc. Can be an excellent helper to capture clear photographs.
 Lighting –Use natural lighting whenever want to create a mood with lighting. Watch
where have shadows. Any indoor picture may need a flash.
 Action-Place ourselves close to the action. Try to get people in action. Capture their daily
activities. When photographing sports, try to get as many faces as possible.
 Contrast –Try to get black as black as possible and whites as white as possible. Contrast
small shapes with large shapes.
 Creativity –Create a new view of a common picture. See things in a way that never
noticed before. Crop center of interest so that it is telling the whole story-showing faces,
expressions, moods, movements, stances, situations, and experiences that we all share at
one time or another. Find our likenesses and differences.
 Consistency –Be as consistent as possible. At first this will be difficult, but it will slowly
start to make an impression, when do certain things the same that give good pictures.
Follow that, the pictures are best possible.
 Balance–Each picture has its own balance and should be pleasing to look at. It can be
formally balanced or informally balanced, but the basic principles of design too apply here.
Try not to make something look like it is falling of f the page etc. It means some portions of
pictures cut or incomplete group picture.
ADVANTAGES
1. Promotes correlation of information.
2. Assists organization of material.
3. Photographs nearer to reality than drawings, but association often valuable.
4. Usually easily produced and duplicated (black and white photos).
5. Easy to store, catalogue, and retrieve.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It is used for small audiences only (unless projected with Epidiascope).
2. Effective use of photography needs good duplicating equipment and trained staff.
PREPARATION PROCESS
MATERIALS REQUIRED
I. Film
Modern film is made by coating light-sensitive ingredients onto a flexible plastic
surface.
II. Developing and printing materials
The chemicals used in developing are designed to grow the microscopic silver
atoms into silver centers that are larger enough to be visible to the unaided eye.
III. The developer solutions are composed of reducing agents, restrainers, and
preservatives. Hydroquinone is one common reducing agent used for black and white
film. Bromide ions are commonly used as restrainers, which move the reaction in the
opposite direction. Preservatives are added to the mixture to prevent premature
oxidation. Sodium sulfite is typically used in this regard.
IV. Printing images requires special paper, which is coated with light-sensitive materials.
V.In addition to the materials described above, developing and printing operations require
a variety of equipment such as trays, measuring glass ware, thermometers, drying
screens, timers, mixing pails and stirring paddles and paper cutters.
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
There are three key steps involved in making a photograph: exposing the film to light, developing
the image, and printing the photograph. While there are other types of photographic films, such as
Polaroid and slide films and other mediums in which to develop photographs, such as film and
digital images, the general process of developing 35mm film into photographic prints is discussed
here.
1) Exposure
Once the film is loaded inside the camera it is ready to be exposed. The camera optics focuses an
image through the lens and onto the emulsion grains. The camera controls the light through a
combination of the size of the opening in the lens (the aperture) and the length of the time the
aperture stays open (the shutter speed). A wide variety of exposure effects can be achieved by
varying these two factors. The reaction between emulsion and the light forms a latent image on
the film. The focal length of the camera lens determines the magnification of the latent image,
while the penetration of light into the film depends on the combination of lens optics and the
chemical properties of the film. The image formed is a negative, meaning it is opposite of how it
is seen by, the eye. In other words, the areas touched by the light are dark and the unexposed
areas appear light.
2) Development
After exposure, the film is usually removed from the camera for development; however, there are
special Polaroid cameras that use a special self-developing film. Once removed from a camera,
exposed film is submerged in a tank containing a solution of developing chemicals. This solution
reacts with the exposed areas of the film to amplify the light impressions of the latent image.
After this stage is complete, the solution is poured off and a stop bath treatment consisting of
dilute acetic acid is added to the tank to prevent the film from overdeveloping. After the
development is stopped, a fixative can be added to lock in the image. The finished negative then
may be washed and rinsed. The reel is then removed from the tank and fresh negatives are hung
up to dry image. This step produces a negative image, which can then be used to print a final
picture.
When the film is removed from the camera and taken out of its protective container, caution
must be used because the unexposed areas are still light sensitive. Film is handled in special dark
rooms, which are illuminated with safe red light that does not affect the film. Once inside the dark
room, the film is removed from its canister, wound onto a spool, and stored in a plastic container
to protect it from light and physical damage. The film may then be submerged in a tank
containing a solution of the developing chemicals described above. This solution reacts with the
exposed areas of the film to amplify the light impressions of the latent image. This process
produces variable results depending on the type and temperature of the developer solution used
and the level of the original exposure to light.
After this stage is complete, the solution is poured off and a stop bath treatment consisting of
dilute acetic acid is added to the tank to prevent the film from overdeveloping. After the
development is stopped, a fixative can be added to lock in the image. The finished negative then
may be washed and rinsed. The reel is then removed from the tank and the fresh negatives are
hung up to dry.
3) Printing
Printing is the process of producing a final image from a negative, if photography is the art of
taking a picture, printing paper. The light source is an enlarger, which uses a lens to focus light
through the negative and project it onto light-sensitive paper. The positive image on this paper is
then developed in a manner similar to that described above for developing negatives. Finally, the
print may be mounted on cardboard or other backing material. Reprints (additional prints of the
same image) may be easily produced in a similar fashion from either the original negative or from
a previously generated print.
PRESERVATION
Paper folders
Ideal photograph storage involves placing each photo in an individual folder constructed buffered
or acid-free paper. Buffered paper folders are especially recommended in cases when a
photograph was previously mounted on to poor quality material or using an adhesive that will
lead to even more acid creation. Store photographs measuring 8 ×10 inches or smaller vertically
along the lower edge of the photo in the buffered paper folder, within a larger archival box, and
label each folder with relevant information to identify it. The rigid nature of the folder protects
the photo from slumping or creasing, as long as the box is not packed too tightly or under filled.
Folder larger photos or brittle photos stacked flat within archival boxes with other materials of
comparable size.
SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED
1. It is best to leave photographs lying flat on the table when viewing them.
2. Do not pick it up from a corner, or even from two sides and hold it at eye level.
3. Every time the photograph bends, even a little this can break down the emulsion.
4. As long as a photo is in its folder, there is no need to touch it, simply remove the folder
from the box, lay it flat on the table, and open the table.
5. If for some reason the researcher does need to handle the actual photo perhaps to examine
the verso for writing, he or she can use gloves if there appears to be a risk from oils or dirt
on the hands.
PICTURES
DEFINITION
A Picture is simply a photo of objects or persons on a piece of card, paper etc. A picture can
sometimes be something to treasure memories or simply just a decoration. A picture can be in
books, albums and frames which we can look at whenever would like. In present scenario can be
seen through power point, through LCD.
PURPOSE
1. Some pictures serve primarily to show the appearance of objects, persons or images.
2. Illustrations with labels, highlighted components, or other selective or stylized
attributes often serve the purpose of demonstrating the structure of something.
3. Pictures often serve to illustrate a concept. Some pictures may be used primarily
to demonstrate abstract conceptual material in a visual way.
SPECIAL TYPES OF PICTURES

1. Moving pictures
If people take a lot of pictures, and show them one at a time, very fast, they can make a picture
that looks like it is moving. This is called a “moving picture”, or a movie.
2. Three Dimensional pictures

Some people can make pictures that do not look flat, by taking two regular flat pictures at the
same time or pictures projected from front and sides. People have to move their eyes in a special
way or use a stereoscope so they can see both pictures together. When they look at the pictures
the right way, the picture does not look flat. This is called ‘3D’ or three ‘dimensional’.
ADVANTAGES
1. It stimulates reading and writing.
2. Enable students to dramatize a specific point.
3. Providing an atmosphere for learning.
4. Attract participation.
5. Creating centres of interest.
6. Helpful in introducing topic of study.
7. Assist in reviewing and summarizing the lesson.
8. Broadening of knowledge.
9. Enhance understanding regarding subject.
10. To create enthusiasm and enjoyment in learning by observing pictures.
11. Helps the learners to comprehend the subject, situations, conditions and happenings in
outside real life.
DISADVANTAGES
1. In some cases pictures can get lost.
2. It can be torn.
3. It can be fade and has effect of environmental gradually years by years.
4. It can burn easily.
5. If not unique, can seem uninteresting to pupils.
6. Depicting a specific purpose might be difficult to locate.
MAKING PICTURES
Most pictures today are ‘Photographs’. ‘Photographs’ are made with cameras.
A camera makes a picture that looks very real. When there are no cameras, people made pictures by
using paint, brushes, pencils, crayons, pens, and other things that people can write or draw with.
Pictures made with paint and brush are called ‘Paintings’. Sometimes pictures made with pencil or
pen are called ‘Sketches’. If they are made quickly and only look a little bit like the real thing.
Usually pictures are placed on paper. Pictures made with paint are usually painted on a strong,
rough fabric called ‘Canvas’.
In special or old places, such as churches, sometimes people can see pictures on windows made
out of coloured pieces of glass. These are called Stained glass or Glass painting (Mirror
painting).
PRINCIPLES
1. Appeal: The picture should capture interest and imagination of all students in the group.
2. Relevance : The picture should be appropriate for the purpose of the lesson. It must
contribute directly to the aim of the lesson. Do not use a picture just because it is attractive
or that students find it fascinating.
3. Recognition: The significant features of the picture should be within student’s knowledge
and cultural understanding.
4. Size : If the picture is shown to the whole class, it must be large enough to be seen clearly
by all. For pair and group work, the picture can of course be smaller.
5. Clarity : Avoid crowded pictures. They can confuse and distract the students. The relevant
details must be clearly seen. Choose pictures with strong outlines and contrast in tone and
colour to avoid ambiguity. If painted pictures, colours combination should be realistic for
better understanding.
ILLUSTRATED BOOK
DEFINITION
(Illustrated books) an illustration is a displayed visualization form presented as a drawing, painting,

photograph or other work of art.
Web definition (www.google.co.in)
HISTORY - Medieval codices’ illustrations were called illuminations. Johannes Guttenberg
invented the printing press and independently developed a movable type system in Europe, along
with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. He also added
illustrations to his printed books, usually wood cuts. During the 15th century, books illustrated
with wood cut illustrations became available. The main processes used for reproduction of
illustrations during the 16th and 17th centuries were engraving and etching. At the end of the 18 th
century, lithography allowed even better illustrations to be reproduced.
PURPOSE
1. By viewing picture books and engaging in illustrator studies, students develop an

awareness of visual text, and identify the expressive elements in visual texts.
2. Students become aware of how visual elements are used by illustrators to result in great
expressive ranges and numerous potentials.
3. Students even viewing and reading books develop awareness of connections between
visual texts and accompanying written texts.
4. As students read various books by authors they have opportunities to practice, transfer and
extend the process of critical viewing to other illustrations and books, and to other visual
material.
TYPE OF PICTURE BOOKS
1. Toy books/Board books

These books usually feature more interactive elements like cloth, pop up and plastic. As they are
for babies words are less important and it’s more about the way they are played with or read by
adults. They often feature a lot of actions and noises the adult does as reading them.
2. Toddler /Concept books
These books start to introduce basic learning of alphabet, numbers, colours and shape etc. They
have more of an emphasis on words than the toy books; however images are still the main
attention as this audience cannot read yet. They average around 300 words and often are board
books with interactive elements.
3. Early picture books
These are the next step up from the previous books they have a higher word count up to 2000
words. They are written so the child can read them all by themselves. They have simple
language and usually are told through action and dialog. They still feature illustrations on every
page.
4. Early chapter books/Transition books
These books are the transition from picture books to chapter books. They still feature
illustrations but not as many and a lot of time only black and white. They feature a lot more
words and can have chapters.
PONITS TO BE REMEMBER
1. Interesting illustrations-Illustration should appeal to the students. It is well-known that

bright colour and simple design appeal to students.
2. Simple but comprehensive illustrations-Illustrations should be so simple that they can
be easily comprehended by the students and should needs little comments and
explanations as far as possible. Illustrations like diagrams and tables can be worked out
in the presence of students in the class room itself while teaching.
3. Exact illustrations-They should be very accurate and exact defective illustrations are
likely to distort learning.
4. Relevant to the topic-Illustrations should be related to the subject-matter in hand.
Illustrations should not be used for the sake of using illustration as essential instruments
of teaching.
5. Subordinate to the topic-Illustrations should not be used in such a way as the students
remember only the illustrative material and not the subject matter.
6. Proper display of illustration-Non-verbal illustrations should be properly displayed so
that the entire class is able to see them clearly and easily. They should be kept for
reasonable period before the students so that they may observe them carefully.
7. Not too many illustrations-Too many illustrations are likely to distract the attention of
students from real subject-matter. They should be used rationally.
8. Collection of illustrative material-Every skillful teacher will try to have his own
collection of illustrative material from different sources i.e. journals, magazines, picture,
post-card etc.
In the end, it may be stressed that a wise selection, timely presentation and an intelligent use
of illustrative material will be a very valuable asset of every teacher.
ADVANTAGES
1. Enables students to work at his own pace.
2. Facilitates self-evaluation.
3. Makes mass teaching possible with high efficiency.
4. High availability.
5. Facilitates decision-taking (solution of complex problems).
6. Reduces risk (for patient or society).
7. Avoids bias transmitted by “bad teachers”.
8. Allows a good teacher to save time that can then be spent on more complex activities
such as interpersonal relations.
9. Can be kept up to date with new scientific developments and contain references to other
documents.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Necessitates special educational competence.
2. High additional investment costs (in teacher’s time and money).
3. No group dynamics.
PREPARATION PROCESS
Material required
1. Coloured pencils
2. Sketch pad
3. Desktop publishing software
4. Glossy computer paper
5. Colour printer
6. Scanner
7. Book cover
Preparation steps
1. Decide what picture book will be about. Involve child in the process. Come up with a
story together. The story doesn’t need to be complex. Picture book text is typically
simple-no more than a couple of lines below each picture. Most of the focus will be on
creating characters and drawing them.
2. Write story out first. Having it written down will give ideas for illustrations. If we have
Microsoft word or Microsoft publisher, either of these programs includes picture book
templates. We can also make our own template by starting a new document on the “File”
menu and setting the page orientation to landscape. We can type our text directly into the
picture book template, then use the “Format” menu to choose the size, colour and style
of our font. Use the “Insert” menu to add fancy boarders to each page that will go
around our pictures when we add them later.
3. Draw the art work for the story we have written. Include the child. Discuss picture ideas
with him. Make child feels as if he is a big part of the project because the book belongs
to him when it’s finished. After we have drawn all of the pictures to go with the text,
scan them into the computer so we can add them to picture book file. This is done using
the “Insert” menu and choosing the “Picture” command. Insert each picture above the
text where it belongs. For variety, alternate which side of the page put pictures on.
4. Save file as a word document or a PDF file. If we use Microsoft word 2007 or Microsoft
publisher 2007, we can do this from within the program. If not there are many free
virtual PDF printers that will allow to save a file as PDF through print control panel.
This will allow to take book to a professional printer if choose to do so.
Print book pages on glossy photo paper. This will make pictures look better and book more
professional. Bind book by purchasing a hard book cover or photo album cover from a hobby
shop.Consider taking book to a local printer for professional binding, the book could ultimately
be handed down from one generation to the next.
STORAGE
Good storage significantly prolongs the life and usability of books and includes:
1. A cool room temperature or below, (relatively dry about 35% relative humidity), clean
and stable environment.
2. Minimal exposure to all kinds of light, no exposure to direct or intense light.
3. Distance from radiators and vents.
4. Regular dusting and housekeeping.
5. Shelving books of similar size together, so that the faces of the covers are
maximally supported by the neighbours on each side.
6. Keeping upright shelved books straight and not leaning (storing books lying flat is
also good).
ACTIVITY AIDS
There are certain learning situations in which student participation through direct experiences can be
easily incorporated, these are called activity aids. The activity teaching aids are really of great value as
they put students in a role of active seekers of knowledge. There are five important activity teaching aids,
which are listed below:-
1) Field trips
2) Demonstrations
3) Experiments
4) Dramatizations
FIELD TRIPS
DEFINITIONS
According to Hedger ken Field trip may be defined as “an educational procedure by which the student
studies firsthand objects and materials in their natural environment.”
Types of field trips

Depending on the place of visit and its duration, field trips are mainly of the following four types, namely:-
a) Local school trips
b) Community trip
c) Educational trips
d) The natural hunt
Advantages of field trip

Field trip provides learning experience in the real life situation by direct contact with objects, process, and
systems and thus has many advantages which are enumerated as follows:
1. It provides accurate information objects, process, and systems in their real life setting.
2. It provides meaningful direct experience and hence results in lasting learning.
3. The students learning can be easily diverted towards effective learning.
4. Field trips are valuable aids to what students are curious about the natural and man-made process
and objects.
5. field trips can effectively supplement the classroom learning through application and reviewing
the experiences of student.
Limitations of field trip:
1) A field trip may be occasional activity which at best supplement some learning segments of the syllabus.
2) They can be expensive and out of reach for many disadvantaged and poor students.
3) Field trips require proper and detailed planning to make them meaningful otherwise the trip leads
to confusion, and fails to fulfill the requirement.
DEMONSTRATIONS
Demonstration method is a concrete visual aid, because of its wide use in the teaching of nurses. In
nursing education, it is used for this purpose and also for clinics, conferences, laboratory classes,
symposia, autopsies, and teaching of health to patients. The demonstration method teaches by explanation
and exhibition. In short, it is a performance to show a process or activity to others. When a teacher
demonstrates, students observe and imitate to learn
Advantages of demonstration
The following are the advantages of demonstration method.

1. It activates several senses. This increases learning, because it gives a better opportunity
for observational learning.
2. It clarifies the underlying principles by demonstrating the ‘why’ or ‘how’ of the procedure.
3. It provokes interest by use of concrete illustrations.
4. It correlates theory with practice engages student’s attention and concentration.
5. It encourages student’s participation in learning through questions and answers as the
teacher performs.
EXPERIMENT
An experiment is a learning activity in which students collect and interpret observations using
measuring instruments to reach some conclusions. In science subjects experiments are used invariably
used as instructional aid as they encourage learning by doing. While giving a lesson on an experiment, the
teacher should organize the instruction so as to make the students aware of the following steps of the
experiments:
1) Objectives of the experiments
2) Apparatus required
3) Procedure or methodology
4) Observations of data
5) Computation (totaling) of the observations made.
6) Results or conclusion
7) Precautions
8) Ideas for future work
The student performs the experiment and writes a report on it. Showing the cause and effect relationship.
DRAMATIZATION
Dramatization is a very potent method of keeping the class room instruction lively and interesting. When
a teacher dramatizes a lesson, the students become both the spectators and participants. This makes
learning easy and permanents.
Types of dramatizations suitable for class room instruction:-
1) Role-play
2) Play lets
3) Pageant
4) Pantomime
5) Tableaux
Advantages of dramatization:
1) Dramatization gives an added advantage of students working as both observers (spectators) and
doers (participants) unlike in experiment where there are just doers and in demonstration where there
are just observers.
2) Dramatization makes learning a pleasure children love to act and show off.
3) Dramatization involves students totally and they appreciate the lessons remember it better
4) Dramatization develops the social skills required for them such as cooperation, co-
ordination, punctuality, and human relations etc.
5) Dramatization makes students creative, sensitive, and alert.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 BOOK REFERENCE
1. Agarwal, C. (2008). Principles, Methods and Techniques of teaching. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing house.
2. Basavanthappa, T. (2003). Nursing Education. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
3. Basavanthappa, T. (2011). Communication and Educational Technology for Nurses.
New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
4. Clement, I. (2010). Text Book on Communication and Educational Technology.
Bangalore: Emmess Medical Publishers.
5. Heidgerken, E . (2002).Teaching and Learning in Schools of Nursing. New Delhi:
knonark Publishers.
6. Neeraja , P. (2003). Text Book of Nursing Education. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
7. Neeraja , P. (2011). Text Book of Communication and Educational Technology for
Nurses. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
 NET REFERENCE
1. enm.wikipedia.org.
2. www. ask.com.
INDEX
S.NO CONTENT PAGE NO.

AUDIO VISUAL AIDS
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 DEFNITION 1
3 PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE 1
4 PRINCIPLES OF A.V. AIDS 1-2
5 CONCEPTS OF A.V.AIDS 2
6 PREPARATION 2-3
7 ADVANTAGES 3
8 DRAWBACKS OF A.V.AIDS 3-4
9 CLASSIFICATION 5
10 LEAFLET 6-7
11 PAMPHLETS 8—9
12. HANDOUT 10-11
13 INFORMATION BOOKLET 12
AUDIO AIDS
14 RADIO 13-14
15 TAPE RECORDER 15-16
16 STEREOGRAPH 17-19
17 VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDER 20-24
28 OBJECTS ANS CUT AWAYS 25-26
29 ROLE PLAY 27-29
20 EXHIBITIONS 30
21 MODELS 31-32
22 MOULAGE 33-34
23 COMPUTER 35-38
24 INTERNET 39-40
25 SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES 41
26 VIDEO CONFERENCING 42-43
27 E-LEARNING 44-45
28 COMPUTER ASSISTED INTERACTION 46-47
29 CHARTS 48-50
30 GRAPHS 51-52
31 POSTERS 53-54
32 MAPS 55-56
33 MULTIMEDIA 57
34 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY 58-62
35 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED) 63-64
36 DIORAMAS 65
37 MOCKUP 66
38 PUPPETS 67-70
39 CCTV (CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION) 71-72
40 PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM 73-74
41. TELEVISION 75-77
42 FILMS & FILMSTRIPS 78-79
43 MICROFILM 80-82
44 BLACK BOAD/ CHALK BOARD 83-85
45 CARTOON 86
46 PHOTOGRAPHS & PICTURES 87-93
47 ILLUSTRATED BOOK 94-96
ACTIVITY AIDS 97-98
48 FIELD TRIP
49 DEMONSTRATION
50 EXPERIMENT
51 DRAMATIZATION
52 BIBLIOGRAPHY 99

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C.M.T.C.

SUBJECT: NURSING EDUCATION

C.M.T.C. COLLEGE OF NURSING C.M.T.C. COLLEGE OF NURSING

PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF A.VAIDS

PRINCIPLES OF AUDIO- VISUAL AIDS

CONCEPTS OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

PREPARATION / PLANNING AV AIDS

ADVANTAGES OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

PROBLEMS USING TEACHING AIDS

VISUAL AUDIO MATERIAL AUDIO VISUAL TRADITIONA

2. Informative- any information about the topic.

3. Directive-it helps to control the direct activities.

2. Adentorial- To advertise something

3. Product information- To increase the sale of certain product

STYLES FOR ORGANIZING THE PAMPHLET

PRINCIPLES AND THE PROCEDURE FOR THE EFFECTIVE UTILISATION OF

GUIDELINES /CRITERIA /PRINCIPLES:-

SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED

OVERALL PURPOSES/ OBJECTIVES

S- VHS ( Super Video home System)

DV/ Mini DV (Digital Video)

First two types of VCR’s

MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION

HOW TO MAKE VIDEO TAPE

OBJECTS AND CUT AWAYS

PURPOSES OF ROLE PLAY

1. SOCIO-DRAMA:-Deal with interaction of people with other group/individual involves

2. PSYCHO-DRAMA:-deal with unique individual’s needs/problems Practiced in group sitting

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROLE PLAY

1. The role play should have clear objectives.

FACTORS INFLUENCING ROLE PLAY

PRINCIPLES OF ROLE PLAY

ADVANTAGES OF ROLE PLAY

DISADVANTAGES OF ROLE PLAYING

1. .It is time consuming.

USES IN ROLE PLEY IN NURSING

 Define the problem.

GUIDELINES /CRITERIA /PRINCIPLES

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TO BE REMEMBERED

OVERALL PURPOSES /OBJECTIVES

There are four main types of models .These are :-

GUIDELINES /CRITERIA /PRINCIPLES

DESCRIPTION /HISTORICAL ASPECTS /INTERVENTION

ARTICLES /MATERIAL REQUIRED

1) Classification with respect to purpose

a) General purpose computers

b) Special purpose computers

2) Classification with respect to function or logic used

Micro Mini Mainframe Super

 Digital computer works on discrete data.

 It is combined of best features of both digital and analog system.

3) Classification with respect to size, speed and cost

 These computer are small in size.

 These computer are very powerful.

1. It allows the student to interact in learning situation.

SPECIFIC POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED:

1. Starting the computer