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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR
PHYSICS
VOLUME - II
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2019

Revised Edition - 2020, 2022
(Published Under New Syllabus)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
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Research and Training
© SCERT 2019
Printing & Publishing
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Services Corporation
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CONTENTS
PHYSICS
UNIT TITLE PAGE No. MONTH
6 Ray Optics 01 September
7 Wave Optics 53 September/

October
8 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 108 October
9 Atomic and Nuclear physics 141 November
10 Electronics and Communication 195 November
11 Recent Developments in Physics 253 December
Glossary 285
E-book Assessment
III

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HOW TO USE THE BOOK

• Awareness on higher learning - courses, institutions and required
Scope of Physics competitive exams
• Financial assistance possible to help students to climb academic ladder
• Gender initiatives by the Government of India.
Learning Objectives: • Overview of the unit

• Gives clarity on the goals and objective of the topics
• Additional facts related to the topics covered to facilitate

curiosity driven learning
• To ensure understanding, problems/illustrations are given at every stage

Example problems before advancing to next level
• Visual representation of concepts with illustrations

• Videos, animations, and tutorials
ICT • To harness the digital skills to class room learning and experimenting
Summary • Recap of salient points of the lesson
Concept Map • Schematic outline of salient learning of the unit
• Evaluate students’ understanding and get them acquainted with the

Evaluation application of physical concepts to numerical and conceptual questions
Books for Reference • List of relevant books for further reading
• Solutions to exercise problems are accessible here. In addition, a few solved

Solved examples examples are given to facilitate students to apply the concepts learnt.
Competitive • Model Questions - To motivate students aspiring to take up competitive
Exam corner examinations such as NEET, JEE, Physics Olympiad, JIPMER etc
Glossary • Scientific terms frequently used with their Tamil equivalents
Content Focus • C
overs ray and wave optics extensively, salient concepts in dual nature of
radiation and matter, atomic and nuclear physics. Topics in semiconductors
and communication are optimised. An exclusive unit on ‘Recent
developments in physics’ highlights that physics is the basic building block
for sciences, engineering, technology and medicine. With this, students are
motivated to pursue higher education confidently.
Back Wrapper
Richard Philip Feynman, (1918–1988) a theoretical physicist who received noble prize in physics in
1965 for his contributions to the development of quantum electrodynamics. He is the first person to discuss the
possiblity of manipulation of atoms that seeded nanotechnology. His lectures on various topics in physics are
very popular among physicists.
Illustration of Gravitational waves from two merging black holes.
Actual photograph of a super massive black hole M87*
IV

Scope of Physics - Higher Education
XII_Physics_Vol-2_Front page_EM.indd 5
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UNIT
6 RAY OPTICS
There are two ways of spreading light: to be the candle or the mirror that reflects it.
— Edith Wharton
Learning Objectives
In this unit, the students are exposed to,

• The ray aspect of light.
• The phenomenon of reflection and refraction of light.
• The determination of speed of light.
• The concepts related to mirrors, lenses, prisms etc.
• The different phenomena like dispersion and scattering of light.
6.1 medium (or) an obstacle. A ray of light gives

INTRODUCTION information only about the direction of light.
It does not give information about the other
characteristics like intensity and colour of light.
Light is mystical. Yet, its behaviour is so
However, a ray is a sensible representation
fascinating. It is difficult to comprehend light
of light in ray optics. The path of the light
as a single entity. The ray optics deals with
is called a ray of light and a bundle of such
light that is represented as a ray travelling
rays is called a beam of light. In this chapter,
in straight lines. Here, the geometrical
we can explain the phenomena of reflection,
constructs get the permanence to understand
refraction, dispersion and scattering of light,
some of the characteristics of light and the
using the ray depiction of light.
phenomena associated with it. There are
several other phenomena which can only be
explained using wave optics, which we study 6.1.2 Reflection
in the next Unit. There is also a quantum The bouncing back of light into the
aspect of light which we can study as quantum same medium when it encounters a
optics in graduate level courses. reflecting surface is called reflection of
light. Any polished surface can reflect light.
Mirrors which are silver coated at their back
6.1.1 Ray optics can reflect almost 90% of the light falling on
Light travels in a straight line in a medium. them. The angle of incidence i and the angle
Light may deviate in its path only when of reflection r are measured with respect to
it encounters the boundary of another the normal drawn to the surface at the point
1
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of incidence of light. According to laws of

reflection,
(i) The incident ray, reflected ray and normal
to the reflecting surface are all coplanar
(ie. lie in the same plane).
(ii) The angle of incidence i is equal to the
angle of reflection r.
i = r(6.1)
(b)
The law of reflection is shown in Figure 6.2 (a) Regular and (b) irregular
Figure 6.1. reflections
A N B
6.1.3 Angle of deviation due
to reflection
i
r The angle between the direction of
incident ray and the reflected ray is called
X Y angle of deviation due to reflection. It is
O Silvered calculated by a simple geometry as shown
in Figure 6.3(a). The incident light is AO.
Figure 6.1 Reflection of light
The reflected light is OB. The un-deviated
The laws of reflection are valid at each light is OC which is the continuation of
point for any reflecting surface whether the the incident light. The angle between OB
surface is flat (or) curved. If the reflecting and OC is the angle of deviation d. From
surface is flat, then incident parallel rays the geometry, it is written as, d = 180 –
after reflection come out as parallel rays (i+r). As, i = r in reflection, we can write
as shown in Figure 6.2(a). If the reflecting angle of deviation in reflection as,
surface is irregular, then the incident
parallel rays after reflection come out as d = 180 – 2i(6.2)
irregular rays (not parallel rays). Still the
laws of reflection are valid at every point of The angle of deviation can also
incidence in irregular reflection as shown be measured in terms of the glancing
in Figure 6.2(b). angle α which is measured between the
incident ray AO and the reflecting plane
surface XY as shown in Figure 6.3(b).
By geometry, the angles ∠AOX = α,
∠BOY = α and ∠YOC = α (all are same).
The angle of deviation d is the angle
∠BOC. Therefore,
d = 2α(6.3)
(a)
2 Unit 6 ray op tics

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∠R1OR2 = ∠N'OR2 – ∠N'OR1 = (i+θ) – (i–θ)

A N B ∠R1OR2 = 2θ.
N N' R1
I
i r d=180-2i i+θ
R2
X Y θ i–θ i+θ
i
O A' i 2θ
θ
B
(a) C A O
B'
A N B
6.1.4 Image formation in
d=2 plane mirror

X Y Let us consider a point object A placed in
O front of a plane mirror. The point of incidence is
O on the mirror as shown in the Figure. 6.4(a).
(b)
C
Figure 6.3 Angle of deviation due to
Plane mirror
reflection
B
EXA MP LE 6 .1
i
Prove that for the same incident light when O
N i b
a reflecting surface is tilted by an angle θ, the b
reflected light will be tilted by an angle 2θ. A A
D
do di
Solution
Object Image
AB is the reflecting surface as shown in the distance distance
(a)
Figure. Both the incident ray IO and the
reflected ray OR1 subtend angle i with the
Plane mirror
normal N as the angle of incidence is equal
to angle of reflection. When the surface AB is
tilted to A¢B ¢ by an angle θ, the normal N is also
is tilted to N ′ by the same angle θ. Remember Eye
that the position of the incident ray IO remains Virtual
unaltered. But the reflected ray now is OR2. image
Now, in the tilted system, the angle of Object
incidence, ∠N'OI = i+θ and the angle of
reflection, ∠N'OR2 = i+θ are the same. The
angle between ON' and OR1 is, ∠N'OR1 = (b)
i – θ. The angle tilted on the reflected light
is the angle between OR1 and OR2 which is Figure 6.4 Formation of image in plane
∠R1OR2. From the geometry we can write, mirror for (a) point and (b) extended objects
Unit 6 ray op tics 3

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A light ray AO from the point object is incident Table 6.1 Image by inclined mirrors
on the mirror and it is reflected along OB. The
 360  The position of Number of
normal is ON.   object placed images n
The angle of incidence ∠AON = angle of  θ 
reflection ∠BON  360 

Another ray AD incident normally on the Symmetrical n =  −1
 q 
mirror at D is reflected back along DA. When Even
BO and AD are extended backwards, they meet  360 
Unsymmetrical n =  −1
at a point A'. Thus, the rays appear to come from  q 
a point A' which is behind the plane mirror. The
 360 
object and its image are at equal perpendicular Symmetrical n =  −1
 q 
distances from the plane mirror which can be
Odd
shown by the following explanation.  360 
n = 
Angle ∠AON = angle ∠DAO [Since they Unsymmetrical  q 
are alternate angles]
Angle ∠BON = angle ∠O A¢ D [Since they
are corresponding angles]
Hence, it follows that angle, ∠DAO =
∠OA¢D
The triangles ∆ODA and ∆OD A¢ are
congruent
∴ AD = A¢D
This shows that the image distance di
inside the plane mirror is equal to the object
distance do in front of the plane mirror.
The image formed by the plane mirror for
extended object is shown in Figure 6.4(b). Figure 6.5 Images formed by inclined
mirrors
6.1.5 Characteristics of the
image formed by plane mirror EX AM P L E 6 . 2
(i) The image formed by a plane mirror
What is the height of the mirror needed for
is virtual, erect and laterally inverted
a person to see his/her image fully on the
sidewise (left / right).
mirror?
(ii) The size of the image is equal to the size
of the object. Solution
(iii) The image distance behind the mirror is
equal to the object distance in front of the Let us assume a person of height h is
mirror. standing in front of a vertical plane mirror.
(iv) If an object is placed between two plane The person could see his/her head when
mirrors inclined at an angle θ, then the light from the head falls on the mirror and
number of images n formed is given in gets reflected to the eyes. Same way, light
Table 6.1 the images formed are shown from the feet falls on the mirror and gets
in Figure 6.5. reflected to the eyes.

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Mirror
H
h1/2
H'
A A
h i1
1 h1/2
i1
E
(h1+h2)/2
h2/2
Image
Object
i2 C P
h
2 i2 P
h2/2 Hollow sphere
F
F'
Reflecting
surface
B B
If the distance between his head H and eye
E is h1 and distance between his feet F and Spherical mirrors
eye E is h2. The person’s total height is, h.
Here it is, h = h1 + h2
By the law of reflection, the angle of Inner reflective Outer reflective
incidence and angle of reflection are the
same for the two extreme reflections. The
normals are now the bisectors of the angles
between the incident and the reflected rays A convex mirrors
A concave mirrors
at the two points. By geometry, the height
of the mirror needed is only half of the Figure 6.6 Spherical mirrors
h +h h
height of the person. 1 2 =
2 2
Does the height depend on the distance Centre of curvature: The centre of
between the person and the mirror? the sphere of which the mirror is a part
is called the centre of curvature C of the
mirror.
6.2 Radius of curvature: The radius of the
SPHERICAL MIRRORS sphere of which the spherical mirror is a
part is called the radius of curvature R of the
We shall now study about the reflections mirror.
that take place in spherical surfaces.
Pole: The middle point on the spherical
A spherical surface is a part cut from
surface of the mirror (or) the geometrical
a hollow sphere. Spherical mirrors are
centre of the mirror is called pole P of the
generally constructed using glass. One
mirror (or) optic centre.
surface of the glass is silvered. The reflection
takes place at the other surface which is Principal axis: The line joining the pole
polished. If the polished surface of the P and the centre of curvature C is called the
mirror is convex it is called as convex principal axis of the mirror. The light ray
mirror. These are shown in Figure 6.6. travelling along the principal axis towards
We shall get familiarised with some of the mirror after reflection travels back along
the terminologies pertaining to spherical the same principal axis. It is also called
mirrors. optical axis

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Focus (or) Focal point: Light rays 6.2.1 Paraxial Rays and
travelling parallel and close to the principal Marginal Rays
axis when incident on a spherical mirror,
converge at a point for concave mirror (or) The paraxial rays are the rays which
appear to diverge from a point for convex travel very close to the principal axis and
mirror on the principal axis. This point is make small angles with it. They fall on the
called the focus (or) focal point F of the mirror. mirror very close to the pole. On the other
hand, the marginal rays are the rays which
Focal length: The distance between the
travel far away from the principal axis
pole P and the focus F is called the focal
and make large angles with it. They fall on
length f of the mirror.
the mirror far away from the pole. These
Focal plane: The plane through the focus two rays behave differently (get focused at
and perpendicular to the principal axis is different points) as shown in Figure 6.8. In
called the focal plane of the mirror. this chapter, we shall restrict our studies
All the above mentioned terms are only to paraxial rays. As the angles made
shown in Figure 6.7 for both concave and by the paraxial rays are very small, we can
convex mirrors. make good approximations.
(a)
Marginal rays
Paraxial rays
C F P
Principal axis F
C P
f
R
(b)
Figure 6.8 Paraxial and marginal rays
6.2.2 elation between

R
f and R
P F C
Let C be the centre of curvature of the
mirror. Consider a ray of light parallel to
the principal axis is incident on the mirror
at M. It passes through the principal focus
f F after reflection. The geometry related
R to this is shown in Figure 6.9(a). The line
CM is the normal to the mirror at M. Let
Figure 6.7 Representation of terminologies
i be the angle of incidence and the same
for (a) concave and (b) convex mirrors
will be the angle of reflection.

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PF is focal length f and PC is the radius

of curvature R.
M R
i 2f =R (or) f = (6.4)
i 2
i 2i Equation (6.4) is the relation between f
C F P and R. The construction is shown for convex
mirror in figure 6.9(b)
6.2.3 Image formation in

spherical mirrors
(a) Concave mirror The image formed by spherical mirror

can be found by ray construction called
image tracing. To locate an image point,
a minimum of two rays must meet at that
i
i M point. We can use at least any two of the
following four rays as shown in Figure 6.10.
2i i B
P F C B
A A
C F P C F P
(a) (b)
(b) Convex Mirror

B B
Figure 6.9 Relation between f and R A A

C F P C F P
If MP is the perpendicular from M to the

(c) (d)
principal axis, then
The angles ∠MCP = i and ∠MFP = 2i Figure 6.10 Image tracing
From right angle triangles ∆MCP and
∆MFP, we can write, (i) A ray parallel to the principal axis
after reflection will pass (or appear
PM PM to pass) through the principal focus.
tani = and tan2i =
PC PF (Figure 6.10(a))
As the angles are small, tan i ≈ i and (ii) A ray passing (or appear passing)
i ,
tantan2ii ≈ 2i through the principal focus, after
PM PM reflection will travel parallel to the
i= and 2i = principal axis. (Figure 6.10(b))
PC PF
Simplifying further, (iii) A ray passing through the centre
of curvature retraces its path after
PM PM reflection as it is a normal incidence.
2 = ; 2PF = PC
PC PF (Figure 6.10(c))

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(iv) A ray falling on the pole will get 6.2.5 Mirror equation
reflected as per law of reflection
keeping principal axis as the normal. The mirror equation establishes a relation
(Figure 6.10(d)) among object distance u, image distance v
and focal length f for a spherical mirror.
An object AB is considered on the
6.2.4 Cartesian sign principal axis of a concave mirror beyond
convention the centre of curvature C. The image
While tracing the image, we would formation is shown in the Figure 6.12. Let
normally come across the object distance us consider three paraxial rays from point
u, the image distance v, the object height h, B on the object. The first paraxial ray BD
the image height h ′ , the focal length f and travells parallel to the principal axis. It is
the radius of curvature R. A system of signs incident on the concave mirror at D, close
for these quantities must be followed so that to the pole P. It is reflected back through
the relations connecting them are consistent the focus F. The second paraxial ray BP is
in all types of physical situations. We shall incident at the pole P. It is reflected along
follow the Cartesian sign convention which PB´. The third paraxial ray BC passing
is now widely used. It is given below and through centre of curvature C, falls normally
also shown in Figure 6.11. on the mirror at E. It is reflected back along
the same path. The three reflected rays
(i) The Incident light is taken as if it is
intersect at the pointA′ B ′ . A perpendicular
travelling from left to right (i.e. object
drawn as A′ B ′ to the principal axis gives
on the left of mirror).
the real, inverted image.
(ii) All the distances are measured from the
pole of the mirror (pole is taken as origin). D
B
(iii) The distances measured to the right of
pole along the principal axis are taken A A'
C P
as positive. B'
F
(iv) The distances measured to the left of E
pole along the principal axis are taken
as negative. Figure 6.12 Mirror equation
(v) Heights measured upwards perpendicular
to the principal axis are taken as positive. As per law of reflection, the angle of
(vi) Heights measured downwards incidence ∠BPA is equal to the angle of
perpendicular to the principal axis, are reflection ∠ B ′PA′ .
taken as negative. The triangles ∆BPA and ∆ B ′PA′ are
similar. Thus, from the rule of similar
Height upwards
(Positive) Incident light triangles,
A′B ′ PA′
Distance to the left Distance to the right
= (6.5)
(Negative) (Positive)
AB PA
Height downwards
(Negative) The other set of similar triangles are,
Figure 6.11 Cartesian sign convention ∆DPF and ∆ B ′A′ F . (PD is almost a straight
vertical line)

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A ′B ′ A ′F 6.2.6 Lateral magnification

=
PD PF in spherical mirrors
As, PD = AB the above equation becomes,
The lateral (or) transverse magnification
A ′B ′ A ′F m is defined as the ratio of the height of
= (6.6)
AB PF the image to the height of the object.The
From equations (6.5) and (6.6) we can height of the object and image are measured
write, perpendicular to the principal axis.
PA′ A′F height of theimage (h ′)
= magnification (m) =
PA PF height of theobject (h)
As, A′ F = PA′ - PF , the above equation h′
becomes, m= (6.9)
h
PA′ PA′ − PF
= (6.7) Applying proper sign conventions for
PA PF equation (6.5),
We can apply the sign conventions for A′B ′ PA′
=
the various distances in the above equation. AB PA
PA = −u, PA′ = −v , PF = − f A′B ′ = −h ′,AB = h, PA′ = −v , PA = −u
All the three distances are negative as per −h ′ −v
=
sign convention, because they are measured h −u
to the left of the pole. Now, the equation On simplifying we get,
(6.7) becomes, h′ v
m= = − (6.10)
−v −v − (− f ) h u
=
−u −f
Using mirror equation, we can further
On further simplification, write the magnification as,
v v− f v v h′ f − v f
= ; = −1 m= = = (6.11)
u f u f h f f −u
Dividing both sides with v,
1 1 1 The students are advised

= − Note
u f v to refresh themselves
After rearranging, with the image tracing
for the concave and convex mirrors
1 1 1 for various predetermined positions
+ = (6.8)
v u f of the object; the position of image,
The equation (6.8) is called mirror nature of image etc., from 9th Standard,
equation. Although this equation is derived Science Book .
for a special situation shown in Figure
(6.12), it is also valid for all other situations EX AM P L E 6 . 3
with any spherical mirror. This is because
proper sign convention is followed for u, v An object is placed at a distance of 20.0 cm
and f in equation (6.7). from a concave mirror of focal length 15.0 cm.

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(a) What distance from the mirror a screen f

should be placed to get a sharp image? Given: length of object, l =
3
(b) What is the nature of the image? For the given condition, the image
formation is shown in the figure.
Solution
Given, f = –15 cm, u = –20 cm
l' l
1 1 1
(a) Mirror equation, + = f/3
v u f
A B
Rod
1 1 1 C F P
Rewriting to find v, = − Image
A' u
v f u B'
v
1 1 1
Substituting for f and u, = − l' uA = vA= 2f = R
v −15 −20
1 (−20) − (−15) −5 −1 Let, l' be the length of the image, then
= = =
v 300 300 60
l′ l′ mf
v = −60.0 cm ml = = (or) l ′ = l
l f /3 3
The screen is to be placed at distance 60.0
Image of one end coincides with the
cm to the left of the concave mirror.
h′ v respective end of object. Thus, the coinciding
(b) Magnification, m = =− end must be at centre of curvature.
h u
h′ (−60) f f 5f
m= =− = −3 uB = u A − =2f − =
h (−20) 3 3 3
As the sign of magnification is negative,
the image is inverted. v B = uB + l + l ’
As the magnitude of magnification is 3, the 5f f mf f (6 + ml )
vB = + + l =
image is enlarged three times. 3 3 3 3
As the image is formed to the left of the 1 1 1
concave mirror, the image is real. Mirror equation, + =
v u f
1 1 1
+ =
EXA MP LE 6 .4  f (6 + ml )  5 f  − f
−  − 
 3  3
A thin rod of length f /3 is placed along
the optical axis of a concave mirror of After simplifying,
focal length f such that one end of image
3 3 1 3 2
which is real and elongated just touches + = ; =
f (6 + ml ) 5 f f (6 + ml ) 5
the respective end of the rod. Calculate
the longitudinal magnification. 15 15
6 + ml = ; ml = − 6
Solution 2 2
3
longitudinal (ml) = length of image (l´) ml = = 1.5
2
magnification length of object (l)

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6.3 in the wheel will get reflected by a mirror

M kept at a long distance d, about 8 km
SPEED OF LIGHT
from the toothed-wheel. If the toothed-
wheel was not rotating, the light reflected
Light travels with the highest speed in
back from the mirror would again pass
vacuum. The speed of light in vacuum is
through the same cut and reach the eyes
denoted as c and its value is, c = 3 × 108 m s-1.
of the observer who looks through the
The earliest attempt to determine the speed
partially silvered glass plate.
of light was made by a French scientist
Working: The angular speed of rotation
Hippolyte Fizeau (1819–1896). That paved
of the toothed-wheel was increased from
way for the other scientists too to determine
zero to a value ω until the light passing
the speed of light.
through one cut would completely be
blocked by the adjacent tooth. This is
6.3.1 Fizeau’s method to ensured by the disappearance of the light
determine speed of light while looking through the partially silvered
Apparatus: The apparatus used by glass plate.
Fizeau for determining speed of light in Expression for speed of light: The speed
air medium is shown in Figure 6.13. The v of light in air is equal to the ratio of the
light from the source S was first allowed distance 2d (the distance light travelled
to fall on a partially silvered glass plate from the toothed-wheel to the mirror and
G kept at an angle of 45o to the incident back), to the time taken t.
light. The light then was allowed to pass
through a rotating toothed-wheel with N 2d
v= (6.12)
teeth and N cuts of equal widths whose t
speed of rotation could be varied through
an external mechanism (not shown in the The distance d is a known value from
Figure). The light passing through one cut the arrangement. The time t taken for the
M
Light
S source
d
G
45o Tooth

Slot
Partially
silvered Toothed
Observer glass plate wheel
Figure 6.13 Speed of light by Fizeau’s method

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light to travel the distance 2d is calculated

from the angular speed ω of the toothed- After the disappearance
Note
wheel. of light for the first time
The angular speed ω (with unit rad s–1) while increasing the speed
of the toothed-wheel when the light of rotation of the toothed-wheel
disappeared for the first time is, from zero to ω, on further increasing
the speed of rotation to 2ω, the
q light would appear again due to the
w = (6.13)
t passing of reflected light through
the next slot. So, for every odd value
Here, θ is the angle between one tooth of ω, light would disappear (stopped
and the next slot which is turned within that by tooth) and for every even value
time t. of ω light would appear (allowed by
slot).
total angle of the circle in radian
q=
number of teeth+number off cuts
2p p
q= = 6.3.2 Speed of light through
2N N
vacuum and different media
Substituting θ in equation (6.13), Scientists like Foucault (1819–1868)
p /N p and Michelson (1852–1931) introduced
w= =
t Nt different transparent media like glass,
water etc., in the path of light to find
Rewriting the above equation for t, the speed of light in different media.
Even evacuated glass tubes were also
p
t= (6.14) introduced in the path of light to find the
Nw
speed of light in vacuum. It was found
Substituting this in equation (6.12), that light travels with lesser speed in any
medium than its speed in vacuum. The
2d
v= speed of light in vacuum was determined
p / Nw
as, c = 3 × 108 m s-1. We could notice that
After rearranging, the speed of light in vacuum and speed of
2dNw
light in air are almost same.
v= (6.15)
p
6.3.3 Refractive index
Fizeau had some difficulty to visually
estimate the minimum intensity of the light Refractive index of a transparent
when it is blocked by the adjacent tooth. The medium is defined as the ratio of speed of
value of speed of light determined by him light in vacuum c to the speed of light in
was very close to the actual value. Later on, that medium v.
with the same idea of Fizeau and with much refractive speed of light in vacuum (c)
sophisticated instruments, the speed of light in index n of a =
speed of light inmedium (v )
air was determined as, v = 2.99792 × 108 m s–1. medium

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c Ethyl alcohol 1.36

n= (6.16)
v
Quartz 1.46
Refractive index of a transparent Vegetable oil 1.47
medium gives an idea about the speed of Olive oil 1.48
light in that medium. Acrylic 1.49
Table salt 1.51
EXA MP LE 6 .5 Glass 1.52
Sapphire 1.77
Pure water has refractive index 1.33. What
is the speed of light through it? Zircon 1.92
Qubic zirconia 2.16
Solution Diamond 2.42
c c
n= ; v= Gallium phosphide 3.50
v n
3×108 6.3.4 Optical path
v= = 2.26×108 ms -1
1.33
Optical path of a medium is defined as
Light travels with a speed of 2.26 × 108 m s-1
the distance d' light travels in vacuum in
through pure water.
the same time it travels a distance d in the
medium.
Refractive index does not have a unit.
Let us consider a medium of refractive
The smallest value of refractive index is for
index n and thickness d. Light travels with
vacuum, which is 1. For any other medium
a speed v through the medium in a time t.
refractive index is greater than 1. Refractive
The speed of light through the medium is
index is also called as optical density of the
written as,
medium. Higher the refractive index of a
medium, lesser is the speed of light through d d
v = ; rewritten for t as, t =
it and vice-versa. [Note: optical density t v
should not be confused with mass density In the same time t, light can cover a
of the material of the medium. They two are longer distance d' in vacuum as it travels
different entities]. The Table 6.2 shows the with greater speed c in vacuum. It is shown
refractive indices of different transparent in Figure 6.14. Now, we can wrtite,
media.
Table 6.2 Refractive index of media d

Media Refractive index
Vacuum 1.00 Medium of refractive index n
Air 1.0003
d' = n d
Carbon dioxide gas 1.0005
Ice 1.31 Vacuum of refractive index 1
Pure water 1.33 Figure 6.14 Optical path

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d d′ ′ d d′ ′ (c) optical path,

;rewritten
c c== ; rewritten for
rewrittenfor
for )as,
(t()tas
as, ,t t==
tt cc
d ′ = nd = 1.5×0.5 = 0.75 m = 75 cm
As the time taken in both the cases is the
same, we can equate the time t, Light would have travelled an additional
d ′d ′ d d 25 cm (75 cm – 50 cm) in vacuum at the
==
c c vv same time had there been no glass slab in
Rewritten for the opticalpath
path d' c c its path.
rewritten forfor
rewritten theoptical
theoptical (d(d
path )as,as
′) ′as , d, ′d=
′= dd
vv
c
As, the optical
= n;The pathdd'
opticalpath ′ isis,
,
v
6.4
d ′ = nd (6.17) REFRACTION
The value of n is always greater than 1, Refraction is passing of light from

for a medium. Thus, the optical path d' of a one optical medium to another optical
medium is always greater than d. medium through a boundary. In
refraction, the angle of incidence i in one
medium and the angle of refraction r in the
EXA MP LE 6 .6 other medium are measured with respect
to the normal drawn to the surface at the
Light travels from air into a glass slab of
point of incidence of light. According to
thickness 50 cm and refractive index 1.5.
laws of refraction,
(a) What is the speed of light in the glass (i) The incident ray, refracted ray and
slab? normal to the refracting surface
(b) What is the time taken by the light to are all coplanar (ie. lie in the same
travel through the glass slab? plane).
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incident i
(c) What is the optical path of the glass slab?
in the first medium to the sine of angle
Solution of refraction r in the second medium
is equal to the ratio of refractive
Given, thickness of glass slab, d = 50 cm = index n2 of the second medium to
0.5 m, refractive index, n = 1.5 the refractive index n1 of the first
c medium.
refractive index, n =
v
(a) speed of light in the glass slab is, sin i n2
= (6.18)
sin r n1
c 3×108
v= = = 2×108 ms−1
n 1. 5 The above equation is in the ratio
(b) time taken by light to travel through form. It can also be written in a product
the glass slab is, form as,
d 0. 5
t= = = 2.5×10−9 s n1 sin i = n2 sin r (6.19)
v 2×10 8

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The law of refraction is also known as On the other hand, if light travels from
Snell's law. denser to rarer medium, it deviates away
The refraction at a boundary is shown in from normal as shown in Figure 6.17. The
Figure 6.15. angle of deviation in this case is,
d=r–i (6.21)
i
n1
n2
n2 i n1>n2
r n1
n2
r
d=r-i
Figure 6.15 Refraction of light
Figure 6.17 Angle of deviation due to

For normal incidence of light refraction from denser to rarer medium
Note
on a surface, the angle of
incidence is zero.
6.4.2 simultaneous
reflection (or) refraction
In any refracting surface there will also
6.4.1 Angle of deviation due be some reflection taking place. Thus, the
to refraction intensity of refracted light will be lesser than
The angle between the direction of the incident light. The phenomenon in which
incident ray and the refracted ray is called a part of light from a source undergoing
angle of deviation due to refraction. When reflection and the other part of light from
light travels from rarer to denser medium, it the same source undergoing refraction
deviates towards normal as shown in Figure at the same surface is called simultaneous
6.16. The angle of deviation in this case is, reflection (or) simultaneous refraction. This
is shown in Figure 6.18. Such surfaces are
d = i – r(6.20) available as partially silvered glasses.
Normal
n1<n2
i Incident ray i i Reflected ray
n1
n2 Reflecting surface n2
r
r Refracted ray
d=i-r
Refracted ray
Figure 6.16 Angle of deviation due to Figure 6.18 Simultaneous reflection (or)
refraction from rarer to denser medium refraction

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Production of optical
surfaces capable of refracting 20%
LIGHT RATIO
80%
as well as reflecting is possible Reflective Silver

20 Grade Flim
by properly coating the surfaces with CAN SEE CAN’T SEE
THROUGH THROUGH
suitable materials. Thus, a glass can be
made partially see through and partially
reflecting. These glasses are commercially
called as two-way mirror, half-silvered
mirror, semi-silvered mirror etc. This
gives a perception of regular mirror if the
other side is made dark. But, still hidden
cameras can be kept behind such mirrors.
We need to be cautious when we stand in
front of mirrors kept in unknown places. There is a
method to test the two way mirror. Place the finger
nail on the mirror surface. If there is a gap between
nail and its image, then it is a regular mirror. If the
fingernail directly touches its image, then it is a two
way mirror.
Normal mirror Two way mirror
6.4.3 Principle of 6.4.4 Relative refractive

reversibility index
The principle of reversibility states n 
that light will follow exactly the same path In equation (6.18), the term  2  is called
 n1 
if its direction of travel is reversed. This
relative refractive index of second medium
is true for both reflection and refraction as
with respect to the first medium which is
shown in Figure 6.19.
denoted as n21.
n2
Plane Mirror n21 = (6.22)
n1
i r i r The concept of relative refractive index
(a) gives rise to other useful relations such as,
(i) Inverse rule:
i r
Rarer (1) Rarer (1) 1 n 1
Denser (2) Denser (2) n12 = (or) 1 = (6.23)
r i n21 n2 n2 / n1
(b) Plane Mirror
(ii) Chain rule:
Figure 6.19 Principle of reversibility in n3 n3 n1
(a) reflection and (b) refraction n32 = n31 ×n12 (or ) = × (6.24)
n2 n1 n2

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EXA MP LE 6 .7 (a)
Light travelling through transparent oil

enters in to glass of refractive index 1.5. If the
refractive index of glass with respect to the oil
is 1.25, what is the refractive index of the oil?
Solution
Given, ngo =1.25 and ng =1.5
Refractive index of glass with respect to oil,
ng (b)
ngo =
no
Rewriting for refractive index of oil,
ng 1. 5
no = = = 1.2 Air
ngo 1.25 A D B
The refractive index of oil is, no = 1.2 Water

Apparent
depth
Real
depth
P' I Q'
6.4.5 Apparent depth O
P Q
It is a common observation that the (c)
bottom of a tank filled with water appears to C
be raised when seen from air medium above N

as shown in Figure 6.19(a). An equation r n2
D Air
could be derived for the apparent depth when B Water n1
viewed in the near normal direction. d' r
Light from the object O at the bottom i
I
N'
of the tank passes from denser medium d i
(water) to rarer medium (air) to reach our O
eyes for viewing the object as shown in
Figure 6.20 (b). It deviates away from the Figure 6.20 Apparent depth
normal in the rarer medium at the point of
incidence B as shown in Figure 6.20 (c). The
refractive index of the denser medium is n1 n1 sin i = n2 sin r
and that of rarer medium is n2. Here, n1 > n2. As the angles i and r are small, we can
The angle of incidence in the denser approximate, sin i ≈ tan i and sin r ≈ tan r.
medium is i and the angle of refraction in
the rarer medium is r. The lines NN ′ and n1 tan i = n2 tan r
OD are parallel. Thus, the angle ∠DIB is also
r. The angles i and r are very small as the In triangles ∆DOB and ∆DIB,
diverging light from O entering the eye is
very narrow. The Snell’s law in product form DB DB
tan i = and tan r =
for this refraction from equation (6.19) is, DO DI

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DB DB As the rarer medium is air, its refractive

n1 = n2 index n2 can be taken as 1, (n2=1). And
DO DI
the refractive index n1 of denser medium
DB is cancelled both sides. Now, DO is
could then be taken as n itself, (n1=n).
the actual depth d and DI is the apparent
Now, the equation for apparent depth
depth d'.
becomes,
1 1
n1 = n2 After rearranging, d
d d′ d ′ = (6.27)
n
d ′ n2 The bottom appears to be elevated by
= (6.25)
d n1 d-d',
Rewriting the above equation for the d
apparent depth d', d −d′ = d − or
n
n2  1
d′ = d (6.26) d − d ′ = d 1 − (6.28)
n1  n 
Atmospheric refraction: Due to refraction of light through different

layers of atmosphere which vary in refractive index, the path of light deviates
continuously when it passes through the atmosphere. For example, the Sun is
visible a little before the actual sunrise and also until a little after the actual sunset due to
refraction of light through the atmosphere. What we mean by actual sunrise is the actual
crossing of the sun at the horizon. Figure shows the actual and apparent positions of the
sun with respect to the horizon. The figure is highly exaggerated to show the effect. The
apparent shift in the direction of the sun is around half a degree and the corresponding
time difference between the actual and apparent positions is about 2 minutes. Sun appears
flattened (oval shaped) during sun rise and sunset due to the same phenomenon.
The same is also applicable for the positions of stars as shown in Figure. Actually, the
stars do not twinkle. They appear twinkling because of the movement of the atmospheric layers
with varying refractive indices which is clearly seen in the night sky.
Apparent
Position of sun
Actual
Position of sun
Atmosphere Horizon

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EXA MP LE 6 .8 the denser medium. As angle of incidence i is

gradually increased, r rapidly increases and at
A coin is at the bottom of a trough a certain stage r becomes 90° and the refracted
containing three immiscible liquids of ray will be gracing the boundary. The angle
refractive indices 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5 poured of incidence in the denser medium for
one above the other of heights 30 cm, 16 which the angle of refraction is 90° (or) the
cm, and 20 cm respectively. What is the refracted ray graces the boundary between
apparent depth at which the coin appears the two media is called critical angle ic.
to be when seen from air medium outside? If the angle of incidence in the denser
In which medium the coin will appear? medium is increased beyond the critical angle,
Solution there is no refraction possible in to the rarer
medium. For any angle of incidence greater
When seen from (air medium) on top, the
than the critical angle, the entire light is
coin will still appear to be at the bottom
reflected back into the denser medium itself.
with each medium appearing to have
This phenomenon is called total internal
shrunk with respect to the air medium
reflection. These are shown in Figure 6.21.
outside. This situation is illustrated below.
The two conditions for total internal
reflection to take place are,
(i) light must travel from denser to rarer
medium,
d'= 47.8 cm
n1=1.5 d3=20cm
n3=1.5
n2=1.4
d3'=13.3 cm
(ii) angle of incidence in the denser medium
d2'=11.4 cm
d= 66 cm
n2=1.4 d2=16cm n1=1.3

Coin
d1'=23.1 cm must be greater than critical angle (i>ic).
n3=1.3
Coin
d1=30 cm For critical angle of incidence, the Snell’s law
in the product form, equation (6.19) becomes,
The equations for apparent depth for each
medium is, n1 sin ic = n2 sin 90(6.29)
d1 d d3 n1 sin ic = n2 ∵ sin 90 = 1

d1′ = ; d2′ = 2 ; d3′ =
n1 n2 n3
n2
d d d sinic = (6.30)
d ′ = d1′ + d2′ + d3′ = 1 + 2 + 3 n1
n1 n2 n3
30 16 20 Here, n1 > n2
d′ = + + = 23.1 + 11.4 + 13.3
1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 If the rarer medium is air, then its
d ′ = 47.8 cm refractive index n2 is 1, (n2=1) and the
refractive index of the denser medium n1 is
taken as n itself, (n1=n) then,
6.4.6 Critical angle and total
1 1
internal reflection sinic = (or) ic = sin−1  (6.31)
n  n 
When a ray passes from an optically denser
medium to an optically rarer medium, it bends The critical angle ic depends on the
away from the normal. Because of this, the angle refractive index n of the medium. Table 6.3
of refraction r in the rarer medium is greater shows the refractive index and the critical
than the corresponding angle of incidence i in angle for different materials.

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Air
Refraction Critical angle Total internal

r
r = 90 reflection
n2
n1
i i r=i
i (i = ic) (i>ic)
Water
Figure 6.21 Critical angle and total internal reflection
Table 6.3 Refractive index and 6.4.7 Effects due to total

critical angle for different media internal reflection
Material Refractive Critical 6.4.7.1 Glittering of diamond
index Angle
Diamond appears dazzling because of
Ice 1.310 49.8° the total internal reflection of light that
Water 1.333 48.6° happens inside the diamond. The refractive
index of diamond is about 2.417. It is much
Fused Quartz 1.458 43.3° greater than the refractive index of ordinary
Crown Glass 1.541 40.5°
glass which is about only 1.5. The critical
angle of diamond is about 24.4°. It is much
Flint Glass 1.890 31.9° less than that of ordinary glass. A skilled
Calcite 1.658 37.0°
diamond cutter makes use of this larger
range of angle of incidence (24.4° to 90°
Strontium Titanate 2.394 24.7° inside the diamond), to ensure that light
entering the diamond is total internally
Diamond 2.417 24.4°
reflected from the many cut faces before
Rutile 2.621 22.4° getting out as shown in Figure 6.22. This
gives a sparkling effect for diamond.
For example the refractive index of
glass is about 1.5. The critical angle for Critical angle
 1 
glass-air interface is, ic = sin−1  = 41.8.
1.5 
Diamond
The refractive index of water is 1.33. The Total Air
Reflection
critical angle for water-air interface is,

Figure 6.22 Total internal reflection in
1
ic = sin   = 48.6.
−1
diamond
1.3 

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6.4.7.2 Mirage and looming the object is getting reflected by a pool of

The refractive index of air increases water (or) wet surface beneath the object as
with its density. In hot places, air near shown in Figure 6.23(a). This phenomenon
the ground is hotter than air at a height. is called mirage.
Hot air is less dense. Hence, in still air In the cold places the refractive index
the refractive index of air increases with increases towards the ground because
height. Because of this, the light from tall the temperature of air close to the
objects like a tree, try to pass through a ground is lesser than the temperature
medium whose refractive index decreases at a height above the surface of earth.
towards the ground. Hence, the ray of light Thus, the density and refractive index
successively deviates away from the normal of air close to the ground is greater than
at different layers of air and undergoes for air at a height. In the cold regions
total internal reflection when the angle like glaciers and frozen lakes, the reverse
of incidence near the ground exceeds the effect of mirage will happen. Hence, an
critical angle. This gives an illusion as if inverted image is formed little above the
the light comes from somewhere below surface as shown in Figure 6.23(b). This
the ground. Because of the shaky nature phenomenon is called looming. It is also
of the layers of air, the observer feels as if called as superior mirage, towering and
stooping.
o 6.4.7.3 Prisms making using of total

internal reflection
E
Denser Prisms can be designed to reflect
i>ic light by 90o (or) by 180o by making
Rarer
use of total internal reflection as
shown in Figure 6.24(a) and 6.24(b).
Earth
45° B 45°
(a)
B
A
45° 90°
A
A'
90° 45°
B'
45°
Rarer B' A'
(a) (b)
Sky
B A'
Denser
A B'
Earth
(c)
(b)
Figure 6.24 Prisms making use of total
Figure 6.23 (a) Mirage and (b) looming internal reflection

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In the first two cases, the critical angle ic

for the material of the prism must be less
than 45o. Prism in Figure 6.24(b) inverts
the object on the same side. Prism in
Figure 6.24(c) inverts the object on the
other side.
6.4.7.4 Radius of illumination
(Snell’s window)
(a)
ic ic
(b)
Figure 6.25 Light source inside water tank Figure 6.26 (a) Snell’s window and
(b) angle of view for water animals
When a source of light like electric bulb
The angle of view for water animals is
is kept inside a water tank, the light from
restricted to twice the critical angle 2ic. The
the source travels in all direction inside the
critical angle for water is 48.6o. Thus the angle
water. The light that is incident on the water
of view is 97.2o. The radius R of the circular area
surface at an angle less than the critical
depends on the depth d from which it is seen
angle will undergo refraction and emerge
and also the refractive index n of the medium.
out from the water. The light incident at
The radius R of Snell’s window can be deduced
an angle greater than critical angle will
with the illustration as shown in Figure 6.27.
undergo total internal reflection.The light
falling particularly at critical angle graces
the surface. Thus, the entire surface of water n2
appears illuminated when seen from outside r=90°
C R
as shown in Figure 6.25.
B
On the other hand, when the light
entering the water from outside is seen from ic n1
inside the water, the view is restricted to a d ic
particular angle equal to the critical angle
ic. The restricted illuminated circular area
is called Snell’s window as shown in Figure A
6.26(a).The Figure 6.26(b) shows the angle
Figure 6.27 Radius of Snell’s window
of view for water animals.

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Light is seen from a point A at a depth

 1  d
d. The Snell’s law in product form, equation R = d   (or ) R = (6.36)
 n2 −1  n2 − 1
(6.19), for the refraction happening at the
point B on the boundary between the two
media is,
EX AM P L E 6 . 9
n1 sin ic = n2 sin 900 (6.32) What is the radius of the illumination
when seen above from inside a swimming
n1 sin ic = n2  sin 900 = 1
pool from a depth of 10 m on a sunny day?
What is the total angle of view? [Given,
refractive index of water is 4/3]
n2
sinic = (6.33) Solution
n1
Given, n = 4/3, d = 10 m.
From the right angle triangle ∆ABC,
d
CB R Radius of illumination, R =
sinic = = (6.34) n2 − 1
AB d 2 + R2
10 10×3
R= =
Equating the above two equations (6.33) (4 / 3)2 −1 16 − 9
R n2
and (6.34), = 30
d 2 + R2 n1 R= = 11.32 m
7
2
R2  n 
Squaring on both sides, 2 =  2  To find the critical angle,
R + d 2  n1 
1
ic = sin−1  
2
R 2 + d 2  n1   n 
Taking reciprocal, =  
R2  n2 
Further simplifying,  1   
−1  3 
ic = sin−1   = sin   = 48.6

 4 / 3  4
2 2
d2  n  d 2  n1 
1 + 2 =  1  ; =   −1; The total angle of view of the cone is,
R  n2  R 2  n2 
2 2ic = 2× 48.6 = 97.2
d 2 n1 n12 − n22
= −1 =
R 2 n22 n22
Again taking reciprocal and rearranging, 6.4.7.5 Optical fibre
R2 n22  n2  Transmitting the signals through optical
= ; R = d  2 2 2 
2 2
fibres is possible due to the phenomenon
d 2 n12 − n22  n − n 
1 2
of total internal reflection. Optical fibres
After taking the squre root, the radius of
consist of inner part called core and outer
illumination is,
part called cladding (or) sleeving. The
n22 refractive index of the core must be higher
R=d (6.35) than that of the cladding for total internal
(n 2
1 − n22 )
reflection to happen. Signal in the form of
If the rarer medium outside is air, then, light is made to incident inside the core-
n2 = 1 and we can take n1=n cladding boundary at an angle greater than

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(a)
n2 B r=90°
n11 i2ic
n3 A ra
ia C
n2
(b) Acceptance Cone
(a)
Total internal reflection

Cladding has lower
refractive index
Figure 6.29 (a) acceptance angle and

Core has higher (b) acceptance cone
(b) refractive index
Figure 6.28 Optical fibre The Snell’s law in the product

form, equation (6.19), for this refraction
at the point A is,
the critical angle. Hence, it advances with
repeated total internal reflections inside n3 sin ia = n1 sin ra (6.37)
the optical fibre without undergoing any
refraction. The light travels inside the core To have the total internal reflection inside
with no appreciable loss in the intensity of the optical fibre, the angle of incidence at the
the light as shown in Figure 6.28(a). While core-cladding interface at B should be atleast
bending the optical fibre, it is done in such critical angle ic. Snell’s law in the product
a way that the condition for total internal form, equation (6.19), for the refraction at
reflection is ensured at every reflection point B is,
inside the fibre as shown in Figure 6.28(b).
6.4.7.6 Acceptance angle in optical fibre n1 sin ic = n2 sin 90o (6.38)
To ensure the critical angle incidence

in the core-cladding boundary inside the n1 sin ic = n2 sin90° = 1
optical fibre, the light should be incident
at a certain angle called acceptance angle at
the end of the optical fibre while entering n2
∴ sinic = (6.39)
into it. It depends on the refractive indices n1
of the core n1, cladding n2 and the outer
From the right angle triangle ∆ABC,
medium n3. Assume that the light is incident
at an angle called acceptance angle ia at the ic = 90°− ra
outer medium-core boundary at A as shown
in Figure 6.29(a). Now, equation (6.39) becomes,

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n2 n
sin (90 − ra ) = (or) cosra = 2 (6.40) NA = sin ia = n12 − n22 (6.47)
n1 n1
sin ra = 1 − cos2 ra
EX AM P L E 6 . 1 0
Substituting for cos ra A optical fibre is made up of a core
material with refractive index 1.68 and
2
 n  n12 − n22 a cladding material of refractive index

sinra = 1 −   =
2
 (6.41)
 n1  n12 1.44. What is the acceptance angle of the
fibre if it is kept in air medium without
Substituting this in equation (6.37). any cladding?
Solution
n12 − n22
n3 sin ia = n1 = n12 − n22 (6.42)
2
n1 Given, n1 = 1.68, n2 = 1.44, n3 = 1
On further simplification,
Acceptance angle, ia = sin−1 ( n12 − n22 )
sin ia =
n12 − n22 n2 − n2
(or ) sin ia = 1 2 2 (6.43)
ia = sin−1 ( )
(1.68)2 − (1.44)2 = sin−1 (0.865)
n3 n3
ia ≈ 60°
 n2 − n2 
 If there is no cladding then, n2 = 1
ia = sin  1 2 2 (6.44)
−1
 n3  Acceptance angle, ia = sin−1 ( n12 −1 )
If outer medium is air, then n3 = 1. The ia = sin−1 ( )
(1.68)2 −1 = sin−1 (1.35)
acceptance angle ia becomes,
sin−1 (more than 1) is not possible. But, this
ia = sin−1 ( )
n12 − n22 (6.45) includes the range 0o to 90o. Hence, all the
rays entering the core from flat surface will
undergo total internal reflection.
Light can have any angle of incidence
from 0 to ia with the normal at the end of the Note: If there is no cladding then there is
optical fibre forming a conical shape called a condition on the refractive index (n1) of
acceptance cone as shown in Figure 6.29(b). the core.
In the equation (6.42), the term (n3 sin ia) is ia = sin−1 ( n12 −1 )
called numerical aperture NA of the optical
Here, as per mathematical rule,
fibre.
(n2
1 −1) ≤ 1 or (n ) ≤ 2
2
1
NA = n3 sin ia = n12 − n22 (6.46) or n1 £ 2
Hence, in air (no cladding) the refractive

If outer medium is air, then n3 = 1. The index n1 of the core should be, n1 £ 1.414
numerical aperture NA becomes,

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the light ray emerges in the same direction

An endoscope which as that of the incident ray on the glass slab
has a bundle of optical with a lateral displacement (or) shift L.
fibres is an instrument i.e. There is no change in the direction of
used by doctors to see the ray but, the path of the incident ray
inside of a patient’s body. Endoscopes and refracted ray are parallel to each other
work on the phenomenon of total with a shift L, as shown in Figure 6.30.
internal reflection. The optical
fibres are inserted into the body A N1
through mouth, nose (or) a special
hole made in the body. Even i
B air
operations could be carried out
with the endoscope cables which i-r
r
have the necessary instruments glass
attached at their ends.
t
r
Endoscope
E
F C
i L
N2 D
Figure 6.30 Refraction in glass slab
Consider a glass slab of thickness t and

refractive index n kept in air medium.
If the path of the light is ABCD, the
refractions occur at two points B and C in
the glass slab. The angles of incidence i and
refraction r are measured with respect to
the normal N1 and N2 at the two points B
and C respectively. The lateral displacement
L is the perpendicular distance CE drawn
between the paths of the deviated light and
6.4.8 Refraction in glass slab the undeviated light at point C.
When a ray of light enters a slab it In the right angle triangle ∆BCE,
travels from rarer medium (air) to denser L L
medium (glass). This results in deviation sin (i − r ) = ; BC = (6.48)
BC sin (i − r )
of the ray towards the normal. When the
light ray leaves the slab it travels from In the right angle triangle ∆BCF,
denser medium (glass) to rarer medium
(air) resulting in deviation of the ray away t t
cos (r ) = ; BC = (6.49)
from the normal. After the two refractions, BC cos (r )

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Equating equations (6.48) and (6.49), 6.5

L t REFRACTION AT SINGLE
=
sin (i − r ) cos (r ) SPHERICAL SURFACE
After rearranging,
We have so far studied only the
 sin (i − r )
L = t   (6.50) refraction at plane surface. The refraction
 cos (r )  can also take place at spherical surface
between two transparent media. The laws of
The lateral displacement depends refraction hold good at every point on the
upon (i) the thickness of the slab, (ii) the spherical surface. The normal at the point
angle of incidence and (iii) the refractive of incidence is perpendicular drawn to the
index of the slab which decides the angel tangent plane of the spherical surface at that
of refraction. Thicker the slab, larger will point. Therefore, the normal always passes
be the lateral displacement. Greater the through its center of curvature. The study of
angle of incidence, larger will be the lateral refraction at single spherical surface paves
displacement. Higher the refractive index, way to the understanding of thin lenses
larger will be the lateral displacement. which consist of two refracting surfaces.
The following assumptions are made
EXA M P LE 6 .1 1 while considering refraction at spherical
surfaces.
The thickness of a glass slab is 0.25 m. (i) The incident light is assumed to be
It has a refractive index of 1.5. A ray of light monochromatic (single colour)
is incident on the surface of the slab at an (ii) The incident light is very close to the
angle of 60o. Find the lateral displacement principal axis (paraxial rays).
of the light when it emerges from the other The sign conventions are similar to that
side of the glass slab. of the spherical mirrors.
Solution
Given, thickness of the slab, t = 0.25 m, 6.5.1 Equation for refraction
refractive index, n = 1.5, angle of incidence, at single spherical surface
i = 60o. Let us consider two transparent media
Using Snell’s law, 1 sin i = n sin r with refractive indices n1 and n2 which are
sini sin 60° separated by a spherical surface as shown in
sin r = = = 0.58 Figure 6.31. Let C be the centre of curvature
n 1. 5
r = sin−1 (0.58) = 35.25 = 35°15’ 0’’ of the spherical surface. Let a point object
 sin (i − r ) O be in the medium n1. The line OC is the
Lateral displacement is, L = t   principal axis that cuts the spherical surface
 cos (r )  at the pole P. As the rays considered are
 sin (60 − 35.25)
L = (0.25)×  = 0.1281 m paraxial rays, the perpendicular dropped
 cos (35.25)  from the point of incidence to the principal
The lateral displacement is, L = 12.81 cm axis is very close to the pole (or) passes
through the pole itself.

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For the triangle, ∆INC,
n1
N
n2
β = r + γ (or) r = β – γ(6.54)
i
r
Substituting for i and r from equations
O I
(6.53) and (6.54) in the equation (6.51).
P R C
n1 (a + b ) = n2 (b − g )
u v
After rearranging,
n1a + n2g = (n2 − n1 ) b
Figure 6.31 Refraction at single spherical
surface Substituting for α, β and γ from equation
(6.52),
Light from O falls on the refracting
 PN   PN   PN 
surface at N. The normal drawn to the n1   + n2   = (n2 − n1 )

 PO  
 PI   PC 
refracting surface at the point of incidence
passes through the centre of curvature C. As Further simplifying by cancelling PN,
n2>n1, light in the denser medium deviates n1 n n − n1
towards the normal and meets the principal + 2 = 2 (6.55)
PO PI PC
axis at I where the image is formed.
Snell’s law in product form for the Following sign conventions, PO = –u,
refraction at the point N can be written from PI = +v and PC = +R in equation (6.58),
equation (6.19), n1 n2 (n2 − n1 )
+ =
n1 sin i = n2 sin r −u v R
As the angles are small, sine of the angle After rearranging, finally we get,
could be approximated to the angle itself. n2 n1 (n2 − n1 )
− = (6.56)
v u R
n1 i = n2 r (6.51)
Equation (6.56) gives the relation among
Let the angles be, the object distance u, image distance v,
∠NOP = α, ∠NCP = β, ∠NIP = γ refractive indices of the two media (n1 and n2 )
From the right angle triangles ∆NOP, and the radius of curvature R of the spherical
∆NCP and ∆NIP, surface. It holds good for any spherical
PN PN PN
surface as sign conventions are applied.
tan a = ; tan b = ; tan g = If the first medium is air, then n1 = 1
PO PC PI
and for the second medium n2 = n, then the
As these angles are small, tan of the angle
equation is reduced to,
could be approximated to the angle itself.
n 1 (n −1)
PN PN PN − = (6.57)
a= ; b= ;g= (6.52) v u R
PO PC PI
For the triangle, ∆ONC, EX AM P L E 6 . 1 2
Locate the image of the point object O in

i = α + β (6.53)
the situation shown. The point C denotes

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the centre of curvature of the separating its radius of curvature R is infinity (R = ∞).
surface. The terminologies of spherical mirrors hold
good very much for thin lenses except for
the focal length.
n1 = 1 n2 = 1.5
o P c 6.6.1 Primary and secondary

focus
15 cm 30 cm
As the thin lens is formed by two
surfaces, the lens may separate two different
media. i.e. the media to the left and right of
the lens may be different. Hence, we have
Solution
two focal lengths.
Given, u = –15 cm, R = 30 cm, n1 = 1 and The primary focus F1 is defined as a
n2 = 1.5 point where a point source kept produces
Equation for single spherical surface is, a parallel emergent rays to the principal
n2 n1 (n2 − n1 ) axis after passing through lens as shown
− = in Figure 6.32. For a converging lens, such
v u R
an object is a real object and for a diverging
Substituting the values,
lens, it is a virtual object. The distance PF1 is
1. 5 1 (1.5 −1) 1.5 1 (0.5) the primary focal length f1.
− = ; + =
v −15 30 v 15 30
1. 5 1 1 1. 5 1 1 1 . 5 1 − 4 −3 1
+ = ; = − ; = = ;= −
v 15 60 v 60 15 v 60F
1 60 P 20 P F1
1. 5 1 1 1 . 5 1 − 4 −3 1
= − ; = = ; = − ; v = –30 cm
v 60 15 v 60 60 20 Figure 6.32 Primary focus
The image is a virtual image formed 30 cm
to the left of the spherical surface. The secondary focus F2 is defined as a
point where all the parallel rays travelling
close to the principal axis converge to
6.6 form an image on the principal axis after
passing through lens as shown in Figure
THIN LENS
6.33. For a converging lens, such an image
is a real image and for a diverging lens, it
A lens is formed by a transparent material
is a virtual image. The distance PF2 is the
bounded between two spherical surfaces (or)
secondary focal length f2.
one plane and another spherical surface. In a
thin lens, the distance between the surfaces
is very small. For two spherical surfaces,
there will be two centres of curvature C1 P F2 F2 P
and C2 and correspondingly two radii of

curvature R1 and R2. For a plane surface,
Figure 6.33 Secondary focus
the centre of curvature C is at infinity and

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If the media on the two sides of a thin

lens have same refractive index, then the two n1 n2 n1
focal lengths are equal. We will mostly be
using the secondary focus F2 in our further
1 2
discussions.
O P I I'
6.6.2 Sign conventions on
focal length for lens
v
The sign conventions for thin lenses
differ only in the signs followed for focal u v
lengths.
Figure 6.34 Refraction through thin lens
(i) The sign of focal length is not decided
on the direction of measurement of the
focal length from the pole of the lens as The general equation for the refraction
they have two focal lengths, one to the at a single spherical surface is given by the
left and another to the right. equation (6.56) is,
(ii) The focal length of the thin lens is taken n2 n1 (n2 − n1 )
as positive for a converging lens and − =
v u R
negative for a diverging lens.
For the refracting surface , the light
The other sign conventions for object goes from n1 to n2.
distance, image distance, radius of curvature,
object height and image height (except n2 n1 (n2 − n1 )
− = (6.58)
for the focal lengths as mentioned above) v′ u R1
remain the same for thin lenses as that of For the refracting surface , the light
spherical mirrors. goes from medium n2 to n1.
6.6.3 Lens maker’s formula n1 n2 (n1 − n2 )

− = (6.59)
and lens equation v v′ R2
Let us consider a thin lens made up of For surface , I' acts as virtual object.
a medium of refractive index n 2 placed in Adding the above two equations (6.58)
a medium of refractive index n1. Let R 1 and (6.59)
and R2 be the radii of curvature of two
n1 n1 1 1
spherical surfaces  and  respectively − = (n2 − n1 ) − 
and P be the pole as shown in Figure 6.34. v u  R1 R2 
Consider a point object O on the principal On further simplifying and rearranging,
axis. A paraxial ray from O which
1 1  n2 − n1  1 1
falls very close to P, after refraction at − =   − 
the surface  forms image at I'. Before v u  n1  R1 R2 
it does so, it is again refracted by the
1 1  n2  1 1
surface  . Therefore, the final image is − =  −1 − (6.60)
v u  n1  R1 R2 
formed at I.

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If the object is at infinity, the image is

O
formed at the focus of the lens. Thus, for
u = ∞, v = f. Then the equation becomes. h F I
1 1  n2  1 1 O P h
− =  −1 − 
f ∞  n1  R1 R2 
I
1  n2  1 1 u v
=  −1 − (6.61)
f  n1  R1 R2 
Figure 6.35 Lateral magnification in thin
If the lens is kept in air, then we can take lens
n1 = 1 and n2 = n. So the equation (6.61)
becomes, The lateral (or) transverse magnification
m is defined as the ratio of the height of the
1 1 1 image to height of the object.
= (n −1) − (6.62)
f  R1 R2  II ′
m= (6.64)
OO ′
The above formula is called as the
lens maker’s formula, because it tells From the two similar triangles ∆ POO′
the lens manufactures what curvature and ∆ PII ′ , we can write,
is needed for a material of particular
II ′ PI
refractive index to make a lens of desired = (6.65)
OO ′ PO
focal length. This formula holds good
also for any type of lens. By comparing On applying sign convention,
the equations (6.60) and (6.61) we can −h ′ v
=
write, h −u
1 1 1
Substituting this in the equation (6.65)
- = (6.63) for magnification,
v u f
−h ′ v
m= =
The above equation is known as lens h −u
equation which relates the object distance After rearranging,
u and image distance v with the focal
h′ v
length f of the lens. This equation holds m= = (6.66)
h u
good for any type of lens.
The magnification is negative for real
6.6.4 Lateral magnification image and positive for virtual image. In the
in thin lens case of a concave lens, the magnification is
always positive and less than one.
Let us consider an object OO' of height We can also have the other forms of
h1 placed on the principal axis with its equations for magnification by combining
height perpendicular to the principal axis. the lens equation as,
The inverted real image II ′ is formed
which has a height h2 as shown in Figure h′ f h′ f − v
m= = (or) m = = (6.67)
6.35. h f +u h f

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EXA MP LE 6 .1 3 (b) When the lens is flipped by the side,
A biconvex lens has radii of curvature 20 cm

and 15 cm for the two curved sufaces. The 1 2
refractive index of the material of the lens

is 1.5. R2 = cm
(a) What is its focal length? C2 C1
R1 = 15cm
(b) Will the focal length change if the lens
is flipped by the side?
Solution
For a biconvex lens, radius of curvature Now, n = 1.5, R1= 15 cm and R2= –20 cm
of the first surface is positive and that of Substituting the values in the lens maker's
the second surface is negative as shown in formula,
figure. 1 1 1 
= (1.5 −1) −
f 15 −20 
1 1 1
1 2
= (1.5 −1) + 
f 15 20 
This will also result in, f = 17.14 cm
R2 = cm
Thus, it is concluded that the focal length
C2 R1 = 20cm C1 of the lens will not change if it is flipped by
the side. This is true for any lens. Students
can verify this for any kind of lens.
EX AM P L E 6 . 1 4
Determine the focal length of the lens
Given, n = 1.5, R1=20 cm and R2= –15 cm made up of a material of refractive index
1 1 1  1.52 as shown in the diagram. (Points C1
(a)Lensmaker’sformula, = (n −1) −  and C2 are the centers of curvature of the
f  R1 R2 
first and second surfaces respectively.)
1 1 1  1 1
= (1.5 −1) − 
 = (1.5 −1) + 
f  20 −15   20 15 
1 1 1  3 + 4   1 7  7
= (0.5) +  = (0.5)  =  ×  = C1 C2
f 
 20 15  
 60   2 60  120
120
f= = 17.14 cm
7
10 cm
As the focal length is positive the lens is a
20 cm
converging lens.

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Solution by the power of the lens. Power of the lens is

This lens is called convexo-concave lens inversely proportional to the focal length i.e.
greater the power of lens, smaller will be the
Given, n = 1.52, R1= 10 cm and R2= 20 cm focal length. In Figure 6.36, the lens (b) has
greater deviating ability than lens (a). As (b)
Both R1 and R2 are positive
has greater deviating ability, its focal length
1 1 1 is less and vice versa.
Lens makers formula, = (n −1) − 
f  R1 R2  In other words, the power of a lens is a
Substituting the values, measure of the degree of convergence (or)
1 divergence the lens produces on the light
1 1
= (1.52 −1) −  falling on it. The power of a lens P is the
f 10 20 
reciprocal of its focal length in meter.
1  2 −1  1  0.52
= (0.52)  = (0 . 52)  =
1
f  20   20  20 P= (6.68)
f
20
f= = 38.46 cm The unit of power is dioptre (D). 1 D = 1 m–1.
0.52
As the focal length is positive, the lens is a Power is positive for converging lens and
converging lens. negative for diverging lens.
From the lens maker's formula, equation
(6.62), the equation (6.68) can be written for
6.6.5 Power of a lens power as ,
The power of a lens is a measure of its 1 1 1
deviating ability on an incident light. When a P= = (n −1) − (6.69)
f  R1 R2 
ray is incident on a lens then the degree with
The outcome of this equation for power
which the lens deviates the ray is determined
is that for a given geomentry of the lens,
larger the value of refractive index, greater
is the power of lens and vice versa. Also for
1
lenses with small radii of curvature (bulky)
F the power is large and for lenses with large
radii of curvature (skinny), the power is
F1
small.
(a)
EXAM P L E 6 . 1 5
If the focal length is 150 cm for a lens, what

2
is the power of the lens?
F
Solution
F2
Given, focal length, f = 150 cm = 1.5 m
(b) 1
Equation for power of lens is, P =
f
Figure 6.36 Power of lens

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1 1 1 1
P= = 0.67 D − = (6.71)
1.5 m v v ′ f2
As the power is positive, it is a converging Adding the above two equations (6.70)
lens. and (6.71) gives,
1 1 1 1
− = + (6.72)
6.6.6 Focal length of lenses v u f1 f 2
in contact The combination acts as a single lens
Let us consider two lenses  and of focal length f so that for an object at the
 of focal lengths f1 and f2 placed position O, it forms the image at I. Then,
coaxially in contact with each other 1 1 1
− = (6.73)
so that they have a common principal v u f
axis. For a point object placed at O
Comparing the equations (6.72) and
beyond the focus of the lens  on the
(6.73) we can write,
principal axis, an image is formed by it
at I'. This image I' acts as an object for the 1 1 1
= + (6.74)
lens  and the final image is formed at f f1 f 2
I as shown in Figure. 6.37. As these two
The above equation can be extended for
lenses are thin, the measurements are
any number of lenses in contact as,
done with respect to the common optic
centre P between the two lenses. 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + +......... (6.75)
f f1 f 2 f 3 f 4
1 2
The above equation can be written in
terms of power of the lenses as,
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + ......... (6.76)
O P I I
Where, P is the net power of the lenses
v in contact. One should note that the sum
in equation (6.76) is an algebraic sum. The
u v
powers of individual lenses may be positive
Figure. 6.37 Lenses in contact (for convex lenses) and negative (for concave
lenses). Combination of lenses helps to
For the lens , the object distance PO is obtain converging (or) diverging lenses of
u and the image distance PI' is v′. For the desired magnification. Also, combination of
lens , the object distance PI' is v′ and the lenses enhances the sharpness of the image.
image distance PI is v. As the image formed by the first lens becomes
Writing the lens equation (6.63) for the object for the second and so on, the total
lens , magnification m of the combination is the
a product of magnification of individual
1 1 1
− = (6.70) lenses. We can now write,
v ′ u f1
m = m1 × m2 × m3 . . . . . (6.77)
Writing the lens equation (6.63) for lens ,

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Where m1, m2, m3 . . . . . are magnification

of individual lenses.
EXA MP LE 6 .1 6
What is the focal length of the

combination if the lenses of focal lengths
–70 cm and 150 cm are in contact? What
is the power of the combination?
System of combination of lenses is
Solution commonly used in designing lenses
Given, focal length of first lens, f1 = –70 cm, for cameras, microscopes, telescopes
focal length of second lens, f2 = 150 cm. and other optical instruments. They
Equation for focal length of lenses in produce better magnification and
1 1 1 sharpness of the image.
contact, = +
f f1 f 2
Substituting the values, EX AM P L E 6 . 1 7
1 1 1 1 1 15 cm
= + =− +
f −70 150 70 150 1 2
1 −150 + 70 −80 80
= = =−
f 70×150 70×150 10500 5 mm
−1050
f= = −131.25 cm
8
As the final focal length is negative, the
combination of two lenses is a diverging
40 cm
system of lenses.
An object of 5 mm height is placed at a
The power of the combination is,
distance of 15 cm from a convex lens of
1 1 focal length 10 cm. A second lens of focal
P= = = −0.76 D
f −1.3125 m length 5 cm is placed 40 cm from the first
lens and 55 cm from the object. Find (a) the
Points to Ponder position of the final image, (b) its nature
and (c) its size.
Solution
Given, h = 5 mm = 0.5 cm, u1 = –15 cm,
f1 = 10 cm, f2 = 5 cm, d = 40 cm
For the first lens, the lens equation is,
1 1 1
− =
v1 u1 f1

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1 1 1 1 1 1 h ′′ 10
− = ; + = Substituting the values, =
v1 −15 10 v1 15 10 −1 −10
 10 
1 1 1 15 −10 5 1 h ′′ = (−1)× = 1 cm = 10 mm
= − = = =  −10 
v1 10 15 150 150 30
As the height of the image is positive, the
v1= 30 cm image is erect and real.
First lens forms image 30 cm to the right of
the first lens.
Let us find the height of this image. 6.6.7 Silvered lenses
h ′ v1 If one of the surfaces of a lens is silvered
Equation for magnification is, m = =
h u1 from outside, then such a lens is said to be a
h′ 30 silvered lens. A silvered lens is a combination
Substituting the values, =
0.5 −15 of a lens and a mirror. Light can enter
30 through the transparent front surface of the
h ′ = 0. 5× = −1 cm
−15 lens and get reflected by the silver coated
As the height of the image is negative, the rear surface. Hence, light travels two times
image is inverted and real. through the lens as shown in Figure 6.38.
This image acts as object for second lens.
The object distance for second lenses,
(40–30=10 cm). Hence, u2 = –10 cm
For the second lens, the lens equation is,
1 1 1
− =
v2 u2 f2
1 1 1 1 1 1
− = ; + =
v2 −10 5 v2 10 5
1 1 1 10 − 5 5 1 Figure 6.38 Slivered lens
= − = = =
v2 5 10 50 50 10
The power P of the silvered lens is,
v2 = 10 cm
The final image is formed 10 cm to the P = Pl + Pm + Pl

right of the second lens. P = 2Pl + Pm (6.78)
Let us find the height of the final image.
Here, Pl is the power of the lens and
Assume, the final height of the image formed
Pm is the power of the mirror. We know
by the second lens is h'' and the height of the
that the power of a lens is the reciprocal
object for the second lens is h'.
of its focal length. But, the power of a
Equation for magnification is m' for the mirror is negative of the reciprocal of its
h ′′ v2 focal length. This is because, a concave
second lens is, m′ = =
h ′ u2 mirror which has negative focal length is

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a converging mirror with positive power. (a) Let us find fl and fm separately.
Also, a silvered lens is basically a modified Using lens maker’s formula we can find fl.
mirror. Thus,
1 1 1
= (n −1) − 
1 1 1 fl  R1 R2 
P= ; Pl = ; Pm = (6.79)
−f fl − fm 1 1 1 
Substituting the values, = (1.5 −1) −
 30 −30 
fl
Now equation (6.78) becomes,
1 1 1   1  2  1
= (0.5) +  =    =
 1   2   1  fl 
 30 −30   2  30  30 cm m
  =   +   (6.80)
 − f   f   − f 
l m fl = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Proper sign conventions are to be R2
Focal length of mirror is, f m =
followed for equation (6.80). 2
−30
Suppose the object distance u and image Substituting the values, f m = = −15cm
2
distance v are to be found, we can very well
use the mirror equation (6.8), since the fm = 15 cm = –0.15 m
silvered lens is a modified mirror. Now the focal length of the slivered lens is,
1 2 11 2 1 2 1
1 1 1 = + = + = =
+ = −f f l −−f mf 30 15 15 7.5
v u f
f = – 7.5 cm = –0.075 m
The silvered mirror behaves as a concave
EXA MP LE 6 .1 8
mirror with its focal length on left side.
A thin biconvex lens is made up of a glass of To find the power of the silvered lens,
refractive index 1.5. The two surfaces have P = 2Pl + Pm
equal radii of curvature of 30 cm each. One 2 1 2 1
of its surfaces is made reflecting by silvering it P= + = +
f l − f m 0.3 − (− 0.15)
from outside. (a) What is the focal length and 2 1 4
power of this silvered lens? (b) Where should = + = = 13.33 D
0.3 0.15 0.3
an object be placed in front of this lens so that
As the power is positive it is a converging
the image is formed on the object itself?
system.
Solution [Note: Here, we come across a silvered lens
The given situation is shown in figure. which has negative focal length and positive
A B power. Which implies that the focal length
is to the left and the system is a converging
one. Such situations are possible in silvered
O
P
O lenses because a silvered lens is basically a
C2 O C1 modified mirror.]
I
(b) Writing the mirror formula,
1 1 1
= +
R2 R1 f v u
Here, both u and v are same (v = u) as the
Given, n = 1.5; R1 = 30 cm; R2 = –30 cm; image coincides with the object.

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1 1 1 2 second face AC is r2 and i2 respectively. RS is

= + = ; u = –2 × 7.5 cm the ray emerging from the second face. Angle
−7.5 cm u u u
i2 is also called as angle of emergence. The
u = –15 cm = –0.15 m angle between the direction of incident ray
The object is to be placed 15 cm to the left and the emergent ray is called the angle of
of the silvered lens. deviation d in a prism. The two normals
drawn at the point of incidence Q and at the
point of emergence R meet at point N. The
6.7 extended incident ray and the emergent ray
PRISM meet at point M.
A prism is a triangular block of A

A
transparent glass. It is bounded by the
three plane faces. Its one face is rough
which is called base of the prism. The M
d
other two faces are polished which are d1 d2
i1 i2
called refracting faces of the prism. The Q r1 r2
R
angle between the two refracting faces is P S
called angle of the prism (or) refracting N
angle (or) apex angle. It is represented as B C
A in Figure 6.39. Figure 6.40 Refraction through prism
The angle of deviation d1 at surface AB is,
angle ∠RQM = d1 = i1 − r1 (6.81)

A
The angle of deviation d2 at surface AC is,

angle ∠QRM = d2 = i2 − r2 (6.82)
Total angle of deviation d produced is,

Figure 6.39 Prism
d = d1 + d2 (6.83)
6.7.1 Angle of deviation Substituting d1 and d2, in equation (6.83)

produced by prism
d = (i1 – r1) + (i2 – r2)
Consider a prism ABC. The faces AB and
AC are polished and the face BC is rough. After rearranging,
Let light ray PQ is incident on one of the d = (i1 + i2 ) − (r1 + r2 ) (6.84)
refracting faces of the prism as shown in
Figure 6.40. The angles of incidence and In the quadrilateral AQNR, two of the
refraction at the first face AB are i1 and r1. angles (at the vertices Q and R) are right
The path of the light inside the prism is QR. angles. Therefore, the sum of the other
The angles of incidence and refraction at the angles of the quadrilateral should be 180o.

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∠A + ∠QNR = 180º (6.85) EX AM P L E 6 . 2 0
In the triangle ∆QNR, Light ray falls at normal incidence on the

first face and emerges gracing the second
r1+ r2+ ∠QNR = 180o(6.86) face for an equilateral prism.
Comparing the two equations (6.85) and (a) What is the angle of deviation produced?
(6.86) we get, (b)
What is the refractive index of the
material of the prism?
r1 + r2 = A (6.87)
Solution
Substituting this in equation (6.84) for
angle of deviation, 60°
d = i1 + i2 − A (6.88)
30°
Thus, the angle of deviation depends on ic

the angle of incidence i1, angle of emergence d
i2 and the angle for the prism A. But, for
a given angle of incidence, the angle of
emergence is decided by the refractive
index of the material of the prism. Hence,
the angle of deviation for a monochromatic
light depends on these following factors. The given situation is shown in the figure.
(i) the angle of incidence Given, A = 60°; i1 = 0°; i2 = 90°
(ii) the angle of the prism (a) Equation for angle of deviation,
(iii) the refractive index of the material of
the prism (which decides the angle of d = i1 + i2 − A
emergency). Substituting the values,
EXA MP LE 6 .1 9 d = 0° + 90°− 60° = 30°
A monochromatic light is incident on an The angle of deviation produced is, d = 30°

equilateral prism at an angle 30o and is (b) The light inside the prism must be
emergent at an angle of 75o. What is the falling on the second face at critical angle
angle of deviation produced by the prism? as it graces the boundary. ic = 90° – 30° = 60°
Solution 1
Equation for critical angle is, sinic =
Since, the prism is equilateral, A = 60°; n
Given, i1 = 30°; i2 = 75° 1 1 1 2

n= ; n= 
= = = 1.15
sin ic sin 60 3 /2 3
Equation for angle of deviation, d = i1 + i2 – A
Substituting the values, d = 30°+75°–60°=45° The refractive index of the material of the
The angle of deviation produced, d = 45° prism is, n = 1.15

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6.7.2 Angle of minimum (iii) the refracted ray inside the prism is
deviation parallel to its base of the prism.
The case of angle of minimum deviation
A graph plotted between the angle of
is shown in Figure 6.42.
incidence and angle of deviation is shown
in Figure 6.41. One could observe that the
angle of deviation decreases with increase in 6.7.3 Refractive index of the
angle of incidence and reaches a minimum material of the prism
value D and then continues to increase. At minimum deviation, i1 = i2 = i and
r1 = r2 = r
Now, the equation (6.88) becomes,
( A + D)
D = i1 + i2 − A ⇒ 2i − A (or) i=
2
The equation (6.87) becomes,
A
r1 + r2 = A ⇒ 2r = A (or) r =
2
sin i
Substituting i and r in Snell’s law, n =
sin r
 A + D 
sin 
 2 
Figure 6.41 Graph between i and d n= (6.89)
 A 
sin  
 2 
The minimum value of angle of
deviation is called angle of minimum The above equation is used to determine
deviation D. At minimum deviation, the refractive index of the material of the
prism. The angles A and D can be measured
(i) the angle of incidence is equal to the
experimentally.
angle of emergence, i1 = i2.
(ii) the angle of refraction at the face one
and face two are equal, r1 = r2). EX AM P L E 6 . 2 1
The angle of minimum deviation for an

equilateral prism is 37o. Find the refractive
index of the material of the prism.
Solution
i r r i
Given, A = 60°; D = 37°
Equation for refractive index is,
 A + D 
sin 
 2 
n=
 A
sin  
Figure 6.42 Angle of minimum  2 
deviation

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 600 + 370  colour has the shortest wavelength of 400

sin   nm in vacuum. Though all the colours
 2  sin (48.50 ) 0.75
n= = = = 1. 5 have different wavelengths, they all travel
 600 
 sin (300 ) 0. 5
sin   with the same speed in vacuum. The speed
 2 
of light is independent of wavelength in
The refractive index of the material of the vacuum. Therefore, vacuum is a non-
prism is, n = 1.5 dispersive medium.
Points to Ponder
6.7.4 Dispersion of white
light through prism Sir Isaac Newton has demonstrated
through a classic experiment to produce
The angle of deviation produced white light by recombining all the
by a prism is so far discussed only for colours of VIBGYOR. He used a prism
monochromatic light (i.e. light of single to produce dispersion and made all the
colour). When white light enter in to a colours to incident on another inverted
prism, an effect called dispersion takes prism to combine all the colours to get
place. Dispersion is splitting of white white light as shown in figure.
light into its constituent colours. This
band of colours of light is called its
spectrum. When a narrow beam of parallel
rays of white light is incident on a prism
and the refracted beam is received on a
white screen. A band of colours is obtained
in the order, recollected by the word:
VIBGYOR i.e., Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green,
Yellow, Orange and Red. The violet is the
most deviated colour and red is the least
deviated colour as shown in Figure 6.43. But, when the white light enters a
medium the red colour travels with the
highest speed and violet colour travels
with least speed. Hence, the wavelengths
of colours in a medium are no longer the
same as they are in vacuum. Actually, the
dispersion takes place in a medium because
of the difference in speed for different
colours in a medium. In other words,
Figure 6.43 Dispersion of white light in the refractive index of the material of the
to its constituent colours prism is different for different colours. For
The colours obtained in a spectrum violet colour, the refractive index is the
depend on the nature of the light source. highest and for red colour the refractive
Each colour in vacuum has a definite index is the least. The refractive index of
wavelength. The red colour has the longest two different glasses for different colours is
wavelength of 700 nm while the violet shown in Table 6.4.

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Table 6.4 Refractive indices for

different wavelengths
v
Colour Wavelength Crown Flint
R
in vacuum glass glass

(nm)
Violet 396.9 1.533 1.663
Blue 486.1 1.523 1.639
Yellow 589.3 1.517 1.627 Figure 6.44 Angle of deviation for
Red 656.3 1.515 1.622 different colours
small angle prism. When rays of light

6.7.5 Dispersive Power
pass through such prisms, the angle of
Consider a beam of white light passing
minimum deviation also becomes small.
through a prism. It gets dispersed into its
constituent colours as shown in Figure 6.44. Let A be the angle of a small angle prism
If the angle of prism is small of the and δ be its angle of minimum deviation,
order of 10o, the prism is said to be a then equation (6.89) becomes,
Rainbow appears in sky during mild shower (or) near the fountains/falls
where there are water droplets remain suspended in air. A rainbow is seen
when the sun is at the back of the observer. Dispersion occurs when sunlight
enters a water droplet and the white light is split into its constituent seven colours. A
primary rainbow is formed when the light entering a droplet undergoes one total internal
reflection inside it. Sometimes, a secondary rainbow is also formed enveloping the primary
rainbow as shown in the figure. The secondary rainbow is formed when light entering a
raindrop undergoes two total internal reflections. The order of colour in primary rainbow
is from violet to red whereas in secondary rainbow it is from red to violet. The angle
of view in primary rainbow from violet to red is from 40o to 42o. The angle of view for
secondary rainbow from red to violet is from 52o to 54o.
White Primary rainbow
Light
Water
Whit drops
e Lig
ht
42
40
Secondary rainbow
Whit
e Lig
ht
Whit
e Lig
ht
54 Water
52 drops

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 A + δ  If we take δ as the angle of minimum

sin 
 2  deviation for any mean colour (green or
n= (6.90) yellow) and n the corresponding refractive
 A 
sin   index. Then,
 2 
δ = (n – 1)A(6.95)
For small angles of A and δ,
 A + d   A + d  Dispersive power ω is defined as the ratio
sin  ≈
 2   2  of the angular dispersion for the extreme
colours to the deviation for any middle colour.
 A  A
sin   ≈   Dispersive power is the ability of the material
 2   2 
of the prism to produce dispersion.
 A + d 
 angular dispersion d V − d R
 2  A + d d w= = (6.96)
∴n= = = 1+ middle deviation d
 A  A A
 

 2  Substituting for (d V − d R ) and (δ),
d
On further simplifying, = n −1 (nV − nR )
A w= (6.97)
(n −1)
d = (n −1) A(6.91)
The dispersive power is a dimensionless
When white light enters the prism, the and unitless quantity. The dispersive power
deviation is different for different colours. is always positive. The dispersive power
Thus, the refractive index is also different of a prism depends only on the nature of
for different colours. material of the prism and it is independent
Let δV, δR are the angles of minimum of the angle of the prism.
deviation for violet and red colour. Let nV
and nR be the refractive indices for the violet EXAM P L E 6 . 2 2
and red colour respectively.
Find the dispersive power of a prism if
For Violet colour, d V = (nV −1) A(6.92) the refractive indices of flint glass for red,
green and violet colours are 1.613, 1.620
For Red colour, d R = (nR −1) A(6.93) and 1.632 respectively.
As, angle of minimum deviation for violet Solution
colour δV is greater than angle of minimum Given, nV=1.632; nR=1.613; nG=1.620
deviation for red colour δR, the refractive Equation for dispersive power is,
index for violet colour nV is greater than the (nV − nR )
refractive index for red colour nR. w=
(nG −1)
Subtracting δR from δV we get,
δV– δR = (nV–nR)A(6.94)
1.632 −1.613 0.019
w= = = 0.0306
The angular separation between the 1.620 −1 0.620
two extreme colours (violet and red) in The dispersive power of the prism is,
the spectrum (δV–δR) is called the angular w = 0.0306
dispersion.

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Earth
6.7.6 Scattering of sunlight (a)
When sunlight enters

the atmosphere of earth,
the particles present in S
Sun
Day
the atmosphere change
the direction of the light. Earth
This process is known as

scattering of light.
If the scattering of light is by atoms
(b)
and molecules which have size a very
much less than that of the wave length λ of Sunrise
light, (a<<λ), then the scattering is called

Sun
Rayleigh’s scattering. The intensity of light
scattered in Rayleigh’s scattering is inversely
proportional to fourth power of wavelength.
Earth
1
Iµ (6.98)
l4
(a)
According to equation 6.89, during day
time, violet colour which has the shortest
wavelength gets more scattered then the
other colours. The next scattered colour Day
S
Sun
is blue. As our eyes are more sensitive to
blue colour than violet colour, the sky Earth
appears blue during day time as shown in

Figure 6.45(b). But, during sunrise and
sunset, the light from sun travels a greater
distance through the atmosphere. Hence,
the blue light which has shorter wavelength Figure 6.45 Scattering of different types
is scattered away and the red light which
has longer wavelength and less-scattered of dust and water droplets. Thus, in clouds all
manages to reach our eye. This is the the colours get equally scattered. This is the
reason for the reddish appearance of sky reason for the whitish appearance of cloud as
during sunrise and sunset as shown in shown in Figure 6.45(c). But, the rain clouds
Figure 6.45(a). appear dark because of the condensation of
If light is scattered by large particles like dust water droplets on dust particles that makes the
and water droplets present in the atmosphere cloud opaque.
which have size a greater than the wavelength If earth has no atmosphere there would
λ of light, (a >> λ), the intensity of scattering is not have been any scattering and the sky
equal for all the colours. This non-Rayleigh’s would appear dark. That is why sky appears
scattering is independent of wavelength. It dark for the astronauts who could see the
happens in clouds which contains large amount sky from above the atmosphere.

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SUMMARY
A ray of light gives the direction of light.
Law of reflection is, i = r
Paraxial rays are the rays travelling close to the principal axis of the mirror and make
small angles with it.
The relation between focal length and radius of curvature in spherical mirror is,
R
2f =R (or) f=
2
Cartesian sign conventions are to be followed to trace image formed by spherical mirrors.
1 1 1
The mirror equation is, + =
v u f
h′ v h′ f − v f
The magnification in spherical mirror is, m = =− , m= = =
h u h f f −u
Light travels with lesser velocity in optically denser medium.
Refractive index is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to speed of light in medium,
c
n=
v
Optical path is the equivalent path travelled in vacuum in the same time light travels
through a optically denser medium. d ′ = nd
sin i n2
Law of refraction also called as Snell’s law in ratio form is, = .
sin r n1
In product form is, n1 sin i = n2 sin r
n2
The relative refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium is, n21 =
n1
The apparent depth is always lesser than actual depth. The equation for apparent depth
d
is, d ′ =
n
The critical angle of incidence ic for a ray incident from a denser to rarer medium, is that
angle for which the angle of refraction is 90°. For i > ic, total internal reflection occurs.
1 1
Equations for critical angle incidence is, sinic = (or) ic = sin−1  
 n 

n
Snell’s window is the restricted area of circular illumination which appears when seen
from water due to critical angle incidence. The radius of the circular illumination is,
 1  d
R = d   (or ) R =
 n2 −1  n2 − 1
Optical fibre makes use of critical angle incidence. The acceptance angle in optical fibre
 n2 − n2 
 1 2 
is, ia = sin 
−1
. Here, n , n , n are the refractive indices of core, cladding and
 n23  1 2 3
surrounding medium respectively.

Glass slabs produce a lateral displacement on the light falling on it. The equation for
 sin (i − r )
lateral shift is, L = t  
 cos (r ) 

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n 1 (n −1)
The equation for single spherical surface is, − =
v u R
The focal length of the thin lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a
diverging lens. It is not based on the position of the focal point.
1 1 1
The lens makers formula is, = (n −1) − 
f  R1 R2 
1 1 1
The lens equation is, v - u = f
h′ v h′ f h′ f − v
The magnification produced by the lens is, m = = , m = = (or) m = =
h u h f +u h f
The power of a lens is a measure of the degree of convergence (or) divergence of light
falling on it. Power and focal length are inverse to each other.
1
P=
f
The unit of power is diopter (D) when the focal length is taken in meter.
1 1 1
The effective focal length of lenses in contact is, = +
f f1 f 2
A prism produces deviation on the incident ray.
Angle of deviation depends on angle of prism, angle of incidence and refractive index of
material of prism given by the equation, d = i1 + i2 − A
At minimum deviation, i1 = i2, r1 = r2, and the ray inside the prism is parallel to the base
of the prism.
The refractive index of prism depends on angle of prism and angle of minimum deviation
 A + D 
sin 
 2 
n=
given by the equation,  A
sin  
 2 
When white light travels through a medium, different colours travel with different speeds
leading to dispersion of light. Red colour travels faster than violet colour in a medium. In
vacuum all the colours travel with the same speed.
The angle of deviation produced by the small angled prism is, d = (n −1) A
The angular separation between the two extreme colours (violet and red) in the spectrum
is called angular dispersion.
δV– δR = (nV–nR)A
Dispersive power is the measure of ability of the medium to disperse white light.
(nV − nR )
w=
(n −1)
Rainbow is formed by dispersion of light by droplets of water.
The scattering of light by particles of size less than wavelength of light is called Rayleigh
1
scattering. The intensity of light produced by Rayleigh scattering is, I µ
l4
Non-Rayleigh scattering is by suspended dust particles whose size is greater than the
wavelength of light. This scattering is independent of wavelength of light.

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CONCEPT MAP
Ray Optics
Refraction Deviation in
Reflection
prism
Plane mirrors Speed of light Dispersion
Spherical
Refractive index Scattering
mirrors
Total internal Spherical Combination Slivered

Lens
reflection surface of Lenses lens

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EVA LU A TION
Multiple choice questions 6. Stars twinkle due to,

1. The speed of light in an isotropic (a) reflection
medium depends on, (b) total internal reflection
(a) its intensity (c) refraction
(b)its wavelength (d) polarisation
(c) the nature of propagation 7. When a biconvex lens of glass having
(d) the motion of the source refractive index 1.47 is dipped in a
w.r.t medium liquid, it acts as a plane sheet of glass.
This implies that the liquid must have
2. A rod of length 10 cm lies along the
refractive index,
principal axis of a concave mirror of
focal length 10 cm in such a way that (a) less than one
its end closer to the pole is 20 cm away (b) less than that of glass
from the mirror. The length of the (c) greater than that of glass
image is, (AIPMT Main 2012) (d) equal to that of glass
(a) 2.5 cm (b) 5cm 8. The radius of curvature of curved
(c) 10 cm (d) 15cm surface at a thin planoconvex lens is
3. An object is placed in front of a convex 10 cm and the refractive index is 1.5. If
mirror of focal length of f and the the plane surface is silvered, then the
maximum and minimum distance of focal length will be,
an object from the mirror such that the (a) 5 cm (b) 10 cm
image formed is real and magnified. (c) 15 cm (d) 20 cm
(JEE Main 2009)] 9. An air bubble in glass slab of refractive
(a) 2f and c (b) c and ∞ index 1.5 (near normal incidence) is
(c) f and O (d) None of these 5 cm deep when viewed from one surface
4. For light incident from air on a slab and 3 cm deep when viewed from the
of refractive index 2, the maximum opposite face. The thickness of the slab is,
possible angle of refraction is, (a) 8 cm (b) 10 cm
(a) 30o (b) 45o (c) 12 cm (d) 16 cm
(c) 60o (d) 90o 10. A ray of light travelling in a transparent
5. If the velocity and wavelength of light in medium of refractive index n falls, on a
air is Va and λa and that in water is Vw and surface separating the medium from air
λw, then the refractive index of water is, at an angle of incidents of 45o. The ray
V V can undergo total internal reflection
(a) w (b) a for the following n,
Va Vw
lw Va la
(a) n = 1.25 (b) n = 1.33
(c) (d) (c) n = 1.4 (d) n = 1.5
la Vw lw

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Answers 21. Obtain the equation for lateral

1) b 2) b 3) d 4) a 5) b magnification of thin lens.
6) c 7) d 8) b 9) c 10) d 22. What is power of a lens?

23. Derive the equation for effective focal
length for lenses in contact.
Short Answer Questions
24. What is angle of minimum deviation?
1. What is angle of deviation due to
25. What is dispersion?
reflection?
26. How are rainbows formed?
2. Derive the relation between f and R for
a spherical mirror. 27. What is Rayleigh’s scattering?
3. What are the Cartesian sign conventions 28. Why does sky appear blue?
for spherical mirrors? 29. What is the reason for reddish
4. What is optical path? Obtain the appearance of sky during sunset and
equation for optical path. sunrise?
5. State Snell’s law/law of refraction. 30. Why do clouds appear white?
6. What is angle of deviation due to
refraction? Long Answer Questions
7. What is principle of reversibility? 1. Derive the mirror equation and the
8. What is relative refractive index? equation for lateral magnification.
9. Obtain the equation for apparent 2. Describe the Fizeau’s method to
depth. determine the speed of light.
10. Why do stars twinkle? 3. Obtain the equation for radius of
11. What are critical angle and total illumination (or) Snell’s window.
internal reflection? 4. Derive the equation for acceptance
12. Obtain the equation for critical angle. angle and numerical aperture of optical
fibre.
13. Explain the reason for the glittering of
diamond. 5. Obtain the equation for lateral
displacement of light passing through
14. What are mirage and looming?
a glass slab.
15. Write a short note on the prisms
6. Derive the equation for refraction at
making use of total internal reflections.
single spherical surface.
16. What is Snell’s window?
7. Obtain lens maker’s formula and
17. How does an endoscope work? mention its significance.
18. What are primary focus and secondary 8. Derive the equations for thin lens and
focus of a lens? for magnification.
19. What are the sign conventions followed 9. Derive the equation for angle of
for lenses? deviation produced by a prism and
20. Arrive at lens equation from lens thus obtain the equation for refractive
maker’s formula. index of material of the prism.

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10. What is dispersion? Obtain the 2. An object is placed in front of a concave

equation for dispersive power of a mirror of focal length 20 cm. The
medium. image formed is three times the size
of the object. Calculate two possible
Conceptual Questions distances of the object from the mirror.
[Ans: with +m, u = –40/3 cm and
1. Why are dish antennas curved?
with –m, u = –80/3 cm]
2. What type of lens is formed by a bubble
3. A beam of light consisting of red, green
inside water?
and blue is incident on a right-angled
3. Is it possible for two lenses to produce
prism as shown in figure. The refractive
zero power?
index of the material of the prism for
4. A biconvex lens has focal length f and the above red, green and blue colours
intensity of light I passing through are 1.39, 1.44 and 1.47 respectively.
it. What will be the focal length and What are the colours suffer total
intensity for portions of lenses obtained internal reflection?
by cutting it vertically and horizontally
as shown in figure?
45°
90° 45°

[Ans: green and blue suffer
total internal reflection]
4. An object is placed at a certain distance
from a convex lens of focal length 20
cm. Find the object distance if the
5. Why is yellow light preferred to during image obtained is magnified 4 times.
fog?
[Ans: u = –15 cm.]
5. Obtain the lens maker’s formula for
Numerical Problems
a lens of refractive index n2 which is
1. An object of 4 cm height is placed at separating two media of refractive
6 cm in front of a concave mirror of indices n1 and n3 on the left and right
radius of curvature 24 cm. Find the respectively.
position, height, magnification and  −nn1 )12) 
  Ans : :nn32 2−−nn1 1==(n(n2 2−−nn1 )1 )++((n
n(n2 32−
−
nature of the image.  v v uu RR1 1 RR2 2  

[Ans: v = 12 cm, h' = 8 cm, m = 2, image  
  n1 n n 1n (n (− n n−)n1 ) ((n n (− n−n− n)n) ) 
is erect, virtual, twice the height of : 2: −=2 −1 =1 = 2 2 1 + +23 2 1 2  1 
  vf v un3u R1 R1 RR2 2R2  
object formed on right side of mirror.]  

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6. A thin converging lens of refractive 8. Prove that a concave lens can only form
index 1.5 has a power of + 5.0 D. When a virtual, erect and diminished image.
this lens is immersed in a liquid of 9. A point object is placed at 20 cm from
refractive index n, it acts as a divergent a thin plano-convex lens of focal length
lens of focal length 100 cm. What must 15 cm whose plane surface is silvered.
be the value of n? Locate the position and nature of the
[Ans: n = 5/3] final image.
7. If the distance D between an object and [Ans: v = –12 cm]
screen is greater than 4 times the focal 10. Find the ratio of the intensities of lights
length f of a convex lens, then there are with wavelengths 500 nm and 300 nm
two positions for which the lens forms which undergo Rayleigh scattering.
an enlarged image and a diminished [Ans: 81:625]
image respectively. This method is
called conjugate foci method. If d is the
distance between the two positions of
the lens, obtain the equation for focal
length of the convex lens.
 2 2
 Ans: f = D − d 
 4 D 

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
1. Frances A. Jenkins and Harvey E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, 4th Edition,

McGraw Hill Book Company, (2011).
2. David Halliday, Robert Resnick and Jearl Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, 6th Edition,
John Wiley & Sons Inc., (2004).
3. H.C. Verma,Concepts of Physics [Part-1], 1st Edition, Bharathi Bhawan Publishers &
Distributers Pvt. Ltd., (2008).
4. Roger A. Freedman, Hugh D. Young, Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics,
12th Edition, Pearson, (2011).

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ICT CORNER
Ray optics
In this activity you will be able to find out
the radius of curvature needed to make a Topic: Lens maker’s formula.
lens of desired focal length
STEPS:
• I n the browser go to the page “https://www.geogebra.org/m/wv7eccvc”.
• Here n1 = refractive index of air (n1 = 1). n2 is the refractive index of the lens. R1 and R2 are
the radius of curvature of the lens.
• Take n2 = 1.5 , R1 = 3 cm and R2 = –3 cm. Calculate the focal length of the lens using the
1 1 1
formula = (n2 −1) −  . Verify your answer with the value obtained on the screen
f  R1 R2 
by adjusting n2, R1 and R2 .
ind out the curvatures R1 and R2 to make a lens of desired focal length 7 cm.
•F
• When R1 = –1cm and R2 = 1cm, you will get a concave lens of focal length –1 cm. Try to
construct concave and convex lenses by adjusting R1 and R2.
• Adjust the refractive index n2, and analyse how focal length changes with respect to
refractive index.
• Adjust the refractive index n1, and analyse how focal length changes with respect to
refractive index of the medium surrounded by the lens
Step1 Step2
Note:
Use flash enabled browser or install flash player in your system.
URL:
https://www.geogebra.org/m/wv7ecvc
* Pictures are indicative only.
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

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UNIT
7 WAVE OPTICS
An age is called dark, not because the light fails to shine, but because people refuse to see.
— James Albert Michener
Learning Objectives
In this unit, the students are exposed to,

• The wave aspect of light.
• The proof for law of reflection and refraction.
• The phenomena like interference, diffraction and polarisation.
• The terms like magnification and resolving power etc.
• The different optical instruments like microscope, telescope etc.
7.1 suffer appreciable loss of mass even if it

THEORIES ON LIGHT emits light for a long time. On account
of high speed, they are unaffected by the
Light is a form of energy that is force of gravity and their path is a straight
transferred from one place to another. A line in a medium of uniform refractive
glance at the evolution of various theories index. The energy of light is the kinetic
of light put forth by scientists will give not energy of these corpuscles. When these
only an over view of the nature of light but corpuscles impinge on the retina of the
also its propagation and some phenomenon eye, the vision is produced. The different
demonstrated by it. sizes of the corpuscles give different
colours to light. When the corpuscles
approach a surface between two media,
7.1.1 Corpuscular theory they are either repelled (or) attracted. The
Sir Isaac Newton (1672) gave the reflection of light is due to the repulsion
corpuscular theory of light which was of the corpuscles by the medium and
also suggested earlier by Descartes (1637) refraction of light is due to the attraction
to explain the laws of reflection and of the corpuscles by the medium.
refraction. According this theory, light This theory could not explain the reason
is emitted as tiny, massless (negligibly why the speed of light is lesser in denser
small mass) and perfectly elastic particles medium than in rarer medium and also the
called corpuscles. As the corpuscles are phenomena like interference, diffraction
very small, the source of light does not and polarisation.
53

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7.1.2 Wave theory E = hv(7.1)

Christian Huygens (1678) proposed the
wave theory to explain the propagation Where, h is Plank’s constant
of light through a medium. According to (h = 6.625 × 10–34 Js) and v is frequency of
him, light is a disturbance from a source electromagnetic wave.
travels that as longitudinal mechanical As light has both wave as well as particle
waves through the ether medium (that was nature it is said to have dual nature. It is
presumed to pervade all space) as mechanical concluded that light propagates as a wave
wave requires a medium for its propagation. and interacts with matter as a particle.
The wave theory could successfully explain
phenomena of reflection, refraction, 7.2
interference and diffraction of light.
WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT
Later, the existence of ether in all space
was proved to be wrong. Hence, this theory
could not explain the propagation of light Light is a transverse, electromagnetic
through vacuum. The phenomenon of wave. The wave nature of light was first
polarisation could not be explained by this demonstrated through experiments
theory as it is the property of only transverse like interference and diffraction. The
waves. transverse nature of light is demonstrated
in polarization. Like all electromagnetic
waves, light can travel through vacuum.
7.1.3 Electromagnetic wave
theory
7.2.1 Wave optics
Maxwell (1864) proved that light is an
electromagnetic wave which is transverse in Wave optics deals with the wave
nature carrying electromagnetic energy. He characteristics of light. Even the law of
could also show that no medium is necessary reflection and refraction are proved only
for the propagation of electromagnetic with the help of wave optics. Though
waves. All the phenomenon of light could light propagates as a wave, its direction of
be successfully explained by this theory. propagation is still represented as a ray.
Nevertheless, the interaction A good example for wave propagation
phenomenon of light with matter like is the spreading of circular ripples on the
photoelectric effect and Compton effect surface of still water from a point where
could not be explained by this theory. a stone is dropped. The molecules (or)
particles of water at a point are moving only
up and down (oscillate) when a ripple passes
7.1.4 Quantum theory through that point. All these particles on
Albert Einstein (1905), endorsing the the circular ripple are in the same phase of
views of Max Plank (1900), was able to explain vibration as they are all at the same distance
photoelectric effect (discussed in Unit 8) in from the center. The ripple represents a
which light interacts with matter as photons wavefront as shown in Figure 7.1(a). A
to eject the electrons. A photon is a discrete wavefront is the locus of points which are
packet of energy. Each photon has energy E of, in the same state (or) phase of vibration.
54 Unit 7 wave op tics

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When a wave propagates it is treated as the 7.2.2 Huygens’ Principle

propagation of wavefront. The wavefront is
always perpendicular to the direction of the Huygens principle is basically a geometrical
propagation of the wave. As the direction of construction which gives the shape of the
ray is in the direction of propagation of the wavefront at any time if we know its shape
wave, the wavefront is always perpendicular at t = 0. According to Huygens principle,
to the ray as shown in Figure 7.1(b). each point on the wavefront behaves as the
source of secondary wavelets spreading out
in all directions with the speed of the wave.
These are called as secondary wavelets.
The envelope to all these wavelets gives the
position and shape of the new wavefront at a
later time. Thus, Huygens’ principle explains
the propagation of a wavefront.
(a) The propagation of a spherical and
plane wavefront can be explained using
Huygens’ principle. Let, AB be the
wavefront at a time, t = 0. According to
Huygens’ principle, every point on AB
acts as a source of secondary wavelet
which travels with the speed of the wave
(b) (speed of light c). To find the position
of the wavefront after a time t, circles of
Figure 7.1 (a) Ripples on water surface radius equal to ct are drawn with points
(b) Wavefront and ray P, Q, R ... etc., as centers on AB. The
forward envelope (or) the tangent A′ B ′ of
The shape of a wavefront observed at a the small circles is the new wavefront at
point depends on the shape of the source that instant t. The wavefront A′ B ′ will be
and also the distance at which the source is a spherical wavefront from a point object
located. A point source located at a finite which is at a finite distance as shown in
distance gives spherical wavefronts. An Figure 7.3(a) and it is a plane wavefront
extended (or) line source at finite distance if the source of light is at a large distance
gives cylindrical wavefronts. Any source (infinity) as shown in Figure 7.3(b).
that is located at infinity gives plane
wavefront as shown in Figure 7.2. A
A' A A'
P P
A Q
Q
R
O R
B
B B' B B'
Point source Line source Source at infinity (a) Spherical wavefront (b) Plane wavefront
Figure 7.2 Wavefronts Figure 7.3 Huygens’ Principle
Unit 7 wave op tics 55

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There is one shortcoming in the above the reflection. The time taken for the light
Huygens’ construction for propagation of a to travel from B to B ′ and A to A′ are the
wavefront. It could not explain the absence of same. Thus, the distance BB′ is equal to the
backward wave which also arises in the above distance AA′ ; (AA′ = BB ′) .
construction. According to electromagnetic (i) The incident rays, the reflected rays and
wave theory, the backward wave is ruled out the normal are in the same plane.
inherently. However, Huygens’ principle is
(ii) Angle of incidence,
a good diagrammatic construction which
explains the propagation of the wavefront. ∠i = ∠NAL = 90o – ∠NAB = ∠ BAB′
Angle of reflection,
7.2.3 Proof for laws of ∠r = ∠ N ′ B ′ M ′ = 90 o–∠ N ′ B ′ A′ = ∠ A′ B ′A
reflection using Huygens’ For the two right angle triangles, ∆ ABB′
Principle and ∆ B ′A′ A , the two right angles, ∠B and
Let us consider a parallel beam of light is ∠ A′ are equal, (∠B and ∠ A′ = 90o); the two
incident on a reflecting plane surface such as sides, AA′ and BB′ are equal, ( AA′ = BB ′ ) ;
a plane mirror XY as shown in Figure 7.4. The the side AB′ is common. Thus, the two
incident wavefront is AB and the reflected triangles are congruent. As per the property
wavefront is A′ B ′ . These wavefronts are of congruency, the two angles, ∠ BAB′ and
perpendicular to the incident rays L, M ∠ A′ B ′A must also be equal.
and reflected rays L ′ , M ′ respectively. By
the time point A of the incident wavefront i = r(7.2)
touches the reflecting surface, the point B
is yet to travel a distance BB′ to touch the Hence, the laws of reflection are proved.
reflecting surface at B ′ . When the point B
touches the reflecting surface at B ′ , the point 7.2.4 Proof for laws of
A would have reached A′ . This is applicable refraction using Huygens’
to all the points on the wavefront. Thus, Principle
the reflected wavefront A′ B ′ emanates as
Let us consider a parallel beam of
a plane wavefront. The two normals N and
light is incident on a refracting plane
N ′ are considered at the points where the
surface XY such as a glass as shown in
rays L and M fall on the reflecting surface.
Figure 7.5. The incident wavefront AB
As reflection happens in the same medium,
is in rarer medium (1) and the refracted
the speed of light is same before and after
wavefront A′ B ′ is in denser medium (2).
These wavefronts are perpendicular to the
L'
M incident rays L, M and refracted rays L ′,M ′
B A' respectively. By the time the point A of the
N N'
incident wavefront touches the refracting
L M' surface, the point B is yet to travel a distance
i i
r
r BB′ to touch the refracting surface at B ′.
A B'
X Y When the point B touches the refracting
surface at B ′, the point A would have reached
Figure 7.4 Laws of reflection
A′ in the other medium. This is applicable

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M of medium (1) is, c/v1 = n1 and that of

B Medium(1) medium (2) is, c/v2 = n2.
L In ratio form,
N
i sin i n2
i B' = (7.3)
X A r Y sin r n1
r r
N'
M' In product form,
A'
Medium(2)
L' n1sin i = n2 sin r (7.4)
Figure 7.5 Law of refraction Hence, the laws of refraction are proved.
In the same way the laws of refraction
to all the points on the wavefront. Thus, can be proved for wavefront travelling from
the refracted wavefront A′ B ′ emanates as denser to rarer medium also.
a plane wavefront. The two normals N and The speed of light is inversely proportional
N ′ are considered at the points where the to the refrative index of the medium (v µ1 n)
rays L and M fall on the refracting surface. and also directly proportional to wavelength
As refraction happens from rarer medium of light (v ∝ λ) . Hence,
(1) to denser medium (2), the speed of light
is v1 and v2 before and after refraction and
λ1 n2
v1 is greater than v2, (v1>v2). But, the time = (7.5)
λ 2 n1
taken t for the ray to travel from B to B ′ is
the same as the time taken for the ray to
travel from A to A′ . If light of a particular frequency
Note
BB ′ AA′ BB ′ v1 travels through different
t= = (or) = media, then, its frequency
v1 v2 AA′ v2
remains unchanged in all the media.
(i) The incident rays, the refracted rays and Only the wavelength changes according
the normal are in the same plane. to speed of light in that medium.
(ii) Angle of incidence,
i = ∠NAL = 90o – ∠NAB = ∠ BAB′
EX AM P L E 7 . 1
Angle of refraction,
The wavelength of light from sodium
r = ∠ N ′ B ′ M ′ = 90 – ∠ N ′ B ′ A′ = ∠ A′ B ′ A
o
source in vacuum is 5893Å.What are its
For the two right angle triangles ∆ ABB′ (a) wavelength, (b) speed and (c) frequency
and ∆AA'B', when this light travels in water which has a
refractive index of 1.33.
sin i BB ′sin ′ / ′AB ′ v11 BBcv′1/ v 2 vc1 n2 c / v 2 n2
i ′ BBBB
/ AB
= == = == = =× = = =
sin r AAsin ′ / AB
r ′ AAAA
′ / ′AB ′v2 AAv c ′2/ v1 vc2 n1 c / v1 n1 Solution
The refractive index of vacuum, n1 = 1
Here, c is speed of light in vacuum.
The ratio c/v is a constant, called refractive The wavelength in vacuum, λ1 = 5893 Å.
index of the medium. The refractive index The speed in vacuum, c = v1 = 3 × 108 m s–1

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The refractive index of water, n2 = 1.33 7.3

The wavelength of light in water, λ2 INTERFERENCE
The speed of light in water, v2
The phenomenon of superposition of
(a) The equation relating the wavelength
two light waves which produces increase
and refractive index is,
in intensity at some points and decrease
l1 n2 in intensity at some other points is called
=
l2 n1 interference of light.
n1 Superposition of waves refers to addition
Rewriting, l2 = × l1
n2 of waves. The concept of superposition of
Substituting the values, mechanical waves is studied in (XI Physics
11.7). When two waves simultaneously
1 o o
pass through a particle in a medium, the
l2 = ×5893 A = 4431 A
1.33 resultant displacement of that particle is
o the vector addition of the displacements
l2 = 4431 A
due to the individual waves. The resultant
(b) The equation relating the speed and displacement will be maximum or
refractive index is, minimum depending upon the phase
v1 n2 difference between the two superimposing
=
v 2 n1 waves. These concepts hold good for light
n1 as well.
Rewriting, v 2 = ×v1 Let us consider two light waves from the
n2
Substituting the values, two sources S1 and S2 meeting at a point P as
1
v2 = ×3×108 = 2.256×108
1.33
P
S1P
v 2 = 2.256×108 ms−1
(c) Frequency of light in vacuum is,

S1
c
v1 =
l1
Substituting the values, S2P
8
3×10 S2
v1 = −10
= 5.091×1014 Hz
5893×10
v Figure 7.6 Superposition principle
Frequency of light in water is, v2 =
l2
Substituting the values, The wave from S1 at an instant t at P is,
2.256×108 ms−1 y1 = a1sin ωt(7.6)

v2 = −10
= 5.091×1014 Hz
4431×10
The wave form S2 at an instant t at P is,
The results show that the frequency
remains same in all media. y2 = a2sin (ωt+ϕ)(7.7)

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The two waves have different amplitudes In equation (7.15) if the phase difference,
a1 and a2, same angular frequency ω, and a ϕ = ±π, ±3π, ±5π. . . , it corresponds to the
phase difference of ϕ between them. The condition for minimum intensity of light
resultant displacement will be given by, called destructive interference.
The resultant minimum intensity is,
y = y1 + y2 = a1sin ωt + a1sin (ωt+ϕ) (7.8)
2
I min ∝ (a1 − a2 )
The simplification of the above equation
I min = I1 + I 2 − 2 I1 I 2 (7.17)
by using trigonometric identities as done in
(XI Physics 11.7) gives, As a special case, if a1 = a2 = a, then
equation (7.10). becomes,
y = A sin (ωt+θ)(7.9)
A = 2a 2 + 2a 2c os f = 2a 2 (1 + c os f )
= 2a 2 2 cos2 (f / 2)
Where, A = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 cosf (7.10)
a2 sin f A = 2a cos(f / 2) (7.18)

q = tan−1 (7.11)
a1 + a2 cos f
The resultant amplitude is maximum, I ∝ 4a 2 cos2 (f / 2)  I ∝ A2  (7.19)
Amax =
2
(a1 + a2 ) ; when ϕ = 0, ±2π, ±4π. . . , I = 4 I0 cos2 (f / 2)  I 0 ∝ a 2  (7.20)
(7.12)
I max = 4 I 0 when, f = 0, ±2p , 4p ..., (7.21)
The resultant amplitude is minimum,
2 I min = 0 when, f = ±p , ±3p , ±5p ..., (7.22)
Amin = (a1 − a2 ) ; when ϕ= ±π, ±3π, ±5π...,
(7.13)
We conclude that the phase difference ϕ,
The intensity of light is proportional to between the two waves decides the intensity
square of amplitude, of light at that point where the two waves
I ∝ A2(7.14) meet.
Now, squaring equation (7.10) on both

EXAM P L E 7 . 2
sides,
Two light sources with amplitudes 5 units
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cosf (7.15)
and 3 units respectively interfere with each
In equation (7.15) if the phase difference, other. Calculate the ratio of maximum and
ϕ = 0, ±2π, ±4π. . . , it corresponds to the minimum intensities.
condition for maximum intensity of light
called constructive interference. Solution
The resultant maximum intensity is, Amplitudes, a1 = 5, a2 = 3
2 Resultant amplitude,
I max ∝ (a1 + a2 )
I max = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 (7.16) A = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 cosf

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Resultant amplitude is maximum when, EX AM P L E 7 . 4

f = 0, cos 0 = 1, Amax = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 Two light sources have intensity of light as
2 2 2
I0. What is the resultant intensity at a point
Amax = (a1 + a2 ) = (5 + 3) = (8) where the two light waves have a phase
= 8 units difference of π/3?
Resultant amplitude is minimum when, Solution
f = p , cos p = −1, Amax = a12 + a22 − 2a1a2 Let the intensities be I0.
The resultant intensity is, I =4 I0cos2(ϕ/2)
2 2 2
Amin = (a1 − a2 ) = (5 − 3) = (2) Resultant intensity when, f = p / 3, is
= 2 units I = 4 I 0 cos2 (p / 6)
I ∝ A2
( )
2
I = 4 I0 3 / 2 = 3I 0
2
I max ( Amax )
=
I min ( Amin )2
Substituting, 7.3.1 Phase difference and
2
path difference
I max (8) 64
= 2 = = 16 (or ) Phase is the angular position of vibration
I min (2) 4
when a wave is progresses, there is a relation
I max : I min = 16 : 1 between the phase of the vibration and the
path travelled by the wave. We can express
the phase in terms of path and vice versa.
EXA MP LE 7 .3
In the path of the wave, one wavelength λ
Two light sources of equal amplitudes corresponds to a phase of 2π as shown in
interfere with each other. Calculate Figure 7.7. A path difference δ corresponds to
the ratio of maximum and minimum a phase difference ϕ as given by the equation,
intensities.
λ
Solution
Let the amplitude be a.
0 2π
The intensity is, I µ 4a2 cos2 (f / 2)
or I = 4 I 0 cos2 (f / 2)
Figure 7.7 Path difference and phase
Resultant intensity is maximum when, difference
f = 0, cos 0 = 1, Imax ∝ 4a 2
Resultant amplitude is minimum when, l 2p
d= ×f (or) f = ×d (7.23)
2p l
f = p , cos (p / 2) = 0, Imin = 0
Imax : I min = 4a 2 : 0 For constructive interference, the phase

difference should be, ϕ = 0, 2π, 4π . . . Hence,

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the path difference must be, δ = 0, λ, 2λ . . . a property of waves that enables to obtain
In general, the integral multiples of λ. stationary interference patterns.
Two independent monochromatic
δ = nλ where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . (7.24) sources can never be coherent, because
they may emit waves of same frequency
For destructive interference, the phase
and same amplitude, but not with same
difference should be, ϕ = π, 3π, 5π . . . Hence,
phase. This is because, atoms while
l 3l
the path difference must be, d = , ..... emitting light, produce change in phase
2 2
In general, the half integral multiples due to thermal vibrations. Hence,
of λ. these sources are said to be incoherent
sources.
l To obtain coherent light waves, we have
d = (2n −1) where, n = 1, 2, 3 . . . (7.25)
2 the following three techniques.
(i) Wavefront division
EXA MP LE 7 .5
(ii) Intensity (or) Amplitude division
The wavelength of a light is 450 nm. How (iii) Source and Images.
much phase it will differ for a path of
3 mm? (i) Wavefront division: This is the most
Solution commonly used method for producing
coherent sources. We know a point
Wavelength, l = 450 nm = 450×10−9 m source produces spherical wavefronts.
All the points on the wavefront are
Path difference, d = 3 mm = 3×10−3 m at the same phase. If two points are
chosen on the wavefront by using
Relation between phase difference and a double slit, the two points will act
2p
path difference, f = ×d as coherent sources as shown in
l
Figure 7.8.
Substituting,
2p p
f= −9
×3×10−3 = ×106
450×10 75
S1
p
f= ×106 rad = 4.19 × 104 rad.
75 S
7.3.2 Coherent sources

Two light sources are said to be
coherent if they produce waves which S2
have same phase or constant phase
difference, same frequency or wavelength
(monochromatic), same waveform and
Figure 7.8 Wavefront division
preferably same amplitude. Coherence is

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(ii) Intensity (or) Amplitude division: Virtual Image

Superposition region
If we allow light to pass through

a partially silvered mirror (beam
Source
splitter), both reflection and
refraction take place simultaneously.
As the two light beams are obtained
from the same light source, the two Biprism
Virtual Image
divided light beams will be coherent
Screen
beams. They will be either in-phase Fresnel’s Biprism
or at constant phase difference Superposition region
as shown in Figure 7.9. Instruments

Source
like Michelson’s interferometer,
Fabray-Perrot etalon work on this
principle.
Virtual Image
Mirror Screen
Lloyd’s Mirror
Figure 7.10 Source and images as

Coherent light
coherent sources
Half- Silvered
Monochromatic Mirror
7.3.3 Double slit as coherent
Light Source
sources
Mirror Double slit uses the principle of wavefront
division. Two slits S1 and S2 illuminated
by a single monochromatic source S act
as two coherent sources. The waves from
Figure 7.9 Intensity (or) amplitude them travel in the same medium and
division superpose. The constructive and destructive
interference formed by them are shown in
(iii) Source and Images: In this method Figure 7.11(a). The crests of the waves are
a source and its images will act as shown by thick continuous lines and troughs
a set of coherent sources, because are shown by broken lines in Figure 7.11(b).
the source and its image will have At points where the crest of one wave
waves in-phase (or) constant phase meets the crest of the other wave (or) the trough
difference as shown in Figure 7.10. of one wave meets the trough of the other
The Instrument, Fresnel’s biprism wave, the waves are in-phase. Hence, the
uses two virtual images of the source displacement is maximum and these points
as two coherent sources and the appear bright as a result of this constructive
instrument, Lloyd’s mirror uses a interference.
source and its one virtual image as At points where the crest of one wave
two coherent sources. meets the trough of the other wave and

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Constructive Interference Brightness S2 kept equidistance from a source S

as shown in Figure 7.12. The width of
+ = each slit is about 0.03 mm and they are
separated by a distance of about 0.3 mm.
As S1 and S 2 are equidistant from S the
Destructive Interference same wavefront is cut by S1 and S2. The
light waves at S1 and S 2 are in-phase.
Darkness
+ = So, S 1 and S2 act as coherent sources
which is the requirement for obtaining
(a) Superposition interference pattern.
Double slit
Double slit Screen
P
S1
S O
S1
S S2
S2
Figure 7.12 Young’s double slit

experimental setup
Wavefronts from S1 and S2 spread out

Superpositon region
and overlap on the other side of the double
(b) Double slit as a set of coherent sources
slit. When a screen is placed at a distance
Figure 7.11 Interference due to double of about 1 m from the slits, alternate bright
slit and dark fringes which are equally spaced
appear on the screen. These are called
vice-versa, the waves are out-of-phase. interference fringes (or) bands. Using an
Hence, the displacement is minimum and eyepiece, the fringes can be seen directly.
these points appear dark as a result of this At the center point O on the screen, the
destructive interference. waves from S1 and S2 travel equal distances
On a screen the intensity of light will be and arrive in-phase as shown in Figure 7.12.
alternative maximum and minimum strips These two waves constructively interfere
i.e. bright and dark bands which are referred and a bright fringe is observed at O. This
as interference fringes. is called central bright fringe. When one
of the slits is closed, the fringes disappear
7.3.4 Young’s double slit and there is uniform illumination on the
experiment screen. This shows clearly that the bands
are due to interference.
Experimental setup
Thomas Young, a British Physicist in Equation for path difference
1801 used an opaque screen with two The schematic diagram of the
small openings called double slit S1 and experimental setup is shown in Figure 7.13.

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Let d be the distance between the double If the angle θ is small, sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ θ
slits S1 and S2 which act as coherent sources From the right angle triangle ∆OCP,
of wavelength λ. A screen is placed parallel y
to the double slit at a distance D from it. tanq =
D
The mid-point of S1 and S2 is C and the
mid-point of the screen O is equidistant dy
The path difference, d = (7.28)
from S1 and S2. P is any point at a distance y D
from O. The waves from S1 and S2 meet at P
Based on the condition of the path
either in-phase or out-of-phase depending
difference, the point P may have a bright
upon the path difference between the two
(or) dark fringe.
waves.
Condition for bright fringe (or) maxima
P The condition for the point P to have a
constructive interference (or) be a bright
S1 y
fringe is,
θ
d C
θ O Path difference, δ = nλ
M where, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
S2 б
D
dy
∴ = nλ
D
Figure 7.13 Young’s double slit
arrangement to find path difference lD lD
y =n (or ) yn = n (7.29)
d d
The path difference δ between the light
waves from S1 and S2 to the point P is, This is the condition for the point P to
δ = S2P – S1P have a bright fringe. The distance yn is the
A perpendicular is dropped from the distance of the nth bright fringe from the
point S1 to the line S2P at M to find the path point O.
difference more precisely.
Condition for dark fringe (or) minima
δ = S2P – MP = S2M(7.26) The condition for the point P to have
a destructive interference (or) be a dark
The angular position of the point P from fringe is,
C is θ. ∠OCP = θ. l
From the geometry, the angles ∠OCP Path difference, d = (2n −1)
2
and ∠S2S1M are equal.
where, n = 1, 2, 3 . . .
∠OCP = ∠S2S1M = θ.
dy l
In right angle triangle ∆S1S2M, the path ∴ = (2n −1)
D 2
difference, S2M = d sin θ
(2n −1) l D (2n −1) l D
y= (or ) yn = (7.30)
δ = d sin θ(7.27) 2 d 2 d

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This is the condition for the point P to lD

have a dark fringe. The distance yn is the β for bright, b = (7.31)
d
distance of the nth dark fringe from the point
O. The formation of bright and dark fringes Similarly, the distance between (n+1)th
is shown in Figure 7.14. and nth consecutive dark fringes from O is
given by,
Bright
Dark
(constructive
(destructive
interference)
interference)  (2(n + 1) −1) l D   (2n −1) l D 
b = y(n+1) − yn =   −  
 2 d   2 d 
lD
θ θ β for dark, b = (7.32)
d

From Equations (7.31) and (7.32) we
Figure 7.14 Formation of bright and understand that the bright and dark fringes
dark fringes are of same width equally spaced on either
side of the central bright fringe.
This shows that on the screen, alternate
Conditions for obtaining clear and broad
bright and dark fringes are seen on either
interference fringes:
side of the central bright fringe. The central
bright is referred as 0th bright followed by (i) The distance D between the screen and
1st dark and 1st bright and then 2nd dark and double slit should be as large as possible.
2nd bright and so on, on either side of O (ii) The wavelength λ of light used must be
successively as shown in Figure 7.15. as long as possible.
(iii) The distance d between the two slits
must be as small as possible.
I
I0
EXAM P L E 7 . 6
Position
Y
of fringe - 3D/d - 2D/d - D/d 0 D/d 2D/d 3D/d
Phase
difference -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
In Young’s double slit experiment, the two
Path
difference - 3 - 2 - 0 2 3
slits are 0.15 mm apart. The light source
has a wavelength of 450 nm. The screen is
Figure 7.15 Interference fringe pattern 2 m away from the slits.
(a) Find the distance of the second bright
Equation for bandwidth
fringe and also third dark fringe from the
The bandwidth β is defined as the central maximum.
distance between any two consecutive
bright (or) dark fringes. (b) Find the fringe width.
The distance between (n+1)th and nth (c) How will the fringe pattern change if
consecutive bright fringes from O is given the screen is moved away from the slits?
by, (d) What will happen to the fringe width
 l D   l D  if the whole setup is immersed in water of
b = y(n+1) − yn = (n + 1)  − n 
 d   d  refractive index 4/3.

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Solution 7.3.5 Interference in white

d = 0.15 mm = 0.15× 10 m; D = 2 m; -3
light (polychromatic light)
λ = 450 nm = 450 × 10-9 m; RI = 4/3 When a white light (polychromatic light)
(a) Equation for n bright fringe,
th
is used in interference experiment, coloured
lD fringes of varied thickness will be formed on
yn = n
d the screen. This is because, different colours
Distance of 2nd bright fringe, have different wavelengths. However, the
450×10−9 ×2 central fringe (or) 0th fringe will always be
y 2 = 2× bright and white in colour, because all the
0.15×10−3
y2 = 12×10−3 m = 12 mm
colours falling at the point O will have no
path difference with each other. Hence, only
Equation for nth dark fringe, constructive interference is possible at O for
(2n −1) l D all the colours.
yn =
2 d
Distance of 3rd dark fringe, EXAM P L E 7 . 7
5 450×10−9 ×2 Lights of two wavelengths 560 nm and

y3 = × 420 nm are used in Young’s double slit
2 0.15×10−3
experiment. Find the least distance from
y2 = 15×10−3 m = 15 mm the central fringe where the bright fringes
lD of the two wavelengths coincide. Given
(b) Equation for fringe width, b =
d D = 1 m and d = 3 mm.
450×10−9 ×2
Substituting, b = Solution
0.15×10−3
b = 6×10−3 m = 6 mm λ1 = 560 nm = 560×10−9 m
(c) The fringe width will increase as D is λλ22 = 420 nm = 420×10−9 m

lD
increased, b = (or) b ∝D D = 1 m; d = 3 mm = 3×10−3 m
d
(d) The fringe width will decrease as the Here, n and λ are inversely proportional for
setup is immersed in water of refractive a given y.
index 4/3 Here, nth order bright fringe of longer
lD wavelength λ1 coincides with (n+1)th order
b= (or) b ∝l
d bright fringe of shorter wavelength λ2.
The wavelength will decrease in a medium. lD
Equation for nth bright fringe is, yn = n
Hence, b ∝ l and b ′ ∝ l ′ d
l l1D lD
We know that, l ′ = Here, n = (n + 1) 2 (as l1 > l2 )
RI d d
b ′ l ′ l / RI 1 b 6×10−3 l1 (n+ 1) 1 l 1 560×
= = = (or) b′ = = nl1 = (n + 1)l2 (or ) = ; 1 + = 1 (or ) 1 + =
b l l RI RI 4/3 l2 n n l2 n 420×
b ′ =nl4.5=
×(10−3
m l1 (n+ 1)
4.5) mm
=(or 1 l1 1 560×10−9 1 4
1 n + 1)l 2 = ; 1 + = (or ) 1 + = (or ) 1 + =
l2 n n l2 n 420×10−9 n 3

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Dazzling colours are exhibited by thin films of oil spread on the surface of
water and also by soap bubbles as shown in the figure. These colours are due
to interference of white light undergoing multiple reflections from the top and
the bottom surfaces of thin films. The colour depends upon the thickness of the
film, refractive index of the film and also the angle of incidence of the light.
Inner Outer Surface

surface
All Wave Lengths
Colour
Depends
Air on
Interference
SOAP FLIM
1 1 enters into the film, again gets divided at

= (or ) n = 3 the lower surface into two parts; one is
n 3
transmitted out of the film and the other is
Thus, the 3rd bright fringe of λ1 and 4th
reflected back into the film. The reflected
bright fringe of λ2 coincide at the least
as well as refracted parts are further formed
distance y.
as multiple reflections take place inside the
The least distance from the central fringe film. The interference occurs in both the
where the bright fringes of the two reflected and transmitted light.
lD
wavelengths coincides is, yn = n
d
560×10−9 ×1 i
y n = 3× −3
= 560×10−6 m
3×10
A C E
yn = 0.560×10−3 m = 0.560 mm
d
r
B D F
7.3.6 Interference in thin
films
Let us consider a thin film of transparent Figure 7.16 Interference in thin films
material of refractive index µ (here refractive
index is not represented as n, not to confuse
with order of fringe n) and thickness d. For transmitted light
A parallel beam of light is incident on The light transmitted may interfere to
the film at an angle i as shown in Figure produce a resultant intensity. Let us consider
7.16. The wave is divided into two parts the path difference between the two light
at the point of incidence, as reflected and waves transmitted from B and D. The two
refracted lights. The refracted part, which waves moved together and remained in phase

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up to B where the splitting occurred. The The additional path difference λ/2 is due
extra path travelled by the wave transmitted to the phase change of π in rarer to denser
from D is the path inside the film, BC + CD. reflection taking place at A.
If we approximate the incidence to be nearly The condition for destructive interference
normal (i = 0) and the flim of small thickness, for reflected ray is,
then the points B and D are very close to each
l l
other. The extra distance travelled by the wave 2 md + = (2n + 1) (or ) 2 md = nl (7.36)
2 2
is approximately twice thickness of the film,
BC + CD = 2d. As this extra path is traversed
inside the medium of refractive index µ, the
If the incidence is not
optical path difference is, δ = 2µd. Note
nearly normal but at an
The condition for constructive
angle of incidence i which
interference in transmitted ray is,
has an angle of refraction r, then the
2µd = nλ(7.33) expression 2µd is to be replaced with
2µd cos r.
Similarly, the condition for destructive
interference in transmitted ray is,
l
2 md = (2n −1) (7.34) EX AM P L E 7 . 8
2
Find the minimum thickness of a film of
For reflected light
refractive index 1.25, which will strongly
It is experimentally and theoretically reflect the light of wavelength 589 nm. Also
proved that a wave while travelling in a rarer find the minimum thickness of the film to
medium and getting reflected by a denser be anti-reflecting.
medium, undergoes a phase change of π.
Hence, an additional path difference of λ/2 Solution
should be considered for reflected light.
λ = 589 nm = 589×10−9 m
Let us consider the path difference
between the light reflected by the upper For the film to have strong reflection,
surface at A and the other coming out at C the reflected waves should interfere
after passing through the film. The additional constructively. The least optical path
path travelled by the light coming out from C difference introduced by the film should
is the path inside the film, AB + BC. For near be λ/2. The optical path difference between
normal incidence and film of small thickness, the waves reflected from the two surfaces of
this distance could be approximated as, the film is 2µd. Thus, for strong reflection,
AB + BC = 2d. As this extra path is travelled 2µd = λ/2 [As given in equation (7.35).
in the medium of refractive index µ, the with n = 1]
optical path difference is, δ = 2µd. l
Rewriting, d =
The condition for constructive 4m
interference for reflected ray is,
589×109
Substituting, d = = 117.8×10−9
l 4 ×1.25
2µd+ l = nl (or) 2 md = (2n −1) (7.35)
2 2 2 d = 117.8×10−9 = 117.8 nm

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For the film to be anti-reflecting, This is a violation to the rectilinear

the reflected rays should interfere propagation of light we have studied
destructively. The least optical path in ray optics. But, the diffraction is
difference introduced by the film should prominent only when the size of the
be λ. The optical path difference between obstacle is comparable to the wavelength
the waves reflected from the two surfaces of light. This is the reason why sound
of the film is 2µd. For strong reflection, waves get diffracted prominently by
2µd = λ [As given in equation (7.36). with obstacles like doors, windows, buildings
n = 1]. etc. The wavelength of sound wave is large
l and comparable to the geometry of these
Rewriting, d = obstacles. But the diffraction in light is
2m
589×109 more pronounced when the obstacle size
Substituting, d = = 235.6×10−9 is of the order of wavelength of light.
2×1.25
d = 235.6×10−9 = 235.6 nm
7.4.1 Fresnel and Fraunhofer
7.4 diffractions
DIFFRACTION Based on the type of wavefront
which undergoes diffraction, it could
Diffraction is a characteristic of all be classified as Fresnel and Fraunhofer
waves, including sound waves. Diffraction diffractions. The differences between
is bending of waves around sharp edges Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffractions are
into the geometrically shadowed region. shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffractions

S.No. Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction
1 Spherical (or) cylindrical wavefront Plane wavefront undergoes
undergoes diffraction diffraction
2 Light wave is from a source at finite distance Light wave is from a source at infinity
3 Convex lenses need not be used for Convex lenses are to be used in
laboratory conditions laboratory conditions
4 Difficult to observe and analyse Easy to observe and analyse
5 Slit Screen Slit Screen
P
P
S

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As Fraunhofer diffraction is easy to The basic idea is to divide the slit into
observe and analyse, let us take it up for even number of smaller parts. Then, add
further discussions. their contributions at P with the proper
path difference to show that destructive
interference takes place at that point to
7.4.2. Diffraction in single
make it minimum. To explain maximum,
slit the slit is divided into odd number of parts.
Let a parallel beam of light (plane
wavefront) fall normally on a single slit Condition for P to be first minimum
AB of width a as shown in Figure 7.17. Let us divide the slit AB into two halves
The diffracted beam falls on a screen kept AC and CB. Now the width of each part
at a distance D from the slit. The center is a/2. We have different points on the slit
of the slit is C. A straight line through C which are separated by the same width a/2
perpendicular to the plane of slit meets called as corresponding points. This is shown
the center of the screen at O. Consider in Figure 7.18.
any point P on the screen. All the light
reaching the point P from different
points on the slit make an angle θ with
the normal CO.
All the light waves coming from
different points on the slit interfere at point
P (and other points) on the screen to give a
the resultant intensities. The point P is in
the geometrically shadowed region, up to
which the central maximum is spread due to
diffraction as shown Figure 7.17. We need
to give the condition for the point P to be of
Figure 7.18 Corresponding points
various minima.
Figure 7.17 Diffraction at single slit

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The light waves from different Where, n = 1, 2, 3 ... is the order of

corresponding points meet at point P diffraction minimum.
and interfere destructively to make it a Condition for maxima
minimum. The path difference δ between
For points of maxima, the slit is to be
the waves from these corresponding points divided in to odd number of equal parts so
a
is, d = sinq that one part remains un-cancelled making
2
the point P appear bright.
The condition for P to be first minimum
a l The condition for first maximum is,
is, sinq =
2 2
a l 3l
sin q = (or ) a sin q = (7.41)
a sin θ = λ(7.37) 3 2 2
The condition for second maximum is,
Condition for P to be second minimum
a l 5l
Let us divide the slit AB into four equal sin q = (or ) a sinq = (7.42)
5 2 2
parts. Now, the width of each part is a/4. We have
several corresponding points on the slit which The condition for third maximum is,
are separated by the same width a/4. The path a l 7l
sin q = (or ) a sin q = (7.43)
difference δ between the waves from these 7 2 2
a
corresponding points is, d = sinq . In the same way, condition for nth
4
The condition for P to be second maximum is,
a l l th
minimum is, sinq = a sin q = (2n + 1) (n maximum) (7.44)
4 2 2
a sin θ = 2λ(7.38) Where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , is the order of
diffraction maximum.
Condition for P to be third minimum
The central maximum is called 0th order
The same way the slit is divided in to six maximum. The points of the maximum
equal parts to explain the third minimum. intensity lie nearly midway between the
The condition for P to be third minimum is, successive minima.
a l
sinq =
6 2 Here, sin θ gives the
Note angular spread of the
a sin θ = 3λ (7.39)
diffraction from the central
Condition for P to be nth minimum reference line. We can replace sin θ
Dividing the slit into 2n number of in the above equations with . It is
(even number of) equal parts makes the
possible because θ is small. Now, we
light produced by one of the corresponding
points to be cancelled by its counterpart. can approximate,
Thus, the condition for nth minimum is, Where, y is the position of minimum
a l
sinq = (or) maximum on the screen from its
2n 2
center and D is the distance between
a sin θ = nλ (7.40) the slit and the screen.

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EXA MP LE 7 .9 To find the value of y2 for second minimum

Light of wavelength 500 nm passes through with (n = 2),
a slit of 0.2 mm wide. The diffraction a sin θ = 2λ
pattern is formed on a screen 60 cm away. y2 2l D
a = 2l rewriting, y2 =
Determine the, D a
(a) angular spread of central maximum Substituting,
(b) the distance between the central 2×500×10−9 ×60×10−2
y2 = = 3×10−3 = 3 mm
maximum and the second minimum. 0.2×10−3
Solution The distance between the central maximum
and second minimum is, y2 – y1
λ = 500 nm = 500×10-9 m
a = 0.2 mm = 0.2×10-3 m y2 – y1 = 3 mm – 1.5 mm = 1.5 mm
D = 60 cm = 60×10-2 m
(a) Equation for diffraction minimum is,
a sin θ = nλ
The central maximum is spread up to the
first minimum. Hence, n = 1
Note: The above calculation shows that the

diffraction pattern produced by a single slit,
has equal widths of maxima. Only the width
l l  of central maximum is double as it is spread
Rewriting, sinq = (or ) q = sin−1  
a  a  on both the sides. But, the intensity falls
Substituting, rapidly for higher order diffraction fringes.
 500×10−9 
q = sin−1   = sin−1 (2.5×10−3 )
 0.2×10−3 
EX AM P L E 7 . 1 0
q = 0.0025 rad
A monochromatic light of wavelength
(b) To find the value of y1 from the central 5000 Å passes through a single slit
maximum, which is spread up to first producing diffraction pattern for the
minimum with (n = 1), central maximum as shown in the figure.
a sin θ = λ Determine the width of the slit.
y1
As θ is very small, sinq ≈ tanq =
D
y1 lD
a = l rewriting, y1 =
D a
Substituting,
500×10−9 ×60×10−2
y1 = −3
= 1.5×10−3 = 1.5 mm
0.2×10

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Solution (iv) If a >> λ, then sin θ << 1 i.e. The first

λ = 5000 Å = 5000×10-10 m; sin 30o = 0.5; minimum falls within the width space
n = 1; a =? of the slit itself. Hence, the phenomenon
of diffraction is not observed at all.
Equation for diffraction minimum is,
asin θ = nλ
7.4.4 Fresnel’s distance
The central maximum is spread up to the
first minimum. Hence, n = 1 The rectilinear propagation of light
is violated as there is bending of light in
l
Rewriting, a = diffraction. But, this bending is not seen till the
sin q
diffracted ray crosses the central maximum at
5000×10−10 a distance z from the slit as shown in Figure
Substituting, a =
0. 5 7.19. Hence, Fresnel’s distance is the distance
a = 1×10−6 m = 0.001×10−3 m = 0.001mm upto which the ray optics is obeyed and
beyond which the ray optics is not obeyed;
but, the wave optics becomes significant.
7.4.3 Discussion on first
minimum
The equation for first minimum in
single slit diffraction is, a sin θ = λ. The
Wave optics
angular spread for its first minimum in a 2θ
θ
a Ray optics
l
the diffraction pattern is, sinq = . The
a Fresnel’s distance
central maximum is found in between these (z)
first minima that occur on both the sides.
We can discuss the following cases on the
Figure 7.19 Fresnel’s distance
central maximum.
(i) If a < λ, then sin θ > 1 which is not possible. The diffraction equation for first
Hence, diffraction does not take place. l
(ii) If a = λ, then sin θ = 1 i.e. θ = 90o. The minimum is, sinq = ; when θ is small,
a
first minimum is at 90o. Hence, the l
q=
central maximum spreads fully into the a
geometrically shadowed region leading to From the definition of Fresnel’s distance,
the bending of the diffracted light by 90o. a a
2q = (or) q =
(iii) If a > λ and also comparable to λ, say z 2z
l l 1l l 1 Equating the above two equation for θ
a = 2λ,
sin qthen θ =; 30o.
(or) =
= =sin q = ; =
a 2l 2a 2l 2 l a
The diffraction is observed with gives , =
a 2z
a measurable spread. Hence, it is After rearranging, we get Fresnel’s
concluded that for observing the
distance z as,
diffraction pattern, essentially the
width of the slit a must be just few times a2
z= (7.45)
greater than the wavelength of light λ. 2l

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EXA MP LE 7 .1 1 diffraction based on the appearance of

their patterns are given in Table 7.2.
Calculate the distance upto which ray
optics is a good approximation for light
7.4.6 Diffraction in grating
of wavelength 500 nm falls on an aperture
of width 0.5 mm. A grating has multiple slits with
equal widths of comparable size to the
Solution wavelength of diffracting light. A grating
a = 0.5 mm = 0.5 × 10-3 m = 5 × 10–4 m is a plane sheet of transparent material
on which opaque rulings are made. A
5×10−3 m; l = 500 nm = 500×10−9 m; z = ?
modern commercial grating contains
a2 about 6000 lines per centimetre. The
Equation for Fresnel’s distance is, z =
2l transparent space between the rulings
Substituting, act as slit of width a and the rulings act
2 as obstacles having a definite width b.
(5×10 ) −4
25×10−8 The combined width of a slit and a
z= = = 0.25 m
2×500×10−9 1×10−6 ruling is called grating element e,
z = 0.25 m = 25 cm (e = a + b). The points on the slit
separated by a distance equal to the
grating element are called corresponding
points.
7.4.5 Difference between
interference and diffraction (a+b)sin
A
It is difficult to find the difference a P
b
between interference and diffraction as
they both exhibit the wave nature of light. O
In both the phenomena, interference of
light only produces maxima and minima
B
on the screen and the diffraction of light
Grating
only spreads light in the geometrically Screen
shadowed region. Nevertheless, in Figure 7.20 Diffraction grating
interference, the superposition is given experiment
importance and in diffraction, the
bending of light is given importance. A plane transmission grating is
The difference between interference and represented as AB in Figure 7.20. Let, a plane
Table 7.2 Difference between interference and diffraction

S.No. Interference Diffraction
1 Equally spaced bright and dark fringes Central bright is double the size of other fringes
2 Equal intensity for all bright fringes Intensity falls rapidly for higher order fringes
3 Large number of fringes are obtained Less number of fringes are obtained

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wavefront of monochromatic light with If we take,

wavelength λ be incident on the grating. As 1
the width of the slit is comparable to that N= (7.49)
a +b
of wavelength, the incident light undergoes
diffraction. Then, N gives the number of grating
A diffraction pattern is obtained on elements or rulings drawn per unit width
the screen when the diffracted waves are of the grating. Normally, this number N
focused on a screen using a convex lens. Let is specified on the grating itself. Now, the
us consider a point P at an angle θ with the equation becomes,
perpendicular drawn from the center of the 1
sin q = ml (or ) sin q = N m l (7.50)
grating to the screen. The path difference δ N
between the diffracted waves from one pair
of adjacent corresponding points is,
The students should
δ = (a + b) sinθ(7.46) Note
remember that in a single
This path difference is the same for any slit experiment, the formula,
pair of adjacent corresponding points. The a sinθ = nλ is condition for minimum
point P on the screen will be maximum when, with n as order of minimum. But in
the grating experiment, the formula,
δ = m λ where m = 0, 1, 2, 3 (7.47) sinθ = Nmλ is condition for maximum
with m as the order of diffraction.
Combining the above two equations,
we get,
(a + b) sinθ = m λ (7.48)
EX AM P L E 7 . 1 2
Here, m is called order of diffraction
A diffraction grating consists of 4000
maximum.
slits per centimeter. It is illuminated by a
Condition for P to be zeroth maximum, m = 0
monochromatic light. The second order
Now, (a+b) sinθ = 0 thus, sinθ = 0,
diffraction maximum is produced at an
its position, θ = 0. This is called zeroth
angle of 30°. What is the wavelength of
diffraction (or) central maximum. It is
the light used?
formed at an angle 0.
Solution
Condition for P to be first maximum, m = 1
Now, (a+b) sinθ1 = λ. The first maximum Number of lines = 4000 cm–1; m = 2;
is obtained at an angle θ1. θ = 30°; λ = ?
Condition for P to be second maximum, m = 2 Number of lines per unit length,
Now, (a+b) sinθ2 = 2λ. The second 4000
N= = 4 ×105 m–1
maximum is obtained at an angle θ2. 1×10−2
Condition for P to be mth maximum Equation for diffraction maximum for

On either side of central maximum, grating is, sinθ = Nmλ
different higher order diffraction maxima sin q
After rewriting, l =
are formed at different angular positions. Nm

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Substituting, 7.4.7 Experiment to

determine the wavelength of

sin 30 0.5
l= =
4 ×10 ×2 4 ×105 ×2
5
monochromatic light
1 1
= = The wavelength of a spectral line
2× 4 ×10 ×2 16×105
5
can be very accurately determined

o
l = 6250×10−10 m = 6250 A with the help of a plane transmission
grating. For that we need to use an
instrument called spectrometer (Refer
EXA MP LE 7 .1 3 7.6.6). After preliminary adjustments,
the slit of collimator is illuminated by a
A monochromatic light of wavelength monochromatic light, whose wavelength
of 500 nm strikes a grating and produces is to be determined. The telescope is
fourth order maximum at an angle of 30°. brought in line with collimator to view the
Find the number of slits per centimeter. image of the slit. The given grating is then
Solution mounted on the prism table with its plane
perpendicular to the incident beam of light
λ = 500 nm = 500×10-9 m; m = 4; coming from the collimator. The telescope
θ = 30°; number of lines per cm = ? is turned to one side until the first order
diffraction image of the slit is seen. The
Equation for diffraction maximum for
reading of the position of the telescope is
grating is, sin θ = Nm λ
noted.
sinq Similarly, the first order diffraction
Rewriting, N =
ml image on the other side is captured and
Substituting, the reading is noted. The difference
between two readings gives 2θ. Half of
0. 5
N= its value gives θ. The angle for first order
4 ×500×10−9
maximum is shown in Figure 7.21. The
= 2.5×105 m-1
wavelength of light is calculated from the
= 2.5×103 cm -1 equation,
A compact disc (CD) always appears colourful. On the read/writable

side which looks shining, there are many narrow circular tracks with widths
comparable to the wavelength of visible light. Hence, the diffraction takes place
after the reflection of incident white light to give colourful appearance. The
tracks act as reflecting grating.
β
ds
in
α
α
d sin β

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sin q meet at centre with no path difference. As

l= (7.51) θ increases, the path difference fullfills the
Nm
condition for maxima of different orders for
Here, N is the number of rulings per metre all colours from violet to red. It produces a
in the grating and m is the order of the spectrum of diffraction pattern from violet
diffraction image. to red on either side of central maximum
as shown in Figure 7.22. By measuring the
angle at which these colours appear for
various orders of diffraction, the wavelength
of different colours could be calculated
using the formula given by equation (7.51),
sin q
l=
Nm
Here, N is the number of rulings per
metre in the grating and m is the order of
the diffraction image.
Sodium
lamp
m=2
Collimator
Red
m=1
Diffraction
Diffraction grating
grating Prism table Violet
m = 0 White
Violet
θ θ Telescope m=1
Red
m=2
m=1 m=0 m=1

Figure 7.22 Diffraction with white light
Figure 7.21 Determination of
wavelength using grating 7.4.9 Resolution
The effect of diffraction has an adverse
effect in the sharpness of the image
7.4.8 Determination of
formed. There is always a spread of central
wavelength of different
maximum in the image for every point of
colours
the object, for every point of the object
The diffraction pattern for white light acts as a point source. The condition for
consists of a white central maximum and central maximum (or first minimum)
continuous coloured diffraction pattern produced by rectangular slit is given by
on its both sides. The central maximum the equation (7.37).
is white as all the colours constructively a sinθ = λ

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But, a circular slit (aperture) produces For example, let two point-sources of
diffraction pattern of concentric circles as light close to each other form image on
shown in Figure 7.23. These are known as a screen. The diffraction pattern of one
Airy’s discs. Most of the optical instruments point-source may overlap with another
form images of objects only through the and produce a blurred image (or) un-
circular slits. The condition for central resolved image as shown in Figure 7.24(a).
maximum (or) first minimum for circular To obtain a quality image (or) well resolved
slit is, image, the two point-sources must be kept
apart in such a way that their diffraction
a sinθ = 1.22 λ(7.52) patterns do not overlap as shown in Figure
7.24(c).
Here, the numerical
value 1.22 appears in the Rayleigh Criterion
expression for central

maximum (or) first
minimum formed by
(a) Unresolved (b) Just resolved (c) Well resolved
circular slits. This involves
higher level mathematics that is not shown
here.
Figure 7.24 Rayleigh’s criterion
ro ro
a According to Rayleigh’s criterion, the
two points on an image are said to be
just resolved when the central maximum
f
of one diffraction pattern coincides
Figure 7.23 Airy’s discs with the first minimum of the other and
vice-versa as shown in Figure 7.24(b). In
For small angles, sin θ ≈ θ, the above other words, the distance between the two
equation becomes, central maxima must be at least ro. Hence,
a θ =1.22 λ ro is called spatial resolution given by the
equation (7.54) and the corresponding θ is
Rewriting further, said to be angular resolution given by the
equation (7.53) respectively. It shows that
1.22l for better resolution, the wavelength of light
q= (7.53)
a used must be as small as possible and the
r0 size of the aperture of the instrument must
From the geometry, q = be as large as possible.
f
The ability of an optical instrument
Substituting for θ in equation (7.53) and to distinguish the two closely adjacent
rearranging gives objects (or) two points on the same
object is said to be the resolving power
1.22l f of the instrument. In general, the term
r0 = (7.54)
a resolution is pertaining to the quality of

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the image and the term resolving power any one direction perpendicular to
is associated with the ability of the optical the direction of propagation of wave is
instrument. Resolution and resolving called polarisation of light. In this lesson
power are reciprocal of each other. the electric field is only considered for
discussion.
EXA MP LE 7 .1 4
7.5.1 Plane polarised light
The optical telescope in the Vainu Bappu
observatory at Kavalur has an objective An unpolarised light is a transverse
lens of diameter 2.3 m. What is its angular wave which has vibrations in all directions
resolution if the wavelength of light used is in a plane perpendicular to the direction
589 nm? of propagation of wave as shown in
Figure 7.25(a). All these vibrations could
Solution be resolved into two normal components
a = 2.3 m; λ = 589 nm = 589×10-9 m; θ = ? as shown in Figure 7.25(b), which still
The equation for angular resolution is, represents unpolarised light. If the
vibrations of a wave are present in only
1.22l one direction in a plane perpendicular
q=
a to the direction of propagation, then the
Substituting, light is said to be polarised (or) plane
polarised light as shown in Figure 7.25(c)
1.22×589×10−9 and 7.25(d).
q= = 3.124 ×10−7
2. 3
q = 3.124 ×10−7 rad (or) θ = 0.0011' Unpolarised light Unpolarised light Polarised light
E
E
Note: The angular resolution of human eye
is approximately, 3×10−4 rad ≈ 1.03'. E
E Direction of Direction of
Direction of propagation
propagation propagation
(a) (b) (c)
7.5
POLARISATION
Unpolarised light Unpolarised light Polarised light Polarised light
E
Both, longitudinal and transverse waves
E
exhibit the phenomena of interference
and diffraction. InE fact, even sound waves
demeonstrate the above two phenomenon.
Since light is an electromagnetic wave, it is
E Direction of Direction of Direction of
transverse in nature. The transverse
Direction of nature
propagation propagation propagation
propagation
of light wave
(a) is proved in the phenomenon
(b) (c) (d)
called polarisation. The phenomenon
Figure 7.25 Unpolarised and polarised
of restricting the vibrations of light
light
(electric or magnetic field vectors) to

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The plane containing the vibrations of the (iii) polarisation by double refraction
electric field vector is known as the plane of (iv) polarisation by scattering.
vibration ABCD as shown in Figure 7.26. The
plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration
is known as the plane of polarisation EFGH. 7.5.3 Polarisation by
Both the plane of vibration and the plane selective absorption
of polarisation contain the direction of Selective absorption is the property of
propagation of light. a material which transmits waves whose
Plane of electric field vibrations are in a plane
vibration
A B parallel to a certain direction of orientation
E F
and absorbs all other other vibrations.
Incident
light The polaroids (or) polarisers are thin
commercial sheets which make use of
Plane of
Polarisation
the property of selective absorption to
produce plane polarised light. Selective
G
H absorption is also called as dichroism.
C
D In 1932, an American scientist
Figure 7.26 Plane of vibration and plane Edwin Land developed polarisers in the
of polarisation form of sheets. Tourmaline is a natural
polarising material. Polaroids are also
The Table 7.3 consolidates few made artificially. It was discovered
characteristics of polarised and unpolarised that small needle shaped crystals of
light. quinine iodosulphate have the property
of polarising light. A number of these
7.5.2 Polarisation crystals with their axes parallel to
Techniques one another packed in between two
The polarised light can be obtained from transparent plastic sheets serve as a
unpolarised light by several techniques. good polaroid. Recently, new types of
Here, we are discussing the four methods. polaroids are prepared in which thin film
They are, of polyvinyl alcohol is used. These are
(i) polarisation by selective absorption colourless crystals which transmit more
(ii) polarisation by reflection light, and give better polarisation.
Table 7.3 Characteristics of polarised light and unpolarised light

S.No Polarised light Unpolarised light
1 Consists of waves having their electric Consists of waves having their electric and
and magnetic field vibrations in a single magnetic field vibrations in all directions
plane normal to the direction of ray. normal to the direction of ray.
2 Asymmetrical about the ray direction. Symmetrical about the ray direction.
3 It is obtained by converting unpolarised Produced by conventional light sources.
light using polaroids.

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7.5.3.1 Polariser and analyser zero for every 90o rotation of the analyser
Let us consider an unpolarised beam of as shown in the graph in Figure 7.28(a). This
light. The vibrations can be in all possible is because the vibrations are allowed in one
directions perpendicular to the direction direction and completely restricted in the
of propagation as shown in Figure 7.27. perpendicular direction. On the other hand,
When this light passes through a polaroid if the intensity of light varies between
P1 the vibrations are restricted to only maximum and minimum (not zero) for
one plane. The emergent beam can be every 90o rotation of the analyser, the light
further passed through another polaroid is said to be partially polarised light as
P2. If the polaroid P2 is rotated by keeping shown in the graph in Figure 7.28(b). This
the ray of light as axis, for a particular is because the light is not fully restricted in
position of P2 the intensity is maximum. that particular direction which remains as a
When the polaroid P2 is rotated further, minimum intensity.
the intensity starts decreasing. There is
complete extinction of the light when P2 is
rotated through 90o. On further rotating Max
P2, the light reappears and the intensity Intensity
increases and becomes maximum at 90o.
The light coming out from polaroid P1 is
said to be plane polarised. The Polaroid
(here P1) which polarises the light
Zero
passing through it is called a polariser.
The polaroid (here P2) which is used to
(a) Plane polarised light
examine whether a light is polarised or
not is called an analyser.
If the intensity of the unpolarised light
is I then the intensity of polarised light Max
I 
Intensity
will be  . The other half of intensity is

 2
restricted by the polariser.
Polarised
P1
Unpolarised
light P2
Min
light

(b) Partially polarised light
Source Polariser Analyser Figure 7.28 Intensity variation in
(a) plane and (b) partially polarised light
Figure 7.27 Polariser and analyser
7.5.3.2 Plane and partially polarised 7.5.3.3 Malus’ law

light In 1809, French Physicist E.N Malus
A light is said to be plane polarised if discovered that when a beam of plane
the intensity varies from maximum to polarised light of intensity I 0 is incident

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Y
Polariser Analyser

E
E Ey
θ
X
Ex
I0
I = I0 cos2 θ
Unpolarised
Light
Figure 7.29 Malus’ law
on an analyser, the intensity of light I Where k is constant of proportionality.

transmitted from the analyser varies
I = ka 2 cos2 q
directly as the square of the cosine of
the angle θ between the transmission I = I 0 cos2 q
axes of polariser and analyser as shown
Where, I 0 = ka2 is the maximum intensity
in Figure 7.29. This is known as Malus’
of light transmitted through the analyser.
law.
Plane of
I = I0 cos2 θ(7.55) polariser
Plane of
analyser
The proof of Malus’ law is as follows.
Let us consider that the transmission a
axes of the polariser and the analyser
are inclined by an angle θ is as shown
a cos
in Figure 7.30. Let I 0 be the intensity
and a be the amplitude of the electric a sin
vector transmitted by the polariser.

The amplitude a of the incident light Figure 7.30 Malus’ law
has two rectangular components, acosθ
and asinθ which are the parallel and The following are few special cases.
perpendicular components to the axis Case (i) When θ = 0o, cos 0o= 1, I = I 0
of transmission of the analyser. When the transmission axis of polariser
Only the component acosθ will be is parallel to that of the analyser, the intensity
transmitted by the analyser. The intensity of light transmitted from the analyser is
of light transmitted from the analyser equal to the incident light that falls on it
is proportional to the square of the from the polariser.
component of the amplitude transmitted Case (ii) When θ = 90o, cos 90o = 0, I = 0
by the analyser. When the transmission axes of polariser
I µ (a cos q )2 and analyser are perpendicular to each
other, the intensity of light transmitted from
I = k(a cos q )2 the analyser is zero.

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EXA MP LE 7 .1 5 a third polaroid is kept in between at 45o

Two polaroids are kept with their inclination to both of them.
transmission axes inclined at 30o. Solution
Unpolarised light of intensity I falls on the
first polaroid. Find out the intensity of light (a) As the intensity of the unpolarised
emerging from the second polaroid. light falling on the first polaroid is I, the
intensity of polarized light emerging from
Solution I 
it will be I0 =  . Let I ′ be the intensity of
 2 
As the intensity of the unpolarised light
falling on the first polaroid is I, the intensity light emerging from the second polaroid.
of polarized light emerging from it will
Malus’ law, I ′ = I 0 cos2 θ
I 
be, I0 =  . Let I ′ be the intensity of light
 2  Here θ is 90o as the transmission axes are
emerging from the second polaroid. perpendicular to each other.
Malus’ law, I ′ = I 0 cos2 q Substituting,
 
Substituting, I ′ =  I  cos2 (90 ) = 0 ∴ cos(90 ) = 0
I
2
 I  3  2
3
I ′ =   cos2 (30 ) =    = I No light comes out from the second
 2   2  2  8
polaroid.
3
I ′ =   I
 8 
I
2
P1 I´ I´´
I
θ P3
P2
I
2 3I (b) Let the first polaroid be P1 and the
8
second polaroid be P2. They are oriented
at 90o. The third polaroid P3 is introduced
between them at 45o. Let I ′ be the intensity
of light emerging from P3.
EXA MP LE 7 .1 6 Angle between P1 and P3 is 45o. The intensity
of light coming out from P3 is, I ′ = I 0 cos2 q
Two polaroids are kept crossed
(transmission axes at 90o) to each other. Substituting,
(a) What will be the intensity of the light I   I  1 
2
I I
coming out from the second polaroid when I ′ =   cos2 (45 ) =    = ; I ′ =
 2   2  2  4′ 4
an unpolarised light of intensity I falls on
Finally, the light has to pass through P2.
the first polaroid?
Angle between P3 and P2 is 45o. Let I″ is
(b) What will be the intensity of light the intensity of light coming out from P2
coming out from the second polaroid if I ′′ = I ′ cos2 q

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Here, I' is the intensity of polarized light reflected and the other vibrations are
I refracted. Few parallel vibrations may also
existing between P3 and P2. I' = .
4 get refracted resulting in partially polarised
Substituting,
refracted light. The angle of incidence
2
I  I  1  I for which the reflected light is found to
I ′′ =   cos2 (45 ) =    =
 4   4  2  8 be plane polarised is called polarising
I
angle ip.
I ′′ =
8
Incident beam
Reflected beam
7.5.3.4. Uses of polaroids C
ip
ip
1. Polaroids are used in goggles and
cameras to avoid glare of light. X Y
2. Polaroids are used to take 3D pictures rp
i.e., holography.
3. Polaroids are used to improve contrast in Refracted beam
old oil paintings.
4. Polaroids are used in optical stress
analysis.
Figure 7.31 Polarisation by reflection
5. Polaroids are used as window glasses to
control the intensity of incoming light.
7.5.4.1 Brewster’s Law
6. Polarised laser beam acts as needle to
read/write in compact discs (CDs). The British Physicist, Sir. David
7. Polarised light is used in liquid crystal Brewster found that at the polarising
display (LCD). angle, the reflected and the refracted rays
are perpendicular to each other. Suppose
ip is the polarising angle and rp is the angle
7.5.4 Polarisation by of refraction, from the geometry as shown
reflection in Figure 7.31, we can write,
The simplest method of producing plane

rp = 900 − i p (7.56)
polarised light is by reflection. Consider
a beam of unpolarised light incident on From Snell’s law, the refractive index n of
a polished glass surface XY. This light the medium with respect to air is,
undergoes reflection as well as refraction.
As it is unpolarized, it consists of vibrations sin i p
= n(7.57)
which are parallel to the reflecting surface sinrp
(shown as dots) and also not parallel to it Substituting equation (7.56) in (7.57), we
(shown as arrows). It is shown in Figure get,
7.31. For a particular angle of incidence,
sin i p sin i p
the reflected light is found to be plane = =n
sin (90 − i p ) cosi p
polarised and the refracted light is found
to be partially polarised. It is because,
tani p = n(7.58)
the parallel vibrations to the surface are

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This equation is known as Brewster’s law. several glass plates kept one behind the other
Brewster’s law states that the tangent of the at an angle 90° – ip with the horizontal surface
polarising angle for a transparent medium is as shown in Figure 7.32. This arrangement
equal to its refractive index. The polarising ensures that the parallel light falls on these
angle is known as Brewster’s angle which plates at ip. When this unpolarised light passes
dependes on the nature of the refracting successively through these plates, the few
medium. parallel vibrations to the surface which may
be present in the refracted light, get a chance
for further reflections at the succeeding plates.
EXA M P LE 7 .1 7
Thus, both the reflected and the refracted
Find the polarizing angles for (i) glass lights are found to be plane polarised
of refractive index 1.5 and (ii) water of
refractive index 1.33.
EXAM P L E 7 . 1 8
Solution
What is the angle at which a glass plate
Brewster’s law, tani p = n of refractive index 1.65 is to be kept with
For glass, tan i p = 1.5; i p = tan−1 1.5; i p = 56.3 respect to the horizontal surface so that an
unpolarised light travelling horizontal after
For water,tan i p = 1.33; i p = tan−1 1.33; i p = 53.1 reflection from the glass plate is found to
be plane polarised?
7.5.4.2 Pile of plates Solution

n = 1.65
Brewster’s law, tani p = n
tan i p = 1.65; i p = tan−1 1.65; i p = 58.80
The inclination with the horizontal surface

ip
is, (900 − 58.80 ) = 31.20
90° – ip
7.5.5 Polarisation by double

refraction
ip Erasmus Bartholinus, a
Danish Physicist discovered
ip
that when a ray of
90° – ip
unpolarised light is incident
Figure 7.32 Pile of plates on a calcite crystal, two
refracted rays are produced.
Pile of plates makes use of Brewster’s law Hence, two images of an object are formed.
to convert the partially polarised refracted This phenomenon is called double refraction
light into plane polarised light. It consists of (or) birefringence as shown in Figure 7.33.

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This phenomenon is also exhibited by crystals 7.5.6 Types of optically

like quartz, mica etc. active crystals
When a dot of ink on a sheet of paper
is viewed through a calcite crystal, two Crystals like calcite, quartz, tourmaline
images will be seen. On rotating the crystal, and ice which have only one optic axis are
one image remains stationary and the other called uniaxial crystals.
rotates around it. The stationary image O Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite and
is produced by ordinary rays which obey aragonite which have two optic axes are
the laws of refraction. The rotating image called biaxial crystals.
E is produced by extraordinary rays which
do not obey the laws of refraction. The 7.5.7 Nicol prism
extraordinary ray is found to be plane
polarised. Inside a double refracting crystal Nicol prism is an optical device which
the ordinary ray travels with same velocity forms a part of many optical instruments
in all directions and the extra ordinary both for producing plane polarised light
ray travels with different velocities in and also analysing. The construction of a
all directions. A point source inside the Nicol prism is based on the phenomenon
crystal produces spherical wavefront for of double refraction. It was designed by
ordinary ray and elliptical wavefront for William Nicol in 1828.
extraordinary ray. Inside the crystal, there Nicol prism is a calcite crystal which
is a particular direction in which both the has a length three times its breadth and
rays travel with same velocity. This direction angles 72o and 108o. It is cut into two
is called as optic axis. Along the optic axis, halves along the diagonal as shown in
the refractive index is same for both the rays Figure 7.34. The two halves are pasted
and there is no double refraction along this together with a layer of canada balsam, a
axis. transparent cement.
Canada balsam
Extraordinary
ray
108
Extraordinary
ray
72
Ordinary
Ordinary ray
Unpolarised ray
light Figure 7.34 Nicol Prism
Let us consider a ray of unpolarised

E
light from a monochromatic source is
E
O
incident on the Nicol prism. The double
O
refraction takes place and the ray is split
into ordinary and extraordinary rays.
They travel in different directions with
different velocities. For monochromatic
Figure 7.33 Double refraction
sodium light the refractive index of the

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crystal for the ordinary ray is 1.658 and for Unpolarised

Sunlight Molecule
extraordinary ray is 1.486. The refractive Unpolarised
light
index of canada balsam is 1.523.
The ordinary ray is total internally Partially
reflected at the layer of canada balsam polarised
light
and is prevented from emerging along
with extraordinary ray. Where as, the
extraordinary ray is transmitted through
the crystal which is plane polarised. Polarised
light
Drawbacks of Nicol prism
(i) Its cost is very high due to scarcity of Figure 7.35 Polarisation by scattering
large and flawless calcite crystals.
(ii) Due to extraordinary ray passing
obliquely through it, the emergent ray 7.6
is always displaced a little to one side. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
(iii) The effective field of view is quite
limited. There are many optical instruments we
used in our daily life. We shall discuss here
(iv) The light emerging out of it is not
about microscope, telescope, spectrometer
uniformly plane polarised.
and of course the human eye.
7.5.8 Polarisation by
7.6.1 Simple microscope
scattering
A simple microscope is a single
When sun light gets scattered by the
magnifying (convex) lens of small focal
atmospheric molecules, the electrons of
length which must produce an erect,
these molecules are influenced by the
magnified and virtual image of the object.
vibrating components of the electric
Hence, the object must be placed within the
field present in the sun light. As the
focal length f (between the points F and P)
sunlight is unpolarised, it produces
on one side of the lens and viewed through
these vibrations in all directions. These
the other side of it. The nearest point where
vibrating electrons radiate energy only
an eye can clearly see is called the near point
in the direction perpendicular to their
and the farthest point up to which an eye
vibrations. When an observer views
can clearly see is called the far point. For a
a beam of sunlight perpendicular to
healthy eye, the distance of the near point
its direction of travel, the radiations
is 25 cm, which is denoted as D and the far
produced by the electrons vibrating
point should be at infinity.
in the direction perpendicular to the
direction of view will only reach the 7.6.1.1 Near point focusing
observer. Hence, the light reaching the The eye is least strained when image
observer is plane polarised. It is shown is formed at near point, i.e. 25 cm. The
in Figure 7.35. near point is also called as least distance of

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distinct vision. This is shown in Figure 7.36. ratio of the height of image to the height of
The object distance u should be less than f. h′ 
object  m =  , we will not get a meaningful
The image distance is the near point D. The  h
magnification m of this lens is given by the equation, as the image is of infinite size and
v it is also formed at infinity. Hence, we can
equation (6.67), m = practically use the angular magnification.
u
The angular magnification is defined as the
Substituting, v = –D and u = –u, as both
ratio of angle θi subtended by the image
the distances are measured to the left of the
with aided eye to the angle θ0 subtended by
−D
lens. Hence, m = the object with unaided eye.
−u
qi
D m= (7.61)
m= (7.59) q0
u
We can also write the equation for
magnification m in terms of focal length f h θº
1 1 1 D
by using lens equation (6.63), − = in (a) with unaided eye
v u f
v v
equation (6.67) m = we get m = 1 −
u f
Substituting v = –D gives,
h θi
D f θi Eye focused
m = 1 + (7.60) at infinity
f
This is the magnification for near point (b)with aided eye

focusing. Figure 7.37 Normal focusing
Eye focussed For unaided eye shown in Figure 7.37(a),

on near point
h
F tanq 0 ≈ q 0 = (7.62)
u D
D
For aided eye shown in Figure 7.37(b),
f
h
tanq i ≈ q i = (7.63)
Figure 7.36 Near point focusing f
The angular magnification is,

7.6.1.2 Normal focusing
qi h/ f
The eye is most relaxed when the image m= =
is formed at infinity. The focusing is called q0 h / D
normal focusing when the image is formed
D
at infinity. This is shown in Figure 7.37(b). m= (7.64)
f
To find the magnification m, if we take the

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1 1 1 1 1  −1 − 5  6
= − = − =  
 =− ;
u −25 5 25 5  25  25
This is the magnification for normal 25
u = − = −4.167 cm
focusing. 6
The magnification for normal focusing The closest distance between the lens and
is one less than that of near point focusing. the book is, u = –4.167 cm
But, the viewing is more comfortable in
To find farthest object distance, lens
normal focusing than near point focusing.
1 1 1
For large values of D/f, the difference equation is, − =
v ′ u′ f ′
between the two magnifications is
negligibly small. Rewriting for farthest object distance,
1 1 1
= −
u′ v ′ f ′
EXA MP LE 7 .1 9
1 1 1
Substituting, = − ; u = −5 cm
A man with a near point of 25 cm reads u′ ∞ 5
a book which has small print using a The farthest distance at which the person
magnifying lens of focal length 5 cm. can keep the book is, u ′ = −5 cm
cm
(a) What are the closest and the
farthest distances at which he should (b) To find magnification in near point
D 25
keep the lens from the book? (b) What focusing, m = 1 + = 1+ = 6
f 5
are the maximum and the minimum
magnification possible? To find magnification in normal focusing,
D 25
Solution m= = =5
f 5
D = 25 cm
The magnifying lens must be a 7.6.1.3. Resolving power of microscope
convex lens of positive focal length A microscope is used to see the details
f = 5 cm of the object under observation. Good
microscope should not only magnify the
For closest object distance u, the image
object but also resolve the two points on an
distance v is, –25 cm. (near point, v = –D)
object which are separated by the smallest
For farthest object distance u ′, the distance dmin. Actually, dmin is the resolution
corresponding image distance, v ′ is and its reciprocal is the resolving power.
infinity. The spatial resolution (radius of central
(a) To find closest distance between maximum) is already derived in equation
lens and book, we can use lens equation, 1.22l f
(7.54), r0 = .
1 1 1 a
− =
v u f Object Image
Rewriting for closest object distance, a

θ
β
1 1 1 1.22λv
= − f a
u v f Object v
Substituting, plane
Objective Image plane
lens
1 1 1 1 1  −1 − 5  6 Figure 7.38 Resolving power of
= − = − =   = − ;

u −25 5 25 5  25  25 microscope
25
u = − = −4.167 cm
6 Unit 7 wave op tics 89

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In microscope, the object distance is 7.6.1.4. Resolving power of telescope

just more than the focal length f and the The resolving power of telescope is the
image is formed at distance v as shown in reciprocal of the spatial resolution already
the Figure 7.38. Hence, f in equation (7.54) derived in equation (7.54).
is replaced by v.
1 a
1.22lv RT = = (7.73)
ro = (7.65) r0 1.22l f
a
If the distance between the two points
on the object to be resolved is dmin, then the 7.6.2 Compound
magnification m is, microscope
ro The diagram of a compound microscope
m= (7.66)
dmin is shown in Figure 7.39. The lens near the
object is called as objective. It forms a real,
ro 1.22lv 1.22lv 1.22lu inverted and magnified image of the object.
dmin = = = = [∴ m = v / u ]
m am a (v / u) a This serves as the object for the lens close to
the eye called as eyepiece. The eyepiece serves
1.22l f
dmin =
a
[ ∴ u ≈ f ] (7.67) as a simple microscope that produces finally
an enlarged and virtual image. The first
On the object side, inverted image formed by the objective is to
a be adjusted within the focus of the eyepiece
2 tan b ≈ 2 sin b = ∴ [a = f 2 sin b ] (7.68) so that the final image is formed nearly at
f
infinity (or) at the near point. The final image
1.22l
dmin = (7.69) is inverted with respect to the object.
2 sin b
To further reduce the value of dmin the u fo L fe
optical path of the light is increased by A
immersing the objective of the microscope h β
β
B'
B'' B O
h'
into a bath containing oil of refractive E
index n. Objective A'

h''
1.22l
dmin = (7.70) Eyepiece
2n sin b
D
Such an objective is called oil immersed
A''
objective. The term n sin β is called
numerical aperture NA. Figure 7.39 Compound microscope
1.22l
dmin = (7.71) 7.6.2.1. Magnification in compound
2(NA)
microscope
The resolving power RM of microscope
is, The lateral magnification produced by
the objective is given by the equation (6.66),
1 2(NA) 2nsin b
RM = = (7.72) ′
mo = h
=
dmin 1.22l 1.22l h

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h h′ Solution
From the Figure 7.39, tan b = = , then
fo L f 0 = 5cm = 5×10−2 m; f e = 50cm = 50×10−2 m;
h′ L L = 30cm = 30×10−2 m; D = 25cm = 25×10−2 m

= (7.74)
h fo (a) The total magnification m in near point
L  L  D
mo = (7.75) focusing is, m = mome =  1 + 
fo  f o  f e 
Substituting,
Here, the distance L is measured between
 30×10−2  25×10−2 
the focal point of the eyepiece to the focal m = mme =  1 + 
−2  −2 
point of the objective. This is called the  5×10  50×10 
tube length of the microscope as fo and fe are = (6)(1.5) = 9
comparatively smaller than L. (b) The total magnification m in normal
If the final image is formed at the near  L  D 
focusing is, m = mme =   
point, the magnification me of the eyepiece  f   f e 
is, Substituting,
D  30×10−2  25×10−2 
me = 1 + (7.76) m = mme =  −2 
 −2 

fe  5×10  50×10 
= (6)(0.5) = 3
The total magnification m for near point
focusing is,
   7.6.3 Astronomical
m = mome =  L 1 + D (7.77) telescope
 f o  fe 
An astronomical telescope is used to get the
If the final image is formed at infinity
magnification of distant astronomical objects
(normal focusing), the magnification me of
like stars, planets, moon etc. The image formed
the eyepiece is,
by astronomical telescope will be inverted. It
me = D (7.78) has an objective of long focal length and a much
fe larger aperture than the eyepiece as shown in
The total magnification m for normal Figure 7.40. Light from a distant object enters
focusing is, the objective and a real image is formed in the
tube at its focal point. The eyepiece magnifies
  
m = mome =  L  D  (7.79) this image producing a final inverted image.
 f o  f e 
fo
fe
EXA MP LE 7 .2 0
α B'
α h
A microscope has an objective and
β
O E
eyepiece of focal lengths 5 cm and 50 cm A'

respectively with tube length 30 cm. Find
Objective Eyepiece
the magnification of the microscope
in the (a) near point and (b) normal
Figure 7.40 Astronomical telescope
focusing.

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7.6.3.1 Magnification in astronomical (c) Equation for angular magnification,

telescope qi
m=
The magnification m is the ratio of q0
the angle β subtended by the image to the Rewriting, q i = m×q 0
angle α subtended by the object with the
principal axis. Substituting,
62.5
b q i = 62.5×1′ = 62.5′ = = 1.04 = 1°2'30''
m= (7.80) 60
a
h h
From the diagram, α = and β = 7.6.4 Terrestrial telescope
f0 fe
A terrestrial telescope is used to see
f objects at a long distance on the surface of
m = o (7.81)
fe earth. Hence, image should be erect. Hence,
The length of the telescope is it has an additional erecting lens to make the
approximately, final image erect as shown in Figure 7.41.
L = fo + fe(7.82)
To ∞
A''
α B' Fo
α Fo C' B'' C''
C
EXA MP LE 7 .2 1 A'
Erecting lens
Objective Eyepiece
A small telescope has an objective lens of
focal length 125 cm and an eyepiece of focal Figure 7.41 Terrestrial telescope
length 2 cm. (a) What is the magnification
of the telescope? (b) What is the separation
between the objective and the eyepiece? 7.6.5 Reflecting telescope
(c) What is the angular separation
between two stars when viewed through
this telescope if they subtend 1 ' for bare Eyepiece
Secondary
eye? mirror
(convex)
Solution
fo = 125 cm; fe = 2 cm; m = ?; L = ?; θi = ? Objective mirror (concave)
(a) Equation for magnification of telescope, Figure 7.42 Reflecting telescope

fo
m= Modern telescopes use concave mirrors
fe
125 instead of lenses for the objectives. It is rather
Substituting, m = = 62.5 difficult and expensive to make lenses of large
2
size which form images that are free from
(b) Equation for approximate length of
any optical defect. A telescopes which has a
telescope, L = fo+ fe
concave mirror objective is called reflecting
Substituting, L = 125+2 = 127 cm = 1.27 m telescope. It has several advantages. Only

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one surface is to be polished and maintained discs provided with three levelling screws. It
for a mirror where as it to be done for two can be rotated and its position can be read
surfaces for a lens. Support can be given from two verniers V1 and V2 . The prism
from the entire back of the mirror whereas table can be fixed at any desired height.
it is given only at the rim for lens. A mirror
(iii) Telescope
weighs much less compared to a lens. But,
the one obvious problem with a reflecting The telescope is an astronomical type. It
telescope is that the objective mirror would consists of an eyepiece provided with cross
focus the light inside the telescope tube. wires at one end and an objective at its other
One must have an eye piece inside the tube end. The distance between the objective
obstructing some light. This problem could and the eyepiece can be adjusted so that the
also be overcome by introducing a secondary telescope forms a clear image at the cross wires.
mirror which would take the light outside the The telescope is attached to a circular
tube for view as shown in the Figure 7.42. scale and both can be rotated together. The
telescope and prism table are provided with
7.6.6 Spectrometer radial screws for fixing them at a desired
position and tangential screws for fine
The spectrometer is an optical instrument
adjustments.
used to analise the spectra of different sources
of light, to measure the wavelength of different Preliminary adjustments of the
colours and to measure the refractive indices of spectrometer
materials of prisms. It is shown in Figure 7.43.
The following adjustments must be
It basically consists of three parts namely (i)
done in a spectrometer before doing the
collimator, (ii) prism table and (iii) telescope.
experiment.
(a) Adjustment of the eyepiece: The
telescope is turned towards an
illuminated surface and the eyepiece is
moved to and fro until the cross wires
are clearly seen.
(b) Adjustment of the telescope: The
telescope is adjusted to receive parallel
Figure 7.43 Spectrometer rays by focusing it to a distant object to
get a clear image on the cross wire.
(i) Collimator (c) Adjustment of the collimator: The
telescope is brought in line with the
The collimator is used for producing
collimator. The distance between the
parallel beam of light. It has a convex lens and
illuminated slit and the lens of the
a vertical slit of adjustable width which faces
collimator is adjusted until a clear
the source. The position of slit can be adjusted
so that it is kept at the focus of the lens. The image of the slit is seen at the cross
collimator is rigidly fixed to the base. wire.
(d) Levelling of the prism table: The prism
(ii) Prism table table is brought to the horizontal level
The prism table is used for mounting the by adjusting the levelling screws and it
prism, grating etc. It consists of two circular is ensured by using sprit level.

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7.6.6.1 Determination of refractive index observed through the telescope as shown

of material of the prism in Figure 7.45. The prism table alone is
The preliminary adjustments of the now rotated so that the angle of deviation
spectrometer are done. The refractive decreases. A stage comes when the image
index of the prism can be determined by stops and returns on further rotation of
measuring the angle of the prism A and the the prism table. This is ensured by looking
angle of minimum deviation D. through the telescope simultaneously.
The reading in this position gives the
(i) Angle of the prism A
minimum deviation position.
Collimator Collimator
A θ
PRISM TABLE
PRISM
A
A
BASE
T1 B C
PRISM TABLE T2
Telescope Telescope
2A Minimum deviation D
position
Figure 7.44 Angle of prism Direct ray

position
The prism is placed on the prism

Figure 7.45 Angle of minimum
table with its refracting angle A facing deviation
the collimator as shown in Figure 7.44.
The slit is illuminated by sodium light
(monochromotic light). The parallel rays Now, the prism is removed and
coming from the collimator fall on the two the telescope is turned to receive the
faces AB and AC and get reflected. The direct ray and the reading is noted. The
telescope is rotated to the position T1 and difference between the two readings
T2 to capture the reflected rays and the two gives the angle of minimum deviation
reading are noted. D. The refractive index of the material
The difference between these two of the prism n is calculated using the
readings gives the angle rotated by the using the equation (6.89),
telescope, which is twice the angle of the
 A + D 
prism. Half of this value gives the angle of sin 
 2 
the prism A. n=
 A
sin  
 2 
(ii) Angle of minimum deviation D
The prism is placed on the prism table The refractive index of a liquid may
so that the light from the collimator falls on be determined in the same way by using a
a refracting face and the refracted image is hollow glass prism filled with the liquid.

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7.6.7 The eye 1 1 1

= −
f v u
Eye is a natural optical instrument human
beings have. As the eye lens is flexible, its When the object is at infinity, u = –∞,
focal length can be changed to some extent. and v = 2.5 cm (distance between eye lens
When the eye is fully relaxed, its focal length and retina), the eye can see the object in
is maximum and when it is strained its focal relaxed condition with fmax. Substituting
length is minimum. The image must be these values in the lens equation gives,
formed on the retina for clear vision. The 1 1 1
diameter of eye ball for a normal adult is about = −
f max 2.5 cm −∞
2.5 cm. Hence, the distance between eye lens
and retina (image distance) is fixed always f max = 2.5 cm
at 2.5 cm. We can just discuss the optical
functioning of eye without giving importance When the object is at near point, u = –25 cm
to the refractive indices of the two liquids, and v = 2.5 cm, the eye can see the object
aqueous humor and virtuous humor present in strained condition with fmin. Substituting
in the eye. A person with normal vision can these values in the lens equation gives,
see objects kept at infinity in the relaxed
1 1 1
condition with a maximum focal length fmax of = −
f min 2.5 cm −25 cm
the eye lens as shown in Figure 7.46(a) and in
the strained condition, with a minimum focal f min = 2.27 cm
length fmin for an object kept at near point D
(25 cm) as shown in Figure 7.46(b). This implies that by varying the focal
length of the eye lens by a small value of
fmax – fmin = 0.23 cm, a person can see the
objects from infinity to the near point. Now,
from infinity we can discuss some common defects of
vision in the eye.
fmax 7.6.7.1 Nearsightedness

25 cm (myopia)
fmin
(a) Relaxed eye A person suffering
(b) Strained eyefrom nearsightedness
(or) myopia cannot see distant objects clearly.
This may be due to the short focal length of
the eye lens (or) larger diameter of the eyeball
than usual. These people have difficulty in
relaxing their eye to the extent of what is
25 cm
needed. Thus, they need correcting lens.
fmax fmin
For them, parallel rays coming from the
ye (b) Strained eye
distant object get focused before reaching
Figure 7.46 Focusing of normal eye the retina as shown in Figure 7.47(a). But,
these persons can see objects which are
Let us find fmax and fmin of human eye nearer. Let x be the maximum distance up
from the lens equation (6.63). to which a person with nearsightedness

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x x
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7.47 Myopic eye and correction
can see as shown in Figure 7.47(b). To of farsightedness arising mainly due to

overcome this difficulty, the virtual image aging is called presbyopia. The aged people
of the object at infinity should be formed at cannot strain their eye more to reduce the
a distance x from the eye using a correcting focal length of the eye lens.
lens as shown in Figure 7.47(c). The rays coming from the object at near
The focal length of the correcting lens point get focused beyond the retina as shown
for a myopic eye can be calculated using the in Figure 7.48(a). But, these persons can see
lens equation (6.63). objects which are at a distance only beyond
1 1 1 25 cm from the eye. Let y be the minimum
= −
f v u distance from the eye beyond which a person
with farsightedness can see as shown in Figure
Here, u = –∞, v = –x. Substituting these
7.48(b). To make this person see on object
values in the lens equation gives,
at 25 cm (near point) a virtual image of the
1 1 1
= − object at 25 cm should be formed at y using a
f −x −∞
correcting lens as shown in Figure 7.48(c).
Focal length f of the correcting lens is, The focal length of the correcting lens
for a hypermetropic eye can be calculated
f = –x(7.83)
using the lens equation (6.63).
The negative sign in the above result 1 1 1
= −
suggests that the correcting lens should f v u
be a concave lens. Basically, the concave
Here, u = –25 cm, v = –y. Substituting
lens slightly diverges the parallel rays from
these values in the lens equation gives,
infinity and makes them fall at the retina.
1 1 1
= −
7.6.7.2 Farsightedness (hypermetropia) f − y −25 cm
A person suffering from farsightedness Simplifying the above equation for f gives,
(or) hypermetropia (or) hyperopia cannot
see closer object clearly. It occurs when the 1 1 1 y − 25 cm
= − =
eye lens has long focal length (or) shortening f 25 cm y y ×25 cm
of the eyeball than usual. The closest
y ×25 cm
distance for clear vision for these people is f= (7.84)
y − 25 cm
appreciably more than 25 cm. Thus, reading
books (or) viewing smaller things held in The focal length calculated using above
the hands is difficult for them. This kind formula will be positive as y is always

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25 cm y y
25 cm
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7.48 Hypermetropic eye and correction
greater than 25 cm. The positive sign of the Solution

focal length suggests that the correcting The maximum distance the person could
lens should be a convex lens. In principle, see is, x = 1.8 m.
the convex lens slightly converges the rays
The lens should have a focal length of,
coming from an object beyond y and makes
f = –x m = –1.8 m.
them fall at the retina.
It is a concave (or) diverging lens.
7.6.6.3 Astigmatism The power of the lens is,
Astigmatism is the defect arising due to
different curvatures along different planes in 1
P =− = −0.56 D.
the eye lens. Astigmatic person cannot see in 1. 8 m
all the directions equally well. The defect due
to astigmatism is more serious than myopia EX AM P L E 7 . 2 3
and hypermetropia. The astigmatism can be A person has farsightedness with the far
corrected using a lens which has different distance he could see clearly is 75 cm.
curvatures in different planes. In general, these Calculate the power of the lens of the
specially made glasses with different curvature spectacles needed to rectify the defect.
for different planes are called as cylindrical lenses.
Due to aging people may develop Solution
combination of more than one defect. If it
The minimum distance the person could
is the combination of nearsightedness and
see clearly is, y = 75 cm.
farsightedness then, such persons may need
a converging glass for reading purpose and The lens should have a focal length of,
a diverging glass for seeing at a distance. y ×25 cm
f=
Bifocal lenses and progressive lenses provide y − 25 cm
solution for these kinds of problems.
75 cm ×25 cm
f= = 37.5 cm
75 cm − 25 cm
EXA MP LE 7 .2 2 It is a convex (or) converging lens.
Calculate the power of the lens of the The power of the lens is,
spectacles needed to rectify the defect of
1
nearsightedness for a person who could see P= = 2.67 D.
0.375 m
clearly up to a distance of 1.8 m.

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SUMMARY
Light has wave as well as particle nature.

A wavefront is the locus of points which are in the same state or phase of vibration.
Huygen’s principle states the method of propagation of wavefront.
Light propagating as a wavefront. Point source produces spherical wavefront and
source at infinity produces plane wavefront.
Laws of reflection and refraction are proved by Huygens’ principle.
The phenomenon of addition or superposition of two light waves which produces
increase in intensity at some points and decrease in intensity at some other points is
called interference of light.
2
I1 and
IfI max ∝ (a1I2+are
a2 )the intensities
I min ∝ of
(a1interfering
− a2 )
2
light, then
I max = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2
; I min = I1 + I 2 − 2 I1I 2
If interfering lights have equal intensities of I0 with phase difference ϕ, then
= 4aI 02 cos2 (f / 2)  I ∝ A2 
I maxI ∝
 
I max = 4 I 0 when, f = 0, ±2p , 4p ...,
I min = 0 when, f = ±p , ±3p , ±5p ...,
Two light sources are said to be coherent if they produce waves which have same
phase or constant phase difference, same frequency or wavelength monochromatic),
same waveform and preferably same amplitude.
Coherent sources are obtained by wavefront division, intensity division and real and
virtual images of light source.
Young’s double slit uses wavefront division to obtain coherent sources.
lD lD
In Young’s double slit experiment, the position of nth ybright
= n fringe
(oris,
) yn = n
d d
(2n −1) l D (2n −1) l D
In Young’s double slit experiment, the position ofyn=th dark fringe(or
is,) yn =
2 d 2 d
lD
In Young’s double slit experiment, the equation for bandwidth is, b =
d
Interference with polychromatic (white) light produces coloured interference fringes.
Thin films appear coloured due to interference of white light.
In thins films the equations for constructive and destructive interference for reflected
l
rays are, 2 md = (2n −1) ; 2µd = nλ respectively.
2
l
Transmitted light are, 2µd = nλ; 2 md = (2n −1) respectively.
2
Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp edges into the geometrically shadowed
region.
A spherical wave front undergoes diffraction in Fresnel diffraction.

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A plane wavefront undergoes diffraction in Fraunhofer diffraction.

The equation for nth minimum in single slit diffraction is, a sin θ = nλ (nth minimum)
l
The equation for nth maximum in single slit diffraction is, a sinq = (2n + 1) (nth
2
maximum)
Fresnel’s distance is the distance upto which ray optics is obeyed and beyond which
a2
ray optics is not obeyed but, wave optics becomes significant. z =
2l
Diffraction can also happen in grating which has multiple slits of thickness comparable
1
b)qsinθ
to wavelength of light used. (a +sin = ml= m
(orλ;) sin q = N m l
N
Wavelength of monochromatic light and also different colours of polychromatic light
can be determined. Using diffraction grating and spectrometer.
According to Rayleigh’s criterion, for two point objects to be just resolved, the
minimum distance between their diffraction images must be in such a way that the
central maximum of one coincides with the first minimum of the other and vice
versa
1.22l
Angular resolution, q =
a
1.22l f
Special resolution, r0 =
a
Resolution is measured by the smallest distance which could be seen clearly without
the blur due to diffraction.
The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of light (electric or magnetic field
vector) to a particular direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
wave is called polarization of light.
If the vibrations of a wave are present in only one direction in a plane perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of wave is said to be polarised or plane polarised light.
The plane containing the vibrations of the electric field vector is known as the plane
of vibration.
The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration and containing the ray of light is
known as the plane of polarisation.
In plane polarised light the intensity varies from maximum to zero for every rotation
of 90° of the analyser.
In partially polarised light the intensity varies from maximum to minimum for every
rotation of 90° of the analyser.
The intensity of transmitted light through two cross polaroids is given by Malus’ Law.
I = I0 cos2 θ
Nicol prism separates ordinary and extraordinary rays by double refraction.
Light scattered by molecules at perpendicular direction to the incident light is found
to be plane polarised.

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A single convex lens can act as a simple microscope when object is within the focal
length.
In near point focusing, the image is formed at D = 25 cm.
D
The magnification in near point focusing is, m = 1 +
f
In normal focusing, the image is formed at infinity, the magnification in normal
D
focusing is, m =
f
1 2(NA) 2nsin b
The resolving power of microscope is, RM = = =
dmin 1.22l 1.22l
1 a
The resolving power of telescope is, RT = =
r0 1.22l f

Magnification in near point focusing in compound microscope is,

  
m = mome =  L 1 + D 
 f o  fe 
 L  D 
Magnification in normal focusing in compound microscope is, m = mome =   
 f o  f e 

fo
Magnification in astronomical telescope is, m = and the tube length is, L = fo + fe
fe
The correction lens for nearsightedness/myopic eye should be a concave lens with
focal length, f = –x. Where x is the maximum distance upto which an object can be
seen.
The correction lens for farsightedness/hypermetropic eye should be a convex lens
y ×25 cm
with focal length, f = . Where, the 25 cm is the near distance and y is the
y − 25 cm
minimum distance upto which an object can be seen.
The farsightedness arising due to aging is called presbyopia.
Astigmatism is the defect arising due to different curvatures along different planes in
the eye lens.

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CONCEPT MAP
Wave Optics
Theories on Interference Diffraction Polarisation

light
Huygens’ Superposition Fresnel/ Selective

Principle Fraunhofer absorption
Concept of Coherent Single slit Reflection/

wavefront sources Brewster’s law
Laws of Young’s double Fresnel Double

reflection slit distance refraction
Laws of Interference in
Grating Scattering
refraction thin films
Optical
instruments
Simple Compound Astronomical

Spectrometer Eye
microscope microscope telescope
Resolving Terrestrial Myopia,

power telescope Hypermetropia

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EVA LU A TION
Multiple choice questions (a) 1.22 (b) 1.33

1. A plane glass is placed over a various (c) 1.51 (d) 1.83.
coloured letters (violet, green, yellow, 6. First diffraction minimum due to a
red) The letter which appears to be single slit of width 1.0×10–5 cm is at
raised more is, 30o. Then wavelength of light used is,
(a) red (b) yellow (a) 400 Å (b) 500 Å
(c) green (d) violet (c) 600 Å (d) 700 Å
2. Two point white dots are 1 mm apart on 7. A ray of light strikes a glass plate at an
a black paper. They are viewed by eye angle 60o. If the reflected and refracted
of pupil diameter 3 mm approximately. rays are perpendicular to each other,
The maximum distance at which these the refractive index of the glass is,
dots can be resolved by the eye is, [take 3
(a) 3 (b)
wavelength of light, λ = 500 nm] 2
3
(a) 1 m (b) 5 m (c) (d) 2
2
(c) 3 m (d) 6m 8. One of the of Young’s double slits is
3. In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the covered with a glass plate as shown
slit separation is doubled. To maintain in figure. The position of central
the same fringe spacing on the screen, maximum will,
the screen-to-slit distance D must be
Glass slide Screen
changed to,
D
(a) 2D (b)
2
D
(c) 2 D (d)
2
4. Two coherent monochromatic light
beams of intensities I and 4I are
superposed. The maximum and (a) get shifted downwards
minimum possible intensities in the
(b) get shifted upwards
resulting beam are [IIT-JEE 1988]
(c) will remain the same
(a) 5I and I (b) 5I and 3I
(d) data insufficient to conclude
(c) 9I and I (d) 9I and 3I
9. Light transmitted by Nicol prism is,
5. When light is incident on a soap film of
thickness 5×10–5 cm, the wavelength of (a) partially polarised
light reflected maximum in the visible (b) unpolarised
region is 5320 Å. Refractive index of (c) plane polarised
the film will be, (d) elliptically polarised

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10. The transverse nature of light is shown 15. What is bandwidth of interference
in, pattern?
(a) interference 16. What is diffraction?
(b) diffraction 17. Differentiate between Fresnel and
(c) scattering Fraunhofer diffraction.
(d) polarisation 18. Discuss the special cases on first
minimum in Fraunhofer diffraction.
Answers 19. What is Fresnel’s distance? Obtain the
equation for Fresnel’s distance.
1) d 2) b 3) a 4) c 5) b
20. Mention the differences between
6) b 7) a 8) b 9) c 10) d
interference and diffraction.
21. What is a diffraction grating?
Short Answer Questions
22. What is resolution?
1. What are the salient features of 23. What is Rayleigh’s criterion?
corpuscular theory of light?
24. What is the difference between
2. What are the important points of wave resolution and magnification?
theory of light?
25. What is polarisation?
3. What is the significance of
26. Differentiate between polarised and
electromagnetic wave theory of light?
unpolarised light
4. Write a short note on quantum theory
27. Discuss polarisation by selective
of light.
absorption.
5. Define wavefront.
28. What are polariser and analyser?
6. What are the shapes of wavefront for
29. What are plane polarised, unpolarized
(a) source at infinite, (b) point source
and partially polarised light?
and (c) line source?
30. State and obtain Malus’ law.
7. State Huygens’ principle.
31. List the uses of polaroids.
8. What is interference of light?
32. State Brewster’s law.
9. What is phase of a wave?
33. What is angle of polarisation and obtain
10. Obtain the relation between phase
the equation for angle of polarisation.
difference and path difference.
34. Discuss about pile of plates.
11. What are coherent sources?
35. What is double refraction?
12. How does wavefront division provide
coherent sources? 36. Mention the types of optically active
crystals with example.
13. What is intensity (or) amplitude
division? 37. Discuss about Nicol prism.
14. How do source and images behave as 38. How is polarisation of light obtained
coherent sources? by scattering of light?

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39. What are near point and normal 8. Discuss the diffraction at a grating
focusing? and obtain the condition for the mth
40. Why is oil immersed objective maximum.
preferred in a microscope? 9. Discuss the experiment to determine
41. What are the advantages and the wavelength of monochromatic
disadvantages of a reflecting telescope? light using diffraction grating.
42. What is the use of an erecting lens in a 10. Discuss the experiment to determine
terrestrial telescope? the wavelength of different colours
43. What is the use of collimator in a using diffraction grating.
spectrmeter? 11. Obtain the equation for resolving
44. What are the uses of spectrometer? power of optical instruments.
45. What is myopia? What is its remedy? 12. Discuss about the simple microscope
and obtain the equations for
46. What is hypermetropia? What is its
magnification for near point focusing
remedy?
and normal focusing.
47. What is astigmatism? What is its
13. Explain about compound microscope
remedy?
and obtain the equation for the
48. What is presbyopia? magnification.
14. Obtain the equation for resolving
Long Answer Questions power of microscope.
1. Prove law of reflection using Huygens’ 15. Discuss about astronomical telescope.
principle. 16. Mention different parts of spectrometer
2. Prove law of refraction using Huygens’ and explain the preliminary
principle. adjustments.
3. Obtain the equation for resultant 17. Explain the experimental determination
intensity due to interference of light. of refractive index of the material of
4. Explain the Young’s double slit the prism using spectrometer.
experimental setup and obtain the
equation for path difference. Exercise problems
5. Obtain the equation for bandwidth in 1. The ratio of maximum and minimum
Young’s double slit experiment. intensities in an interference pattern is
6. Discuss the interference in thin 36 : 1. What is the ratio of the amplitudes
films and obtain the equations of the two interfering waves?
for constructive and destructive [Ans: 7:5]
interference for transmitted and
2. In Young’s double slit experiment, 62
reflected light.
fringes are seen on a screen for sodium
7. Discuss the diffraction at single slit and light of wavelength 5893 Å. If violet
obtain the condition for nth minimum. light of wavelength 4359 Å is used

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in place of sodium light, how many 7. An unpolarised light of intensity 32

fringes will be seen? Wm–2 passes through three Polaroids
[Ans: 84] such that the axes of the first and the
3. Light of wavelength 600 nm that falls last Polaroids are at 90°. What is the
on a pair of slits producing interference angle between the axes of the first and
pattern on a screen in which the bright middle Polaroids so that the emerging
fringes are separated by 7.2 mm. What light has an intensity of only 3 Wm–2?
must be the wavelength of another [Ans: 30°]
light which produces bright fringes 8. The reflected light is found to be plane
separated by 8.1 mm with the same polarised when an unpolarized light
apparatus? falls on a denser medium at 60° with
[Ans: 675 nm] the normal. Find the angle of refraction
4. A beam of light of wavelength 600 and critical angle of incidence for total
nm from a distant source falls on a internal reflection in the denser to rarer
single slit 1 mm wide and the resulting medium reflection.
diffraction pattern is observed on a [Ans: 30°, 35.15°]
screen 2 m away. What is the distance 9. The near point and the far point
between the first dark fringes on either for a person are 50 cm and 500 cm,
side of the central bright fringe? respectively. Calculate the power of the
[Ans: 2.4 mm] lens the person should wear to read
5. Light of wavelength of 5000 Å produces a book held in hand at 25 cm. What
diffraction pattern of the single slit of maximum distance is clearly visible for
width 2.5 μm. What is the maximum the person with this lens on the eye?
order of diffraction possible? [Ans: 2D, 45.45 cm]
[Ans: 5] 10. A compound microscope has a
6. I0 is the intensity of light existing magnifying power of 100 when
between two cross Polaroids kept the image is formed at infinity. The
with their axes perpendicular to each objective has a focal length of 0.5 cm
other. A third polaroid is introduced and the tube length is 6.5 cm. What is
between them. What must be the the focal length of the eyepiece.
angle between the axes of first and [Ans: 3.25 cm]
the newly introduced polaroid to get (Note: magnification is also called as
the maximum light from the whole magnifying power).
arrangement?
[Ans: 45°]

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BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
1. Frances A. Jenkins and Harvey E. White, Fundamentals of Optics, 4th Edition, McGraw
Hill Book Company, (2011).
2. David Halliday, Robert Resnick and Jearl Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, 6th Edition,
John Wiley & Sons Inc., (2004).
3. H.C. Verma,Concepts of Physics [Part-1], 1st Edition, Bharathi Bhawan Publishers &
Distributers Pvt. Ltd., (2008).
4. Roger A. Freedman, Hugh D. Young, Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics,
12th Edition, Pearson, (2011).

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ICT CORNER
Wave Optics
In this activity you will be able to explore

the behaviour of a Young’s double slit
experiment by adjusting the slit separation,
Topic: Young’s double slit
the distance to the screen, and the wave-
experiment.
length of the light.
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• Change the slit separation (distance between two sources) andobservehow the pattern of
bright and dark fringes changes.
•W
hat happens to the fringe width if distance between the source and screen decreases?
• Observe how does the fringe width in interference pattern vary with the wavelength of
incident light?
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UNIT
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION
8 AND MATTER
“If quantum mechanics has not profoundly shocked you, you have not understood it yet”
– Neils Bohr
In this unit, the students are exposed to

• the phenomenon of electron emission and its types
• the observations of Hertz, Hallwachs and Lenard
• photoelectric effect and its laws
• the concept of quantization of energy
• photo cell and its applications
• particle nature of radiation
• the wave nature of matter
• de Broglie equation and de Broglie wavelength of electron
• the construction and working of electron microscope
• Davisson and Germer experiment
• X-rays and its production
• X-rays spectra and its types
8.1 Classical physics which describes the

motion of the macroscopic objects treats
INTRODUCTION particles and waves as separate components
of physical reality. The mechanics of particles
and the optics of waves are traditionally
We are familiar with the concepts of independent subjects, each with its own
particle and wave in our everyday experience. experiments and principles.
Marble balls, grains of sand, atoms, electrons Electromagnetic radiations are regarded
and so on are some examples of particles while as waves because they exhibit wave nature in
the examples of waves are sea waves, ripples in phenomena such as interference, diffraction
a pond, sound waves and light waves. and polarization under some suitable
Particle is a material object which is circumstances. Similarly, under other
considered as a tiny concentration of matter circumstances like black body radiation
(localized in space and time) whereas and photo electric effect, electromagnetic
wave is a broad distribution of energy radiations behave as though they consist of
(not localized in space and time). They, stream of particles.
both particles and waves, have the ability When electrons, protons and other
to carry energy and momentum from one particles are discovered, they are considered
place to another. as particles because they possess mass and
108

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charge. However, later experiments showed The minimum energy needed for
that under certain circumstances, they an electron to escape from the metal
exhibit wave-like properties also. surface is called work function of that
In this unit, the particle nature of waves metal. The work function of the metal
(radiation) and the wave nature of particles is denoted by φ 0 and is measured in
(matter) – that is, wave-particle duality electron volt (eV).
of radiation and matter is discussed with
the relevant experimental observations
supporting this dual nature. Note The SI unit of energy is
joule. But electron volt is
a commonly used unit of
8.1.1 Electron emission
energy in atomic and nuclear physics.
In metals, the electrons in the outer most
One electron volt is defined as the
shells are loosely bound to the nucleus.
kinetic energy gained by an electron
Even at room temperature, there are a large
when accelerated by a potential
number of free electrons which are moving
difference of 1 V.
inside the metal in a random manner.
Though they move freely inside the metal, 1 eV = KE gained by the electron
they cannot leave the surface of the metal. = Work done by the electric field
The reason is that when free electrons reach
=qV
the surface of the metal, they are attracted
by the positive nuclei of the metal. It is this = 1.602 × 10–19 C × 1 V
attractive pull which will not allow free = 1.602 × 10–19 J
electrons to leave the metallic surface at
room temperature.
In order to leave the metallic surface, the Suppose the maximum kinetic energy
free electrons must cross a potential barrier of the free electron inside the metal is
created by the positive nuclei of the metal. 0.5 eV and the energy needed to overcome
The potential barrier which prevents free the surface barrier of a metal is 3 eV, then
electrons from leaving the metallic surface the minimum energy needed for electron
is called surface barrier. emission from the metallic surface is 3 – 0.5
Free electrons possess some kinetic = 2.5 eV. Here 2.5 eV is the work function
energy and this energy is different for of the metal.
different electrons. The kinetic energy of the The work function is different for
free electrons is not sufficient to overcome different metals and is a typical property of
the surface barrier. Whenever an additional metals and the nature of their surface. Table
energy is given to the free electrons, they will 8.1 gives the approximate value of work
have sufficient energy to cross the surface function for various metals. The material
barrier and they escape from the metallic with smaller work function is more effective
surface. The liberation of electrons from in electron emission because extra energy
any surface of a substance is called electron required to release the free electrons from
emission. the metal surface is smaller.
Unit 8 dual nature of radiation and mat ter 109

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Table 8.1 Work function of some materials
Metal Symbol Work function (eV) Metal Symbol Work function (eV)
Cesium Cs 2.14 Aluminium Al 4.28

Potassium K 2.30 Mercury Hg 4.49
Sodium Na 2.75 Copper Cu 4.65
Calcium Ca 3.20 Silver Ag 4.70
Molybdenum Mo 4.17 Nickel Ni 5.15
Lead Pb 4.25 Platinum Pt 5.65
So the metal selected for electron

emission should have low work function.
The electron emission is categorized into
different types depending upon the form of
energy being utilized. There are mainly four
types of electron emission which are given
below.
Hot filament Electrons
i) Thermionic emission
When a metal is heated to a high Figure 8.2 Thermionic emission from hot
temperature, the free electrons on the surface filament of cathode ray tube or x-ray tube
of the metal get sufficient energy in the form
of thermal energy so that they are emitted
from the metallic surface (Figure 8.1). This ii) Field emission
type of emission is known as thermionic Electric field emission occurs when a
emission. very strong electric field is applied across
the metal. This strong field pulls the free
Metal Electrons liberated electrons and helps them to overcome the
surface barrier of the metal (Figure 8.3).
Examples: Field emission scanning electron
microscopes, Field-emission display etc.
Electrons Thermal energy
(a) (b)
Electrons emitted
Figure 8.1 Electrons in the (a) metal – +
(b) heated metal – +
– +
– +
The intensity of the thermionic emission – +
– +
(the number of electrons emitted) depends – +
on the metal used and its temperature. Metal Strong electric field
Examples: cathode ray tubes, electron
Figure 8.3 Field emission
microscopes, x-ray tubes etc (Figure 8.2).
110 Unit 8 dual nature of radiation and mat ter

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iii) Photo electric emission 8.2

When an electromagnetic radiation of
suitable frequency is incident on the surface PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT
of the metal, the energy is transferred from
the radiation to the free electrons. Hence, the
8.2.1 Hertz, Hallwachs and
free electrons get sufficient energy to cross
Lenard’s observation
the surface barrier and the photo electric
emission takes place (Figure 8.4). The Hertz observation
number of electrons emitted depends on the Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism
intensity of the incident radiation. Examples: predicted the existence of electromagnetic
Photo diodes, photo electric cells etc. waves and concluded that light itself is
just an electromagnetic wave. Then the
Radiation
Emitted electrons experimentalists tried to generate and detect
electromagnetic waves through various
experiments.
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz was successful
in generating and detecting electromagnetic
wave with his high voltage induction coil
causing a spark discharge between two
Free electrons Metal metallic spheres (we have learnt this in Unit
Figure 8.4 Photo electric emission 5 of XII standard physics). When a spark is
formed, the charges will oscillate back and
forth rapidly and the electromagnetic waves
iv) Secondary emission
are produced.
When a beam of fast moving electrons
The electromagnetic waves thus
strikes the surface of the metal, the kinetic
produced were detected by a detector that
energy of the striking electrons is transferred
has a copper wire bent in the shape of a
to the free electrons on the metal surface.
circle. Although the detection of waves is
Thus the free electrons get sufficient kinetic
successful, there is a problem in observing
energy so that the secondary emission of
the tiny spark produced in the detector.
electron occurs (Figure 8.5). Examples:
In order to improve the visibility of
Image intensifiers, photo multiplier tubes etc.
the spark, Hertz made many attempts and
High Speed
p d electrons
e Secondary electrons finally noticed an important thing that small
detector spark became more vigorous when
it was exposed to ultraviolet light.
The reason for this behaviour of the
spark was not known at that time. Later it
was found that it is due to the photoelectric
emission. Whenever ultraviolet light is
Free electrons Metal incident on the metallic sphere, the electrons
Figure 8.5 Secondary emission of electrons on the outer surface are emitted which
caused the spark to be more vigorous.

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Lenard’s observation
It is interesting to note that
In 1902, Lenard studied this electron
the experiment of Hertz
emission phenomenon in detail. His simple
confirmed that light is an
electromagnetic wave. But the same experimental setup is shown in Figure 8.7.
experiment also produced the first The apparatus consists of two metallic plates
evidence for particle nature of light. A and C placed in an evacuated quartz bulb.
The galvanometer G and battery B are
Hallwachs’ observation connected in the circuit.
In 1888, Wilhelm Hallwachs, a German
Ultraviolet Radiation
physicist, confirmed that the strange
behaviour of the spark is due to the action of Electrons
ultraviolet light with his simple experiment. G
A clean circular plate of zinc is mounted
C A
on an insulating stand and is attached to
a gold leaf electroscope by a wire. When
the uncharged zinc plate is irradiated by Quartz bulb
ultraviolet light from an arc lamp, it becomes
_ + I
positively charged and the leaves will open B
as shown in Figure 8.6(a).
Figure 8.7 Experimental setup of Lenard
Further, if the negatively charged zinc
plate is exposed to ultraviolet light, the leaves
When ultraviolet light is incident on
will come closer as the charges leaked away
the negative plate C, an electric current
quickly (Figure 8.6(b)). If the plate is positively
flows in the circuit that is indicated by the
charged, it becomes more positive upon UV
deflection in the galvanometer. On other
rays irradiation and the leaves open further
hand, if the positive plate is irradiated by
(Figure 8.6(c)). From these observations,
the ultraviolet light, no current is observed
it was concluded that negatively charged
in the circuit.
electrons were emitted from the zinc plate
From these observations, it is concluded
under the action of ultraviolet light.
that when ultraviolet light falls on the negative
UV rays plate, electrons are ejected from it which are
attracted by the positive plate A. On reaching
Zn + + + + + Zn –––––––
–
Zn +++++++
+
the positive plate through the evacuated bulb,
+ – +
the circuit is completed and the current flows
+ – +
– +
– ––
in it. Thus, the ultraviolet light falling on the
++ + +
+ + –– –– + +
+ – –– +
+ +
+ negative plate causes the electron emission
+ –– + +
from the surface of the plate.
(a) (b) (c)
Photoelectric effect
Figure 8.6 Irradiation of ultraviolet light The ejection of electrons from a
on (a) uncharged zinc plate (b) negatively
metal plate when illuminated by light
charged plate (c) positively charged plate
or any other electromagnetic radiation

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of suitable wavelength (or frequency) is the cathode (negative electrode) made up of

called photoelectric effect. Although these photosensitive material and is used to emit
electrons are not different from all other electrons. The anode (positive electrode) A
electrons, it is customary to call them as collects the electrons emitted from C. These
photoelectrons and the corresponding electrodes are kept in an evacuated glass
current as photoelectric current or photo envelope with a quartz window that permits
current. the passage of ultraviolet and visible light.
Metals like cadmium, zinc, magnesium The necessary potential difference
etc show photoelectric emission with between C and A is provided by high tension
ultraviolet light while some alkali metals battery B which is connected across a potential
lithium, sodium, caesium respond well divider arrangement PQ through a key K. C
even to larger wavelength radiation is connected to the centre terminal while A to
like visible light. The materials which the sliding contact J of the potential divider.
eject photoelectrons upon irradiation of The plate A can be maintained at a desired
electromagnetic wave of suitable wavelength positive or negative potential with respect
are called photosensitive materials. to C. To measure both positive and negative
potential of A with respect to C, the voltmeter
8.2.2 Effect of intensity of is designed to have its zero marking at the
incident light on photoelectric centre and is connected between A and C. The
current current is measured by a micro ammeter mA
connected in series.
Experimental setup If there is no light falling on the cathode
The apparatus shown in Figure 8.8 is C, no photoelectrons are emitted and the
employed to study the phenomenon of microammeter reads zero. When ultraviolet
photoelectric effect in detail. S is a source or visible light is allowed to fall on C,
of electromagnetic waves of known and the photoelectrons are liberated and are
variable frequency ν and intensity I. C is attracted towards anode. As a result, the
Quartz window S
Evacuated
Photo sensitive glass tube
plate
µA
C A P
K
J +
Photo electrons B
I V _
Q
Figure 8.8 Experimental setup for the study of photoelectric effect

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photoelectric current is set up in the circuit

which is measured using micro ammeter. ere, intensity of light means
H
Note
The variation of photocurrent with brightness. A bright light has
respect to (i) intensity of incident light more intensity than a dim
(ii) the potential difference between the light.
electrodes (iii) the nature of the material
and (iv) frequency of incident light can be
studied with the help of this arrangement. 8.2.3 Effect of potential
difference on photoelectric
Effect of intensity of incident light on current
photoelectric current To study the effect of potential difference
To study the effect of intensity of incident V between the electrodes on photoelectric
light on photoelectric current, the frequency current, the frequency and intensity of the
of the incident light and the accelerating incident light are kept constant. Initially the
potential V of the anode are kept constant. potential of A is kept positive with respect
Here the potential of A is kept positive with to C and the cathode is irradiated with the
respect to that of C so that the electrons given light.
emitted from C are attracted towards A. Now, the potential of A is increased and
Now, the intensity of the incident light is the corresponding photocurrent is noted. As
varied and the corresponding photoelectric the potential of A is increased, photocurrent
current is measured. also increases. However a stage is reached
where photocurrent reaches a saturation
value (saturation current) at which all the
Frequency and
Accelerating photoelectrons from C are collected by
potential- constant A. This is represented by the flat portion
Photo electric current
of the graph between potential of A and

photocurrent (Figure 8.10).
When a negative (retarding) potential
is applied to A with respect to C, the
current does not immediately drop to zero
because the photoelectrons are emitted
with some definite and different kinetic
Light intensity, I energies. The kinetic energy of some of
the photoelectrons is such that they could
Figure 8.9 Variation of photocurrent overcome the retarding electric field and
with intensity
reach the electrode A.
A graph is drawn between light intensity When the negative (retarding)
along x-axis and the photocurrent along y-axis. potential of A is gradually increased, the
From the graph in Figure 8.9, it is evident that photocurrent starts to decrease because
photocurrent – the number of electrons emitted more and more photoelectrons are being
per second – is directly proportional to the repelled away from reaching the electrode
intensity of the incident light. A. The photocurrent becomes zero at a

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particular negative potential V0, called From equation (8.1),

stopping or cut-off potential.
K max = eV0 (in joule) (8.3)
(or)
Photo current
K max = V0 (in eV) (8.4)
I3 > I2 > I1
I3
From the Figure 8.10, when the intensity
I2 of the incident light alone is increased, the
I1 saturation current also increases but the
Stopping potential value of V0 remains constant.
Thus, for a given frequency of the incident
light, the stopping potential is independent
_V 0 Collecting electrode
0
Retarding potential
of intensity of the incident light. This also
potential
implies that the maximum kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons is independent of intensity
Figure 8.10 Variation of photocurrent of the incident light.
with potential difference
Stopping potential is that value of 8.2.4 Effect of frequency
the negative (retarding) potential given of incident light on stopping
to the collecting electrode A which is potential
just sufficient to stop the most energetic To study the effect of frequency of incident
photoelectrons emitted and make the light on stopping potential, the intensity of the
photocurrent zero. incident light is kept constant. The variation
At the stopping potential, even the of photocurrent with the collecting electrode
most energetic electron is brought to rest. potential is studied for radiations of different
Therefore, the initial kinetic energy of the frequencies and a graph drawn between them
fastest electron (Kmax) is equal to the work is shown in Figure 8.11. From the graph,
done by the stopping potential to stop it it is clear that stopping potential vary over
(eV0). different frequencies of incident light.
1 2
K max = mv max = eV0 (8.1) Photo current
2 Saturation current
where v max is the maximum speed of the
ν3 > ν2 > ν1
emitted photoelectron.
ν3
ν2
ν1
2eV0
v max =
m –V03 –V02 –V01 0 Collecting electrode
Retarding potential potential
2×1.602×10−19
v max = ×V0
9.1×10−31 Figure 8.11 Variation of photocurrent with
collector electrode potential for different
= 5.93×105 V0 (8.2) frequencies of the incident radiation


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Greater the frequency of the incident than a certain minimum frequency

radiation, larger is the corresponding called the threshold frequency.
stopping potential. This implies that as the ii) For a given frequency of incident light
frequency is increased, the photoelectrons are (above threshold value), the number
emitted with greater kinetic energies so that of photoelectrons emitted is directly
the retarding potential needed to stop the proportional to the intensity of the
photoelectrons is also greater. incident light. The saturation current
is also directly proportional to the
intensity of incident light.
Metal A Metal B
iii) Maximum kinetic energy of the photo
electrons is independent of intensity of
Stopping ν >ν0A the incident light.
potential
ν >ν0B iv) Maximum kinetic energy of the photo
electrons from a given metal is directly
ν0A ν0B proportional to the frequency of
Frequency of
incident radiation incident light.
v) There is no time lag between incidence
Figure 8.12 Variation of stopping of light and ejection of photoelectrons.
potential with frequency of the incident Once photoelectric phenomenon has
radiation for two metals
been thoroughly examined through various
experiments, the attempts were made to
Now a graph is drawn between frequency explain it on the basis of wave theory of light.
of incident radiation and the stopping
potential for different metals (Figure 8.12). 8.2.6 Concept of
From this graph, it is found that stopping quantization of energy
potential varies linearly with frequency.
Below a certain frequency called threshold Failures of classical wave theory
frequency, no electrons are emitted; hence From Maxwell’s theory (Refer unit 5
stopping potential is zero for that reason. of volume 1), we learnt that light is an
But as the frequency is increased above electromagnetic wave consisting of coupled
threshold value, the stopping potential varies electric and magnetic oscillations that move
linearly with the frequency of incident light. with the speed of light and exhibit typical
wave behaviour. Let us try to explain the
experimental observations of photoelectric
8.2.5 Laws of photoelectric
effect using wave picture of light.
effect
i) When light is incident on a metallic
The above detailed experimental surface, there is a continuous supply of energy
investigations of photoelectric effect to the electrons in the metal surface. According
revealed the following results: to wave theory, light of greater intensity should
i) For a given metallic surface, the emission impart greater kinetic energy to the liberated
of photoelectrons takes place only if the electrons (Here, Intensity of light is the energy
frequency of incident light is greater delivered per unit area per unit time).

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But this does not happen. The experiments For the sake of simplicity, the following
show that maximum kinetic energy of the standard assumptions can be made when
photoelectrons emitted does not depend on light is incident on the given material.
the intensity of the incident light. a) Light is absorbed in the top atomic
ii) According to wave theory, if a layer of the metal
sufficiently intense beam of light is incident
on the surface, electrons should be liberated b) For a given element, each atom
from the surface of the target, however low absorbs an equal amount of energy
the frequency of the radiation is. and this energy is proportional to its
From the experiments, it is found that cross-sectional area A
photoelectric emission is not possible below c) Each atom gives this energy to one of
a certain minimum frequency of incident the electrons.
radition. Therefore, the wave theory fails to
explain the existence of threshold frequency. (Given : The work function for cesium
iii) Since the energy of light is spread is 2.14 eV and the power absorbed per unit
across the entire wavefront, the electrons area is 1.60×10−6 Wm−2 which produces a
which receive energy from it are large in measurable photocurrent in cesium.)
number. Each electron needs considerable
amount of time (a few hours) to get energy Solution
sufficient to overcome the work function i) According to wave theory, the energy
and to get liberated from the surface. in a light wave is spread out uniformly and
But experiments show that photoelectric continuously over the wavefront.
emission is almost instantaneous process The energy absorbed by each electron
(the time lag is less than 10–9 s after the in time t is given by
surface is illuminated) which could not be
explained by wave theory. E = IAt
Thus, the experimental observations
of photoelectric emission could not be With this energy absorbed, the most
explained on the basis of the wave theory of energetic electron is released with Kmax by
light. overcoming the surface energy barrier or
work function ϕ0 and this is expressed as
EXA MP LE 8 .1
K max = IAt − ϕ0 (1)
For the photoelectric emission from cesium,
show that wave theory predicts that Thus, wave theory predicts that for a
i) maximum kinetic energy of the unit time, at low light intensities when
photoelectrons (Kmax) depends on the IA < ϕ0, no electrons are emitted. At higher
intensity I of the incident light intensities, when IA ≥ ϕ0, electrons are
ii) Kmax does not depend on the emitted. This implies that higher the light
frequency of the incident light and intensity, greater will be Kmax.
iii) the time interval between the Kmax is dependent only on the intensity
incidence of light and the ejection of under given conditions – that is, by suitably
photoelectrons is very long. increasing the intensity, one can produce

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photoelectric effect even if the frequency radiations emitted by a black body and the
is less than the threshold frequency. So the shape of its radiation curves.
concept of threshold frequency does not According to Planck, matter is composed
even exist in wave theory. of a large number of oscillating particles
ii) According to wave theory, the (atoms) which vibrate with different
intensity of a light wave is proportional to frequencies. Each atomic oscillator - which
the square of the amplitude of the electric vibrates with its characteristic frequency -
2
field (E0 ). The amplitude of this electric emits or absorbs electromagnetic radiation
field increases with increasing intensity of the same frequency. It also says that
and imparts an increasing acceleration and i) If an oscillator vibrates with frequency v,
kinetic energy to an electron. its energy can have only certain discrete
Now I is replaced with a quantity values, given by the equation.
proportional to E02 in equation (1). This
means that Kmax should not depend at all En= nhν n=1,2,3....(8.5)
on the frequency of the classical light wave
where h is a constant, called Planck’s
which again contradicts the experimental
constant.
results.
ii) The oscillators emit or absorb energy in
iii) If an electron accumulates light
small packets or quanta and the energy
energy just enough to overcome the work
of each quantum is hν.
function, then it is ejected out of the atom
This implies that the energy of the
with zero kinetic energy. Therefore, from
oscillator is quantized – that is, energy is not
equation (1),
continuous as believed in the wave picture.
0 = IAt − ϕ 0 This is called quantization of energy.
ϕ0 ϕ0
t= =
IA I(π r 2 ) 8.2.7 Particle nature of light:
Einstein’s explanation
By taking
the atomic radius
r = 1.0×10 m and substituting the given
−10 Einstein extended Planck’s quantum
values of I and ϕ0, we can estimate the time concept to explain the photoelectric effect
interval as in 1905. According to Einstein, the energy
2.14 ×1.6 ×10−19 in light is not spread out over wavefronts but
t= is concentrated in small packets or energy
1.60 ×10−6 × 3.14 ×(1×10−10 )2
quanta. Therefore, light (or any other
= 0.68 ×107 s ≈ 79 days electromagnetic waves) of frequency v from
Thus, wave theory predicts that there is any source can be considered as a stream of
a large time gap between the incidence of quanta and the energy of each light quantum
light and the ejection of photoelectrons but is given by E = hν.
the experiments show that photo emission He also proposed that a quantum of light
is an instantaneous process. has linear momentum and the magnitude
hν
Concept of quantization of energy of that linear momentum is p = .. The
c
Max Planck proposed quantum concept individual light quantum of definite energy
in 1900 in order to explain the thermal and momentum can be associated with a

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particle. The light quantum can behave as a Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric

particle and this is called photon. Therefore, equation
photon is nothing but particle manifestation When a photon of energy hν is incident
of light. on a metal surface, it is completely
Characteristics of photons: absorbed by a single electron and the
According to particle nature of light, electron is ejected. In this process, a part of
photons are the basic constituents of the photon energy is used in overcoming
any radiation and possess the following the potential barrier of the metal surface
characteristic properties: (photoelectric work function ϕ0 )and the
remaining energy as the kinetic energy
i) The photons of light of frequency ν and of the ejected electron. From the law of
wavelength λ will have energy, given by conservation of energy,
E = hv = hc . 1
l hv = ϕ 0 + mv 2
ii) The energy of a photon is determined 2 (8.6)
by the frequency of the radiation and
not by its intensity and the intensity where m is the mass of the electron and v
has no relation with the energy of the its velocity. This is shown in Figure 8.13(a).
individual photons in the beam.
iii) The photons travel with the speed of
light and its momentum is given by
E = hv E = hv0
p = h = hv
l c
iv) Since photons are electrically neutral,
they are unaffected by electric and Kmax = hv – hv0
magnetic fields. K=0
v) When a photon interacts with matter
Metal Metal
(photon-electron collision), the total
(a) (b)
energy, total linear momentum and
angular momentum are conserved. Since Figure 8.13 Emission of photoelectrons
photon may be absorbed or a new photon
may be produced in such interactions, the
If we reduce the frequency of the incident
number of photons may not be conserved.
light, the speed or kinetic energy of photo
electrons is also reduced. At some frequency
According to quantum ν0 of incident radiation, the photo electrons
Note
concept, intensity of light of are just ejected with almost zero kinetic
given wavelength is defined energy (Figure 8.13(b)). Then the equation
as the number of energy quanta or (8.6) becomes
photons incident per unit area per unit
time, with each photon having same hv0 = ϕ0
energy. Its unit is Wm–2. where ν0 is the threshold frequency. By

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rewriting the equation (8.6), we get

Kmax
1
Po sium
Ca diu ium
hv = hv0 + mv 2 (8.7)
So tass
lci m
Ce
2 Slope = h
um
O
The equation (8.7) is known as Einstein’s
−2.14eV Frequency
photoelectric equation.
If the electron does not lose energy by −2.30eV
internal collisions, then it is emitted with −2.75eV
maximum kinetic energy Kmax. Then −3.20eV
1 2
K max = mv max Figure 8.15 Kmax vs ν graph for different
2
metals
where vmax is the maximum velocity of
the electron ejected. The equation (8.6) is
Millikan also calculated the value of
rearranged as follows:
Planck’s constant (h = 6.626 × 10–34 Js) and
Kmax = hv – ϕ0(8.8) work function of many metals (Cs, K, Na,
Ca); these values are in agreement with the
theoretical prediction.
Explanation for the photoelectric effect:
Kmax
The experimentally observed facts of
photoelectric effect can be explained with
the help of Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
i) As each incident photon liberates one
hv
electron, then the increase of intensity of the
v0 v light (the number of photons per unit area per
hv0
Frequency unit time) increases the number of electrons
emitted thereby increasing the photocurrent.
The same has been experimentally observed.
ii) From Kmax = hv – ϕ0, it is evident
Figure 8.14 Kmax vs ν graph
that Kmax is proportional to the frequency
A graph between maximum kinetic of the incident light and is independent of
energy Kmax of the photoelectron and intensity of the light.
frequency ν of the incident light is a straight iii) As given in equation (8.7), there
line as shown in Figure 8.14. The slope of must be minimum energy (equal to the work
the line is h and its y-intercept is –ϕ0. function of the metal) for incident photons
Einstein’s equation was experimentally to liberate electrons from the metal surface.
verified by R.A. Millikan. He drew Kmax Below this value of energy, emission of
versus ν graph for many metals (cesium, electrons is not possible. Correspondingly,
potassium, sodium and lithium) as shown there exists minimum frequency called
in Figure 8.15 and found that the slope is threshold frequency below which there is no
independent of the metals. photoelectric emission.

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iv) According to quantum concept, the 8.2.8 Photo electric cells and
transfer of photon energy to the electrons their applications
is instantaneous so that there is no time lag
between incidence of photons and ejection Photo cell
of electrons. Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device
Thus, the photoelectric effect is explained which converts light energy into electrical
on the basis of quantum concept of light. energy. It works on the principle of photo
The nature of light: wave - particle duality electric effect. When light is incident on
We have learnt that wave nature of light the photosensitive materials, their electric
explains phenomena such as interference, properties will get affected, based on which
diffraction and polarization. Certain photo cells are classified into three types.
phenomena like black body radiation, They are
photoelectric effect can be explained by i) Photo emissive cell: Its working
assigning particle nature to light. Therefore, depends on the electron emission from
both theories have enough experimental a metal cathode due to irradiation of
evidences. light or other radiations.
In the past, many scientific theories have ii) Photo voltaic cell: Here sensitive
been either revised or discarded when they element made of semiconductor is used
contradicted with new experimental results. which generates voltage proportional to
Here, two different theories are needed to the intensity of light or other radiations.
answer the question: what is nature of light? iii) Photo conductive cell: In this, the
It is therefore concluded that light resistance of the semiconductor changes
possesses dual nature, that of both particle in accordance with the radiant energy
and wave. It behaves like a wave at some incident on it.
circumstances and it behaves like a particle In this section, we discuss about photo
at some other circumstances. emissive cell and its applications.
In other words, light behaves as a wave
Photo emissive cell
during its propagation and behaves as a
particle during its interaction with matter. Construction:
Both theories are necessary for complete It consists of an evacuated glass
description of physical phenomena. Hence, or quartz bulb in which two metallic
the wave nature and quantum nature electrodes – that is, a cathode and an
complement each other. anode are fixed as shown in Figure 8.16.
A reader may find it difficult to understand how light can be both a wave and a
stream of particle. This is the case even for great scientist like Albert Einstein.
Einstein once wrote a letter to his friend Michel Besso in 1954 expressing
his frustration:
“All these fifty years of conscious brooding have brought me no closer to answer the
question, ‘What are light quanta?’ Of course today everyone thinks he knows the answer,
but he is deluding himself ”.

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The cathode C is semi-cylindrical in and switch off according to whether it is

shape and is coated with a photo sensitive night or day use photocells.
material. The anode A is a thin rod or wire Photo cells are used for reproduction
kept along the axis of the semi-cylindrical of sound in motion pictures and are used
cathode. A potential difference is applied as timers to measure the speeds of athletes
between the anode and the cathode during a race. Photo cells of exposure meters
through a galvanometer G. in photography are used to measure the
intensity of the given light and to calculate
the exact time of exposure.
Radiation
EXAM P L E 8 . 2
A radiation of wavelength 300 nm is incident
C A
on a silver surface. Will photoelectrons be
observed? [work function of silver = 4.7 eV]
Solution:
Energy of the incident photon is
hc
E = hv = (in joules)
λ
_
G hc
+ E= (in eV)
eV
λe
B Substituting the known values, we get
Figure 8.16 Construction of photo cell
6.626×10−34 ×3×108
E=
300×10−9 ×1.6×10−19
Working:
When cathode is irradiated with suitable E = 4.14 eV
radiation, electrons are emitted from it. These
The work function of silver = 4.7 eV.
electrons are attracted by anode and hence a
Since the energy of the incident photon
current is produced which is measured by
is less than the work function of silver,
the galvanometer. For a given cathode, the
photoelectrons are not observed in this
magnitude of the current depends on
case.
i) the intensity of incident radiation and
ii) the potential difference between anode
and cathode. EXAM P L E 8 . 3
Applications of photo cells: When light of wavelength 2200Å falls on
Photo cells have many applications, Cu, photo electrons are emitted from it.
especially as switches and sensors. Automatic Find (i) the threshold wavelength and
lights that turn on when it gets dark use (ii) the stopping potential. Given: the work
photocells, and street lights that switch on function for Cu is ϕ0 = 4.65 eV.

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Solution ii) The number of photons reaching the

i) The threshold wavelength is given by surface per second is
I
hc 6.626×10− 34 ×3×108 np = ×A
λ0 = = E
ϕ0 4.65×1.6 ×10− 19 2
= × 2×10−4
= 2672 Å 6.626×10−19
= 6.04×1014 photons / sec
ii) Energy of the photon of wavelength
2200 Å is The rate of emission of photoelectrons is
hc 6.626×10−34 ×3×108 = (0.40) n p = 0.4× 6.04×1014

E= =
λ 2200×10−10 = 2.416´1014 photoelectrons / sec
−19
= 9.035×10
J = 5.65 eV
EX AM P L E 8 . 5
We know that kinetic energy of fastest
Light of wavelength 390 nm is directed at
photo electron is
a metal electrode. To find the energy of
Kmax = hv – ϕ0 = 5.65 – 4.65 electrons ejected, an opposing potential
= 1 eV difference is established between it
and another electrode. The current of
From equation (8.3), K max = eV0
photoelectrons from one to the other is
K max 1×1.6×10−19 stopped completely when the potential
V0 = =
e 1.6×10−19 difference is 1.10 V. Determine i) the work
Therefore, stopping potential = 1V function of the metal and ii) the maximum
wavelength of light that can eject electrons
EXA MP LE 8 .4 from this metal.
The work function of potassium is 2.30 eV. Solution
UV light of wavelength 3000 Å and intensity
i) The work function is given by
2 Wm–2 is incident on the potassium surface. hc
i) Determine the maximum kinetic energy ϕ = hv
φ00 = – Kmax
hν − max = − eV0
λ
of the photo electrons ii) If 40% of incident
since Kmax = eV0
photons produce photo electrons, how
many electrons are emitted per second if  6.626×10−34 ×3×108 
=  − 1.6×10−19 ×1.10
 × −9   
the area of the potassium surface is 2 cm2 ?  390 10 
Solution = 5.10×10−19 −1.76×10−19 = 3.34×10−19 J
i) The energy of the incident photon is = 2.09 eV

hc 6.626×10−34 ×3×108 ii) The threshold wavelength is
E= =
λ 3000×10−10 hc 6.626×10− 34 ×3×108
−19 λ0 = =
E = 6.626×10 J = 4.14 eV ϕ0 3.34×10− 19
Maximum KE of the photoelectrons is = 5.951×10− 7 m = 5951 Å
Kmax = hv – ϕ0 = 4.14 – 2.30 = 1.84 eV

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8.3 8.3.2 De Broglie wave

length:
MATTER WAVES
The momentum of photon of frequency
ν is given by
hv h
8.3.1 Introduction - Wave p= = since c = vλ
c λ
nature of particles The wavelength of a photon in terms of
So far, we learnt that the characteristics of its momentum is
particles and waves are different. A wave is
h
specified by its frequency, wavelength, wave λ= (8.9)
p
velocity, amplitude and intensity. It spreads
out and occupies a relatively large region According to de Broglie, the above
of space. A particle specified by its mass, equation is completely a general one and
velocity, momentum and energy occupies a this is applicable to material particles as well.
definite position in space and is very small Therefore, for a particle of mass m travelling
in size. with speed v , the wavelength is given by
Classical physics treated particles and h h
waves as distinct entities. But quantum λ= = (8.10)
mv p
theory suggested dual character for
radiations – that is, radiation behaves as This wavelength of the matter waves
a wave at times and as a particle at other is known as de Broglie wavelength. This
times. equation relates the wave character (the wave
From this wave – particle duality of length λ) and the particle character (the
radiation, the concept of wave nature of momentum p) through Planck’s constant.
matter arises which we will see in this section.
De Broglie wave: 8.3.3 De Broglie wave length

of electrons:
The wave–particle duality of radiation
was extended to matter by a French physicist Let an electron of mass m be accelerated
Louis de Broglie (pronounced as de Broy) in through a potential difference of V volt. The
1924. kinetic energy acquired by the electron is
Greatly influenced by the symmetry in given by
nature, de Broglie suggested that if radiation 1 2
like light can act as particles at times, then mv = eV
2
material particles like electrons can also act
Therefore, the speed υ of the electron is
as waves at times.
According to de Broglie hypothesis, all 2eV
v= (8.11)
material particles like electrons, protons, m
neutrons in motion are associated with
waves. These waves are called de Broglie Hence, the de Broglie wavelength of the
waves or matter waves. matter waves associated with electron is

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h h L.T.
λ= =
mv 2emV
Electron gun
Substituting the known values in the H.T.
F
Thin aluminium
above equation, we get diaphragms
6.626×10−34
λ= Aluminium cylinder
2V ×1.6×10−19 ×9.11×10−31
12.27 ×10−10
= m (orr)
V
Incident
12.27 beam
λ= Å (8.12)
V Electron
detector
For example, if an electron is accelerated
through a potential difference of 100V, then Scattered
beam
its de Broglie wavelength is 1.227 Å. θ
Since the kinetic energy of the electron, Ni crystal
K = eV, then the de Broglie wavelength
associated with electron can be also written as Figure 8.17 Experimental set up of
h Davisson – Germer experiment
λ= (8.13)
2mK
The electrons scattered by Ni atoms
8.3.4 Davisson – Germer in different directions are received by the
experiment electron detector which measures the
Louis de Broglie hypothesis of matter intensity of scattered electron beam. The
waves was experimentally confirmed by detector is capable of rotation in the plane
Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer in 1927. of the paper so that the angle θ between the
They demonstrated that electron beams are incident beam and the scattered beam can
diffracted when they fall on crystalline solids. be changed at our will. The intensity of the
Since crystal can act as a three-dimensional scattered electron beam is measured as a
diffraction grating for matter waves, the function of the angle θ.
electron waves incident on crystals are
diffracted off in certain specific directions.
Figure 8.17 shows a schematic representation V = 54 V
Intensity of diffracted
of the apparatus for the experiment.

electron beam
The filament F is heated by a low tension

(L.T.) battery. Electrons are emitted from the
hot filament by thermionic emission. They
are then accelerated due to the potential 50°
difference between the filament and the 0° 30° 60° 90°
anode aluminium cylinder by a high tension θ
(H.T.) battery. Electron beam is collimated by
Figure 8.18 Variation of intensity of
using two thin aluminium diaphragms and is diffracted electron beam with the angle θ
allowed to strike a single crystal of Nickel.

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scattered wave shows a peak or maximum

It is to be noted that electrons at an angle of 50° to the incident electron
Note
are not the only particles with beam. This peak in intensity is attributed
which wave nature can be to the constructive interference of electrons
demonstrated. The waves are associated diffracted from various atomic layers
with particles like neutrons and alpha of the target material. From the known
particles also when they are in motion. value of interplanar spacing of Nickel,
They undergo diffraction when they are the wavelength of the electron wave was
scattered by suitable crystals. Neutron experimentally calculated as 1.65Å.
diffraction studies are highly useful for The wavelength can also be calculated
investigating crystal structures. from de Broglie relation for V = 54 V from
equation (8.12).
Diffraction is one of λ=
12.27
Å=
12.27
Å
Note
the properties of waves. V 54
Whenever waves are incident λ = 1.67 Å
on an obstacle, they bend around the
This value agrees very well with the
edges of the obstacle. This bending of
experimentally observed wavelength of
waves is called diffraction. The amount
1.65Å. Thus this experiment directly verifies
of bending depends on the wavelength
de Broglie’s hypothesis of the wave nature of
of the waves.
moving particles.
We have learnt in unit 7 that as the
wavelength of light is very small,
diffraction effects of light are very 8.3.5 Electron Microscope
small. In order to study diffraction of
light, diffraction gratings are used. Principle
Since x-rays and de Broglie waves of This is the direct application of wave
electrons have wavelengths (in the order nature of particles. The wave nature of
of 10–10m) much shorter than that of the the electron is used in the construction of
light wave, diffraction grating cannot microscope called electron microscope.
be used in x-ray diffraction studies. In The resolving power of a microscope is
a crystal, the spacing between atomic inversely proportional to the wavelength
planes is comparable to the wavelength of the radiation used for illuminating the
of x-rays and de Broglie waves of object under study. Higher magnification
electrons. Hence, in x-ray diffraction as well as higher resolving power can be
studies, the crystals are used which obtained by employing the waves of shorter
serve as three-dimensional grating. wavelengths.
Louis de Broglie wavelength of electron
is very much less than (a few thousands less)
Figure 8.18 shows the variation of that of the visible light being used in optical
intensity of the scattered electrons with microscopes. As a result, the microscopes
the angle θ for the accelerating voltage of employing de Broglie waves of electrons
54V. For a given accelerating voltage V, the have very much higher resolving power than

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Light source Electron source
Condenser lens
Condenser lens
Object Object
Objective lens
Objective lens
Intermediate
image Intermediate
image
Projector lens
Projector lens
Photographic
Screen plate
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 8.19 (a) Optical microscope (b) Electron microscope (c) Photograph of electron
microscope
optical microscope. Electron microscopes magnified image is obtained on the screen.

giving magnification more than 2,00,000 These electron microscopes are being used
times are common in research laboratories. in almost all branches of science.
Working
EXAM P L E 8 . 6
The construction and working of an
electron microscope is similar to that of an Calculate the momentum and the de
optical microscope except that in electron Broglie wavelength in the following cases:
microscope focussing of electron beam is i) an electron with kinetic energy 2 eV.
done by the electrostatic or magnetic lenses. ii) a bullet of 50 g fired from rifle with a
The electron beam passing across a suitably speed of 200 m/s
arranged either electric or magnetic fields iii) a 4000 kg car moving along the
undergoes divergence or convergence thereby highways at 50 m/s
focussing of the beam is done (Figure 8.19). Hence show that the wave nature of matter
The electrons emitted from the source is important at the atomic level but is not
are accelerated by high potentials. The beam really relevant at macroscopic level.
is made parallel by magnetic condenser lens. Solution:
When the beam passes through the sample
whose magnified image is needed, the beam i) Momentum of the electron is
carries the image of the sample. p = 2mK = 2×9.1×10−31 × 2×1.6×10−19
With the help of magnetic objective lens
= 7.63×10−25 kg m s -1
and magnetic projector lens system, the

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Magnified images of some objects:
Coloured scanning electron micrograph Needle and thread

of a common housefly (Muscadomestica).
Its de Broglie wavelength is is important at the atomic level but it is not

h 6.626×10−34
really relevant at the macroscopic level.
λ= = = 0.868×10−9 m
p 7.63×10−25
= 8.68 Å EX AM P L E 8 . 7
ii) Momentum of the bullet is Find the de Broglie wavelength associated
p = mv = 0.050× 200 = 10 kgms−1 with an alpha particle which is accelerated
Its de Broglie wavelength is through a potential difference of 400 V.
Given that the mass of the proton is
h 6.626×10−34 1.67 × 10–27 kg.
λ= = = 6.626×10−35 m
p 10
Solution
iii) Momentum of the car is An alpha particle contains 2 protons
p = mv = 4000×50 = 2×105 kgms−1 and 2 neutrons. Therefore, the mass M
of the alpha particle is 4 times that of a
Its de Broglie wavelength is
proton (mp) (or a neutron) and its charge q
h 6.626×10−34 is twice that of a proton (+e).
λ= = = 3.313×10−39 m
p 2×10 5
The de Broglie wavelength associated
From these calculations, we notice that with it is
electron has significant value of de Broglie h h
λ= =
wavelength (≈10–9m which can be measured 2 MqV 2×(4m p )×(2e)×V
from diffraction studies) but moving bullet
and car have negligibly small de Broglie 6.626×10−34
=
wavelengths associated with them (≈10–33m 2× 4×1.67 ×10−27 × 2×1.6×10−19 × 400
and 10–39m respectively, which are not 6.626×10−34
measurable by any experiment). This = = 0.00507 Å
4× 20×10−23 1.67 ×1.6
implies that the wave nature of matter

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EXA MP LE 8 .8 answers this question has already been

discovered, even before Planck’s quantum
A proton and an electron have same de theory of radiation.
Broglie wavelength. Which of them moves
faster and which possesses more kinetic Discovery of x-rays
energy? Wilhelm Roentgen in 1895 discovered that
whenever fast moving electrons fall on certain
Solution materials, a highly penetrating radiation is
h
We know that λ = emitted. Since their origin was not known at
2mK that time, they were called x-rays.
Since proton and electron have same
X-rays are electromagnetic waves of short
de Broglie wavelength, we get
wavelength ranging from 0.1 to 100Å. They
h h K p me
= (or) = travel along straight lines with the velocity
2m p K p 2me K e Ke mp of light and are not affected by electric and
Since me < m p , K p < K e , the electron has magnetic fields. X-ray photons are highly
more kinetic energy than the proton. energetic because of its high frequency or
short wavelength. Therefore, they can pass
1
Kp mpv 2p vp K pme through materials which are opaque to
=2 (or) = visible light.
Ke 1 ve K e mp
mev e2 The quality of x-rays is measured in terms
2
vp
of their penetrating power which depends
me2 m Kp me
= 2
= e since = on the velocity with which the electrons
ve mp mp Ke mp
strike the target material and the atomic
Since me < mp , v p < v e , the electron moves number of target material. The intensity
faster than the proton. of x-rays is dependent on the number of
electrons striking the target.
8.4 Production of x-rays

X-rays are produced in x-ray tube which
X – RAYS is essentially a discharge tube as shown in
Figure 8.20. A tungsten filament F is heated
to incandescence by a battery. As a result,
Introduction electrons are emitted from it by thermionic
Quantum theory of radiation explains emission.
photoelectric effect in which the electrons The electrons are accelerated to high
are emitted due to the incidence of speeds by the voltage applied between
photons and the energy is transferred from the filament F and the anode. The target
photons to the electrons. Immediately, a materials like tungsten, molybdenum are
question arises: Is the reverse process also embedded in the face of the solid copper
possible? anode. The face of the target is inclined at
This means that whether kinetic energy an angle of 45° with respect to the electron
of electron can be transformed into photon beam so that x-rays can leave the tube
energy or not. The phenomenon which through its side.

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X-ray Evacuated tube

50 kV Tungsten target
Target
F
Relative intensity
Electrons 40 kV
Cathode Anode
L.T.
30 kV
H.T.
20 kV
Wavelength
Figure 8.21 (a) X-ray spectra of tungsten
at various accelerating potentials
Figure 8.20 Production of x-rays Kα
Kβ
When high-speed electrons strike the
target, they are decelerated suddenly and
Relative intensity
lose their kinetic energy. As a result, x-ray Tungsten, 35 kV
photons are produced. Since most of the
kinetic energy of the bombarding electrons
gets converted into heat, targets made of
high-melting-point metals and a cooling Molybdenum,
system are usually employed. 35 kV
Wavelength
X-ray spectra
X-rays are produced when fast moving Figure 8.21 (b) X-ray spectra of tungsten
and molybdenum at 35 kV accelerating
electrons strike the metal target. The intensity of
potential
the x-rays when plotted against its wavelength
gives a curve called x-ray spectrum (Figure Though classical electromagnetic theory
8.21(a) and (b)). X-ray spectra consist of two suggests the emission of radiations from
parts: a continuous spectrum and a series of accelerating electrons, it could not explain
peaks superimposed on it. two features exhibited by x-ray spectra.
The continuous spectrum consists of These features are given below.
radiations of all possible wavelengths with (i) For a given accelerating voltage, the
a certain minimum wavelength λ 0 which lower limit for the wavelength of
depends on the voltage across the electrodes. continuous x-ray spectra is same for all
The peaks are characteristics of the material of targets. This minimum wavelength is
the target and hence it is called characteristic called cut-off wavelength.
spectrum. Figure 8.21(a) depicts the x-ray (ii) The intensity of x-rays is significantly
spectra of tungsten at various accelerating increased at certain well-defined
voltages and Figure 8.21(b) shows the x-ray wavelengths as shown in the case
spectra of tungsten and molybdenum at a of characteristic x-ray spectra for
particular accelerating voltage. molybdenum (Figure 8.21(b)).

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But these two features could be explained where λ 0 is the cut-off wavelength.
on the basis of photon theory of radiation. Substituting the known values in the above
Continuous x-ray spectra equation, we get
When a fast moving electron penetrates
and approaches a target nucleus, the λ0 =
12400
Å (8.14)
interaction between the electron and the V
nucleus either accelerates or decelerates The relation given by equation (8.14) is
it which results in a change of path of known as the Duane – Hunt formula.
the electron. The radiation produced The value of λ 0 depends only on the
from such decelerating electron is called accelerating potential and is same for all
Bremsstrahlung or braking radiation targets. This is in good agreement with the
(Figure 8.22). experimental results. Thus, the production
of continuous x-ray spectrum and the origin
Electron of KE E1
Photon of energy of cut – off wavelength can be explained on
hν=E1–E2 the basis of photon theory of radiation.
Characteristic x – ray spectra:

+
X – ray spectra show some narrow peaks
at some well – defined wavelengths when
the target is hit by fast electrons. The line
E1>E2 spectrum showing these peaks is called
Electron of KE E2 characteristic x – ray spectrum. This
x – ray spectrum is due to the electronic
Figure 8.22 Bremsstrahlung photon
transitions within the atoms.
from a decelerating electron
When an energetic electron penetrates
The energy of the photon emitted is into the target atom and it can remove some
equal to the loss of kinetic energy of the of the K-shell electrons. Then the electrons
electron. Since an electron may lose part or from outer orbits jump to fill up the vacancy
all of its energy to the photon, the photons so created in the K-shell. During the
are emitted with all possible energies downward transition, the energy difference
(or frequencies). The continuous x-ray between the levels is given out in the form of
spectrum is due to such radiations. x– ray photon of definite wavelength. Such
When an electron gives up all its energy, wavelengths, characteristic of the target,
then the photon is emitted with highest constitute the line spectrum.
frequency ν0 (or lowest wavelength λ 0 ). From the Figure 8.23, it is evident that
The initial kinetic energy of an electron K-series of lines in the x-ray spectrum of
is given by eV where V is the accelerating an element arises due to the electronic
voltage. Therefore, we have transitions from L, M, N, . . levels to the
hv0 = eV (or) hc = eV K-level. Similarly, the longer wavelength
λ0 L-series originates when an L-electron
hc is knocked out of the atom and the
λ0 =
eV corresponding vacancy is filled by the

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radiograph containing a deep shadow of the

bones and a light shadow of the flesh may
O be obtained. X-ray radiographs are used to
n=4 detect fractures, foreign bodies, diseased
N
Mα Mγ organs etc.
Mβ
n=3 2) Medical therapy
M
Since x-rays can kill diseased tissues,
Lα Lγ they are employed to cure skin diseases,
Lβ Lδ
malignant tumours etc.
n=2
L
3) Industry
X-rays are used to check for flaws in
welded joints, motor tyres, tennis balls and
wood. At the custom post, they are used for
detection of contraband goods.
Kα Kγ Kε
Kβ Kδ 4) Scientific research
X-ray diffraction is important tool
to study the structure of the crystalline
materials – that is, the arrangement of atoms
n=1
and molecules in crystals.
K
EX AM P L E 8 . 9
Figure 8.23 Origin of characteristic Calculate the cut-off wavelength and cut-
x-ray spectra off frequency of x-rays from an x –ray tube
of accelerating potential 20,000 V.
electronic transitions from M, N, O level to
the L-level and so on. Solution
The Kα and Kβ of the K-series of The cut-off wavelength of the x-rays in the
molybdenum are shown by the two peaks in continuous spectrum is given by
its x-ray spectrum in Figure 8.21(b).
12400 12400
Applications of x-rays: λ = Å= Å
V 20000
X-rays are being used in many fields. = 0.62Å
Let us list a few of them. The corresponding frequency is
1) Medical diagnosis
c 3×108
X-rays can pass through flesh more ν0 = = = 4.84×1018 Hz
λ 0 0.62×10−10
easily than through bones. Thus an x-ray

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SUMMARY
Particle is a material object which is considered as a tiny concentration of matter
(localized in space and time) whereas wave is a broad distribution of energy
(not localized in space and time).
The liberation of electrons from any surface of a substance is called electron emission.
The minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the metal surface is called
work function of that metal.
1 eV is equal to 1.602 × 10–19 J.
The emission of electrons by supplying thermal energy is known as thermionic emission.
Electric field emission occurs when a very strong electric field is applied across the
metal.
The emission of electrons due to irradiation of light is called photoelectric emission.
Secondary emission is the process in which electrons are emitted due to the bombardment
of fast moving electrons.
The photoelectric current (i.e. the number of electrons emitted per second) is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
Stopping potential is that the value of the negative (retarding) potential given to the
collecting electrode A which is just sufficient to stop the most energetic photoelectrons
emitted and make the photocurrent zero.
The stopping potential is independent of intensity of the incident light.
Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of intensity of the
incident light.
For a given surface, the emission of photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency
of incident light is greater than a certain minimum frequency called the threshold
frequency.
According to Planck, a matter is composed of a large number of oscillating particles
(atoms) which vibrate with different frequencies.
According to Einstein, the energy in light is not spread out over wavefronts but is
concentrated in small packets or energy quanta.
The individual light quantum of definite energy and momentum is called photon.
Light behaves as a wave during its propagation and behaves as a particle during its
interaction with matter.
Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which converts light energy into electrical
energy.
According to de Broglie hypothesis, all material particles like electrons, protons,
neutrons in motion possess wave nature. These waves associated with them are called
de Broglie waves or matter waves.
Wave nature of the electron is used in the construction of electron microscope.
Louis de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves was experimentally confirmed by Clinton
Davisson and Lester Germer in 1927.

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Whenever fast moving electrons fall on the materials, a highly penetrating radiations,
namely x-rays, are emitted.
Continuous x-ray spectrum consists of radiations of all possible wavelengths with a
certain minimum wavelength λ 0 .
Characteristic x-ray spectra show some narrow peaks at some well–defined wavelengths
when the target is hit by fast electrons.
CONCEPT MAP
Dual nature of radiation and matter
Photoelectric
Electron emission effect Matter waves X-rays
Observations of De Broglie
Thermionic Hertz, Hallwachs Introduction
emission and Lenard hypothesis
Field emission Effect of intensity De Broglie equation Production of

X-rays
Photoelectric Effect of potential De Broglie

difference wavelength of X-ray spectra
emission
electron
Davisson-Germer Continuous
Secondary emission Effect of frequency Experiment X-ray spectra
Quantisation of Characteristic
energy Electron microscope X-ray spectra
Einstein’s
photoelectric Applications
equation
Photocells and uses

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E V AL U A T I O N
I Multiple Choice Questions 5. If a light of wavelength 330 nm is

1. The wavelength λe of an electron and incident on a metal with work function
λp of a photon of same energy E are 3.55 eV, the electrons are emitted. Then
related by (NEET 2013) the wavelength of the wave associated
with the emitted electron is (Take
a) λ p µ λ e b) λ p µ λ e
h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js)
1
c) λ p µ d) λ p µ λ 2e a) < 2.75×10−9 m b) ≥ 2.75×10−9 m
λe
c) ≤ 2.75×10−12 m d) < 2.5×10−10 m
2. In an electron microscope, the electrons
6. A photoelectric surface is illuminated
are accelerated by a voltage of 14 kV. If
successively by monochromatic
the voltage is changed to 224 kV, then
light of wavelength λ and λ 2 . If
the de Broglie wavelength associated
with the electrons would the maximum kinetic energy of the
emitted photoelectrons in the second
a) increase by 2 times
case is 3 times that in the first case,
b) decrease by 2 times
the work function of the material is
c) decrease by 4 times (NEET 2015)
d) increase by 4 times hc 2hc
a) b)
3. The wave associated with a moving λ λ
particle of mass 3 × 10–6 g has the same hc
c) hc d)
wavelength as an electron moving with 3λ 2λ
a velocity 6×106 m s−1 . The velocity of 7. In photoelectric emission, a radiation
the particle is whose frequency is 4 times threshold
a) 1.82×10−18 m s−1 frequency of a certain metal is incident
on the metal. Then the maximum
b) 9×10−2 m s−1
possible velocity of the emitted electron
c) 3×10−31 m s−1
will be
d) 1.82×10−15 m s−1 hv0 6hv0
a) b)
4. When a metallic surface is illuminated m m
with radiation of wavelength λ , the hv0 hv0
stopping potential is V. If the same c) 2 d)
m 2m
surface is illuminated with radiation of 8. Two radiations with photon energies
wavelength 2λ , the stopping potential 0.9 eV and 3.3 eV respectively are falling
V
is . The threshold wavelength for the on a metallic surface successively. If the
4
work function of the metal is 0.6 eV, then
metallic surface is (NEET 2016)
the ratio of maximum speeds of emitted
a) 4λ b) 5λ electrons in the two cases will be
5 a) 1:4 b) 1:3
c) λ d) 3λ
2
c) 1:1 d)1:9

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9. A light source of wavelength 520 nm 2 2 2
emits 1.04 × 1015 photons per second c) hc - me c 2 - e B R

λ 2me
while the second source of 460 nm
2
produces 1.38 × 1015 photons per second.  
d) hc − 2me  eBR 
Then the ratio of power of second source λ  2m 
 e
to that of first source is 14. The work functions for metals A, B
a) 1.00 b) 1.02 and C are 1.92 eV, 2.0 eV and 5.0 eV
c) 1.5 d) 0.98 respectively. The metal/metals which
10. If the mean wavelength of light will emit photoelectrons for a radiation
from sun is taken as 550 nm and its of wavelength 4100 Å is/are
mean power as 3.8 × 10 26 W, then a) A only
the number of photons emitted per b) both A and B
second from the sun is of the order
c) all these metals
of
a) 1045 b) 1042 d) none
c) 1054 d) 1051 15. Emission of electrons by the absorption
of heat energy is called………emission.
11. The threshold wavelength for a metal
a) photoelectric
surface whose photoelectric work
function is 3.313 eV is b) field
a) 4125 Å b) 3750 Å c) thermionic
c) 6000 Å d) 2062.5 Å d) secondary
12. A light of wavelength 500 nm is incident Answers
on a sensitive metal plate of photoelectric 1. d 2. c 3. d 4. d 5. b
work function 1.235 eV. The kinetic 6. d 7. b 8. b 9. c 10. a
energy of the photo electrons emitted is
11. b 12. c 13. d 14. b 15. c
(Take h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js)
a) 0.58 eV b) 2.48 eV II Short Answer Questions
c) 1.24 eV d) 1.16 eV 1. Why do metals have a large number of
13. Photons of wavelength λ are incident free electrons?
on a metal. The most energetic 2. Define work function of a metal. Give
electrons ejected from the metal are its unit.
bent into a circular arc of radius R by
3. What is photoelectric effect?
a perpendicular magnetic field having
magnitude B. The work function of the 4. How does photocurrent vary with the
metal is (KVPY-SX 2016) intensity of the incident light?
hc e 2 B2 R2 5. Give the definition of intensity of light
a) − me +
λ 2me according to quantum concept and its
2 unit.
 
b) hc + 2me  eBR  6. How will you define threshold
λ  2m 
 e frequency?

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7. What is a photo cell? Mention the 6. Explain why photoelectric effect

different types of photocells. cannot be explained on the basis of
8. Write the expression for the de Broglie wave nature of light.
wavelength associated with a charged 7. Give the quantum concept of energy
particle of charge q and mass m, when proposed by Max Planck.
it is accelerated through a potential V. 8. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric
9. State de Broglie hypothesis. equation with necessary explanation.
10. Why we do not see the wave properties 9. Explain experimentally observed facts
of a baseball? of photoelectric effect with the help of
11. A proton and an electron have same Einstein’s explanation.
kinetic energy. Which one has greater 10. Give the construction and working of
de Broglie wavelength? Justify. photo emissive cell.
12. Write the relationship of de Broglie 11. Derive an expression for de Broglie
wavelength λ associated with a particle wavelength of electrons.
of mass m in terms of its kinetic 12. Briefly explain the principle and
energy K. working of electron microscope.
13. An electron and an alpha particle have 13. Describe briefly Davisson – Germer
same kinetic energy. How are the de experiment which demonstrated the
Broglie wavelengths associated with wave nature of electrons.
them related? 14. List out the characteristics of
14. Define stopping potential. photons.
15. What is surface barrier? 15. Give the applications photocell.
16. Mention the two features of x-ray 16. How do we obtain characteristic x-ray
spectra, not explained by classical spectra?
electromagnetic theory. IV. Numerical problems
17. What is Bremsstralung? 1. How many photons per second emanate
from a 50 mW laser of 640 nm?
III Long Answer Questions [Ans: 1.61×1017 s−1 ]
1. What do you mean by electron 2. Calculate the maximum kinetic
emission? Explain briefly various energy and maximum velocity of
methods of electron emission. the photoelectrons emitted when
the stopping potential is 81V for the
2. Briefly discuss the observations of
photoelectric emission experiment.
Hertz, Hallwachs and Lenard.
[Ans: 1.3×10–17J; 5.3×106 ms–1]
3. Explain the effect of potential difference
3. Calculate the energies of the photons
on photoelectric current.
associated with the following radiation:
4. Explain how frequency of incident
(i) violet light of 413 nm (ii) X-rays of
light varies with stopping potential.
0.1 nm (iii) radio waves of 10 m.
5. List out the laws of photoelectric effect.
[Ans: 3 eV;12424 eV;1.24×10−7 eV ]

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4. A 150 W lamp emits light of mean 10. At the given point of time, the
wavelength of 5500 Å . If the efficiency earth receives energy from sun at
is 12%, find out the number of photons 4 cal cm–2 min–1. Determine the number
emitted by the lamp in one second. of photons received on the surface of the
[Ans: 4.98´1019 ] Earth per cm2 per minute. (Given : Mean
5. How many photons of frequency 1014 Hz wavelength of sun light = 5500 Å )
will make up 19.86 J of energy? [Ans: 4.65´1019 ]
[Ans: 3´1020 ] 11. UV light of wavelength 1800Å is
6. What should be the velocity of the incident on a lithium surface whose
electron so that its momentum equals threshold wavelength is 4965Å.
that of 4000 Å wavelength photon. Determine the maximum energy of the
electron emitted.
[Ans: 1818 ms-1 ]
[Ans: 4.40 eV]
7. When a light of frequency 9´1014 Hz is
12. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of
incident on a metal surface, photoelectrons
a proton whose kinetic energy is equal
are emitted with a maximum speed of
to 81.9 × 10–15 J. (Given: mass of proton
8×105 ms−1 . Determine the threshold
is 1836 times that of electron).
frequency of the surface.
[Ans: 4×10−14 m ]
[Ans: 4.61´1014 Hz ]
13. A deuteron and an alpha particle are
8. When a 6000 Å light falls on the
accelerated with the same potential.
cathode of a photo cell, photoemission
Which one of the two has i) greater
takes place. If a potential of 0.8 V is
value of de Broglie wavelength
required to stop emission of electron,
associated with it and ii) less kinetic
then determine the (i) frequency of the
energy? Explain.
light (ii) energy of the incident photon
(iii) work function of the cathode [Ans: λ d = 2λ α and K d = K α ]
2
material (iv) threshold frequency and 14. An electron is accelerated through a
(v) net energy of the electron after it potential difference of 81V. What is the
leaves the surface. de Broglie wavelength associated with
it? To which part of electromagnetic
[Ans: 5×1014 Hz; 2.07 eV; 1.27 eV;
spectrum does this wavelength
3.07×1014 Hz; 0.8 eV ]
correspond?
9. A 3310 Å photon liberates an electron [Ans: λ =1.36 Å and x-rays]
from a material with energy 3×10−19 J 15. The ratio between the de Broglie
while another 5000 Å photon ejects wavelength associated with proton,
an electron with energy 0.972×10−19 J accelerated through a potential of 512 V
from the same material. Determine and that of alpha particle accelerated
the value of Planck’s constant and the through a potential of X volts is found
threshold wavelength of the material. to be one. Find the value of X.
[Ans: 6.62×10−34 Js; 6620×10−10 m ] [Ans: 64 V]

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BOOK FOR REFERENCES
1. Arthur Beiser, Shobhit Mahajan, Rai Choudhury, Concepts of Modern Physics, Sixth
Edition, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
2. H.S. Mani and G.K. Mehta, Introduction to Modern Physics, Affiliated East-West Press
Pvt. Ltd.
3. H.C.Verma, Concepts of Physics, Volume 1 and 2, BharathiBhawan publishers.
4. Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Principles of Physics, Wiley publishers.

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ICT CORNER
Dual nature of radiation and matter
In this activity you will be able to visualize how

Topic: Photoelectric effect
light knocks electrons off a metal target and
describe the photoelectric effect experiment.
STEPS:
• Open the browser and type “https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/photoelectric” in the
address bar.
• Change intensity of light and observe how the intensity of light will affect the photo electric current
and the energy of electrons
• By adjusting the value of wavelength and observe how the wavelength of light will affect the photo
electric current and the energy of electrons
• Adjust the value of voltage from the battery and analyse the effect of potential difference on the
photoelectric current.
• Change the material of the target and analyse how it will affect the current and the energy of electrons.
• Study the photo electric current – voltage graph and Photo electric current - intensity graph obtained
from this experiment.
Step1 Step2
Step3 Step4
Note:
Install Java application if it is not in your browser.
You can download all the phet simulation and works in off line fromhttps://phet.
colorado.edu/en/offline-access .
URL:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/photoelectric

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UNIT
9 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
All of physics is either impossible or trivial. It is impossible until you understand it, and then it becomes trivial
– Ernest Rutherford
Learning Objectives

• electric discharge through the gases
• determination of specific charge of by an electron J.J. Thomson experiment
• determination of electronic charge by Millikan’s oil drop experiment
• atom models – J.J. Thomson and Rutherford
• Bohr atom model and hydrogen atom
• atomic spectrum and hydrogen spectrum
• structure and properties of nucleus
• various classification of nuclei based on atomic number and mass number
• mass defect and binding energy
• relation between stability and binding energy curve
• alpha decay, beta decay and gamma emission
• law of radioactive decay
• nuclear fission and fusion
• elementary ideas of nuclear reactors
• qualitative idea of elementary particles
9.1 In earlier classes, we have studied that

INTRODUCTION anything which occupies space is called
matter. Matter can be classified into
Earth
solids, liquids and gases. In our daily
life, we use water for drinking, petrol for
Atom
Apple vehicles, we inhale oxygen, stainless steel
Same size
vessels for cooking, etc. Experiences tell
Same size us that behaviour of one material is not
Atom
the same as that of another, which means
Atom Apple
Apple Earth that the physical and chemical properties
are different for different materials. In
Figure 9.1 Comparision of size of an atom order to understand this, we need to
with that of an apple and comparision of
know the fundamental constituents of
size of an apple with that of the Earth
materials.
141
141

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When an object is divided repeatedly, But by special arrangement, one can make a
the process of division could not be done gas to conduct electricity.
beyond a certain stage in a similar way and A simple and convenient device used
we end up with a small speck. This small to study the conduction of electricity
speck was defined as an atom. The word through gases is known as gas discharge
atom in Greek means ‘without division tube. The arrangement of discharge tube
or indivisible’. The size of an atom is is shown in Figure 9.2. It consists of a long
very very small. For an example, the size closed glass tube (of length nearly 50 cm
of hydrogen atom (simplest among other and diameter of 4 cm) inside of which
atoms) is around 10 –10 m. An American a gas in pure form is filled usually. The
Physicist Richard P. Feynman said that if small opening in the tube is connected to
the size of an atom becomes the size of an a high vacuum pump and a low-pressure
apple, then the size of apple becomes the gauge. This tube is fitted with two metallic
size of the earth as shown in Figure 9.1. plates known as electrodes which are
Such a small entity is an atom. connected to secondary of an induction
In this unit, we first discuss the theoretical coil. The electrode connected to positive
models of atom to understand its structure. of secondary is known as anode and the
The Bohr atom model is more successful than electrode to the negative of the secondary
J. J. Thomson and Rutherford atom models. is cathode. The potential of secondary is
It explained many unsolved issues in those maintained at about 50 kV.
days and also gave better understanding of
chemistry.
Later, scientists observed that even the atom
is not the fundamental entity. It consists of
electrons and nucleus. Around 1930, scientists
discovered that nucleus is also made of proton
and neutron. Further research discovered that
even the proton and neutron are made up of (a)
fundamental entities known as quarks.
In this context, the remaining part of this High
potential difference
unit is written to understand the structure
— +
and basic properties of nucleus. Further how
the nuclear energy is produced and utilized
are discussed. C A
9.2 Gas
ELECTRIC DISCHARGE
THROUGH GASES (b)
Gases at normal atmospheric pressure are

Figure 9.2 Discharge tube (a) real picture
poor conductors of electricity because they
(b) schematic diagram
do not have free electrons for conduction.
142 Unit 9 Atomic and Nuclear physics

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Suppose the pressure of the gas in (5) The speed of cathode rays is up to
th
discharge tube is reduced to around  1 
  of the speed of light.
110 mm of Hg using vacuum pump, 10 
it is observed that no discharge takes
place. When the pressure is kept near 9.2.1 Determination of specific
e
100 mm of Hg, the discharge of electricity charge   of an electron –
 m
through the tube takes place. Consequently, Thomson’s experiment
irregular streaks of light appear and also
Thomson’s experiment is considered
crackling sound is produced. When the
as one among the landmark experiments
pressure is reduced to the order of 10
for the birth of modern physics. In
mm of Hg, a luminous column known as
1887, J. J. Thomson made remarkable
positive column is formed from anode to
improvement in the study of gases in
cathode.
discharge tubes. In the presence of
When the pressure reaches to
electric and magnetic fields, the cathode
around 0.01 mm of Hg, positive column
rays were deflected. By the variation of
disappears. At this time, a dark space
electric and magnetic fields, the specific
is formed between anode and cathode
charge (charge per unit mass) of the
which is often called Crooke’s dark space
cathode rays is measured.
and the walls of the tube appear with
green colour. At this stage, some invisible
Deflecting Fluorescent screen
rays emanate from cathode called cathode Cathode
plates
Anode S
rays, which are later found be a beam of A +
P
C
electrons. _
N
O
P'
Battery
Properties of cathode rays High voltage
battery
(1) Cathode rays possess energy and

Magnet
momentum and travel in a straight line with
high speed of the order of 107 ms-1. It can Figure 9.3 Arrangement of J.J. Thomson
be deflected by application of electric and experiment to determine the specific
magnetic fields. The direction of deflection charge of an electron
indicates that they contain negatively
charged particles. The arrangement of J. J. Thomson’s
(2) When the cathode rays are allowed experiment is shown in Figure 9.3. A
to fall on matter, heat is produced. Cathode highly evacuated discharge tube is used and
rays affect the photographic plates and also cathode rays (electron beam) produced at
produce fluorescence when they fall on cathode are attracted towards anode disc
certain crystals and minerals. A. Anode disc is provided with pin hole
(3) When the cathode rays fall on a in order to allow only a narrow beam of
material of high atomic weight, x-rays are cathode rays. These cathode rays are now
produced. allowed to pass through the parallel metal
(4) Cathode rays ionize the gas through plates which are maintained at high voltage
which they pass. as shown in Figure 9.3. Further, the gas
Unit 9 Atomic and Nuclear physics 143

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discharge tube is kept in between pole (ii) Determination of specific charge

pieces of magnet such that both electric and Since the cathode rays (electron beam)
magnetic fields are acting perpendicular to are accelerated from cathode to anode, the
each other. When the cathode rays strike potential energy of the electron beam at the
the screen, they produce scintillation and cathode is converted into kinetic energy
hence bright spot is observed. This is of the electron beam at the anode. Let V
achieved by coating the screen with zinc be the potential difference between anode
sulphide. and cathode, then the potential energy
is eV. Then from law of conservation of
(i) Determination of velocity of cathode energy,
rays
2
eV = 1 mυ2 ⇒ e = υ
2 m 2V
Substituting the value of velocity from
equation (9.1), we get
S
e = 1 E 2 (9.2)
+
m 2V B 2
e– E FE B v
FB Substituting the values of E, B and V, the
_
specific charge can be determined as
e = 1.7 ×1011 C kg −1
N m
(iii)
Deflection of charge only due to
uniform electric field
Figure 9.4 Electric force balancing the When the magnetic field is turned off,
magnetic force – the path of electron the deflection is only due to electric field.
beam is a straight line The deflection in vertical direction is due to
For a fixed electric field between the the electric force.
plates, the magnetic field is adjusted such Fe = eE (9.3)
that the cathode rays (electron beam)
strike at the original position O (Figure Let m be the mass of the electron and by
9.3). This means that the magnitude of applying Newton’s second law of motion,
electric force is balanced by the magnitude acceleration of the electron is
of force due to magnetic field as shown
in Figure 9.4. Let e be the charge of the ae = 1 Fe (9.4)
m
cathode rays, then
Substituting equation (9.4) in equation
eE = eB υ
(9.3),
⇒ υ = E (9.1)
B ae = 1 eE = e E
m m

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2 2
+ y =C1 e l B (9.7)
2m E
y
e– y´
Rearranging equation (9.7) as
E
_
e = 2 yE (9.8)
l m Cl 2 B 2
Screen
Substituting the values on RHS, the
Figure 9.5 Deviation of path by applying
value of specific charge is calculated as
uniform electric field
e = 1.7 × 1011 C kg −1 .
m
Let y be the deviation produced from
original position on the screen as shown
in Figure 9.5. Let the initial upward The specific charge is
velocity of cathode ray be u = 0 before Note independent of
entering the parallel electric plates. Let (a) gas used
t be the time taken by the cathode rays (b) nature of the electrodes
to travel in electric field. Let l be the
length of one of the plates, then the time
taken is 9.2.2 Determination of
charge of an electron –
t= l (9.5) Millikan’s oil drop experiment
υ
Millikan’s oil drop
Hence, the deflection yʹ of cathode rays experiment is another
important experiment in
is (note: u = 0 and ae = e E )
m modern physics which is
used to determine one of
y ′ = ut + 1 at 2 ⇒ y ′ = ut + 1 ae t 2 the fundamental constants
2 2
  
2
of nature known as charge of an electron
= 1  e E  l 
2  m  υ  (Figure 9.6 (a)).
By adjusting electric field suitably, the
2 2 motion of oil drop inside the chamber can
y ′ = 1 e l B (9.6)
2m E be controlled – that is, it can be made to
move up or down or even kept balanced
Therefore, the deflection y on the screen in the field of view for sufficiently long
is time.
y ∝ y′ ⇒ y = C y′ The experimental arrangement is
shown in Figure 9.6 (b). The apparatus
where C is proportionality constant consists of two horizontal circular metal
which depends on the geometry of the plates A and B each with diameter
discharge tube and substituting yʹ value in around 20 cm and are separated by a
equation 9.6, we get small distance 1.5 cm. These two parallel

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Atomizer
These drops can move either upwards or
(+)
downward.
Light Let m be the mass of the oil drop and q
source
(–) Microscope
be its charge. Then the forces acting on the
droplet are
(a) (a) gravitational force Fg = mg
(b) electric force Fe = qE
To Atomizer (c) buoyant force Fb
(d) viscous force Fv
+ A Fb Fv Fb Fe
Microscope
Light source
– B
Oil drop
(b)
Figure 9.6 Millikan’s experiment (a) real Fg Fg
picture and schematic picture (b) Side
(a) (b)
view picture
Figure 9.7 Free body diagram of the oil
drop – (a) without electric field (b) with
plates are enclosed in a chamber with electric field
glass walls. Further, plates A and B are
maintained at high potential difference
around 10 kV such that electric field acts (a) Determination of radius of the
vertically downward. A small hole is made droplet
at the centre of the upper plate A and an When the electric field is switched off,
atomizer is kept exactly above the hole to the oil drop accelerates downwards. Due
spray the liquid. When a fine droplet of to the presence of air drag forces, the oil
the highly viscous non volatile liquid (like drops easily attain its terminal velocity
glycerine) is sprayed using atomizer, they and moves with constant velocity. This
fall freely downward through the hole of velocity can be carefully measured by
the top plate only under the influence of noting down the time taken by the oil drop
gravity. to fall through a predetermined distance.
Few oil drops in the chamber can The free body diagram of the oil drop
acquire electric charge (negative charge) is shown in Figure 9.7 (a), we note that
because of friction with air or passage viscous force and buoyant force balance
of x-rays in between the parallel plates. the gravitational force.
Further the chamber is illuminated by Let the gravitational force acting on the
light which is passed horizontally and oil oil drop (downward) be Fg = mg
drops can be seen clearly using microscope Let us assume that oil drop to be spherical
placed perpendicular to the light beam. in shape. Let ρ be the density of the oil drop,

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and r be the radius of the oil drop, then the 1

 9 ηυ  2
mass of the oil drop can be expressed in r= 
 2(ρ − σ) g  (9.9)
terms of its density as
m Thus, equation (9.9) gives the radius of
ρ=
V the oil drop.
volume of the 
  
⇒ m = ρ 4 πr 3   4 3

3  sphere,V = πr  (b) Determination of electric charge
3
When the electric field is switched on,
The gravitational force can be written in charged oil drops experience an upward
terms of density as electric force (qE). Among many drops,
one particular drop can be chosen in the
 
Fg = mg ⇒ Fg = ρ 4 πr 3  g field of view of microscope and strength
3  of the electric field is adjusted to make
that particular drop to be stationary.
Let σ be the density of the air, the
Under these circumstances, there will be
upthrust force experienced by the oil drop
no viscous force acting on the oil drop.
due to displaced air is
Then, from the free body diagram shown
  Figure 9.7 (b), the net force acting on the
Fb = σ  4 πr 3  g oil droplet is
3 
Once the oil drop attains a terminal Fe + Fb = Fg

velocity υ, the net downward force acting
on the oil drop is equal to the viscous ⇒ qE + 4 πr 3σg = 4 πr 3ρg
force acting opposite to the direction of 3 3
motion of the oil drop. From Stokes law,
the viscous force on the oil drop is ⇒ qE = 4 πr 3 (ρ − σ) g (9.10)
3
Fv = 6πr υη
⇒ q = 4 πr 3 (ρ − σ) g (9.11)
From the free body diagram as shown 3E
in Figure 9.7 (a), the force balancing
equation is Substituting equation (9.9) in equation
(9.11), we get
Fg = Fb + Fυ
1
18 π  η3 υ3 2
    q= 
ρ 4 πr 3  g = σ  4 πr 3  g + 6πr υη  (9.12)
E  2(ρ − σ) g 
3  3 
Millikan repeated this experiment
4 πr 3 (ρ − σ) g = 6πr υη
3 several times and computed the charges
on oil drops. He found that the charge
2 πr 3 (ρ − σ) g = 3πr υη of any oil drop can be written as integral
3 multiple of a basic value, −1.6 ×10−19 C,

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which is nothing but the charge of an 9.3.1 . J. Thomson’s Model

J
electron. (Water melon model)
In this model, the atoms are visualized
9.3 as homogeneous spheres which contain
ATOM MODELS uniform distribution of positively charged
particles (Figure 9.8 (a)). The negatively
Introduction charged particles known as electrons are
Around 400 B.C, Greek philosophers embedded in it like seeds in water melon
Leucippus and Democretus proposed as shown in Figure 9.8 (b).
the concept of atom, ‘Every object on 10 m
–10
continued subdivision ultimately yields

atoms’. Later, many physicists and _ _
chemists tried to understand the nature _
_
with the idea of atoms. Many theories _
_
were proposed to explain the properties
(physical and chemical) of bulk materials
Positively charged
on the basis of atomic model. material
For instance, J. J. Thomson proposed
Figure 9.8 (a) Atom (b) Water melon
a theoretical atom model which is based
on static distribution of electric charges. The atoms are electrically neutral, this
Since this model fails to explain the implies that the total positive charge in an
stability of atom, one of his students E. atom is equal to the total negative charge.
Rutherford proposed the first dynamic According to this model, all the charges
model of an atom. Rutherford gave atom are assumed to be at rest. But from classical
model which is based on results of an electrodynamics, no stable equilibrium
experiment done by his students (Geiger points exist in electrostatic configuration
and Marsden). But this model also failed (this is known as Earnshaw’s theorem)
to explain the stability of the atom. and hence such an atom cannot be stable.
Later, Niels Bohr who is also a student Further, it fails to explain the origin of
of Rutherford proposed an atomic spectral lines observed in the spectrum of
model for hydrogen atom which is hydrogen atom and other atoms.
more successful than other two models.
Niels Bohr atom model could explain
the stability of the atom and also the 9.3.2 Rutherford’s model
origin of line spectrum. There are other In 1911, Geiger and Marsden did a
atom models, such as Sommerfeld’s remarkable experiment based on the advice
atom model and atom model from wave of their teacher Rutherford, which is known
mechanics (quantum mechanics). But we as scattering of alpha particles by gold foil.
will restrict ourselves only to very simple The experimental arrangement is shown
(mathematically simple) atom model in in Figure 9.9. A source of alpha particles
this section. (radioactive material, example polonium) is

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Flash of
light
Lead Lead Screen
Block Microscope
Fluorescent
Screen

+
Polonium Scattering
sample angle
Gold
foil
Figure 9.9 Schematic diagram for scattering of alpha particles experiment by Rutherford
kept inside a thick lead box with a fine hole experiment. In this experiment, alpha
as seen in Figure 9.9. The alpha particles particles (positively charged particles) were
coming through the fine hole of lead box pass allowed to fall on the atoms of a metallic
through another fine hole made on the lead gold foil. The results of this experiment are
screen. These particles are now allowed to fall given below and are shown in Figure 9.10,
on a thin gold foil and it is observed that the Rutherford expected the atom model to be
alpha particles passing through gold foil are as seen in Figure 9.10 (a) but the experiment
scattered through different angles. A movable showed the model as in Figure 9.10 (b).
screen (from 0° to 180°) which is made up of (a) Most of the alpha particles were
zinc sulphide (ZnS) is kept on the other side un-deflected through the gold foil and
of the gold foil to collect the scattered alpha went straight.
particles. Whenever alpha particles strike the (b) Some of the alpha particles were
screen, a flash of light is observed which can deflected through a small angle.
be seen through a microscope. (c) A few alpha particles (one in thousand)
Rutherford proposed an atom model were deflected through the angle more
based on the results of alpha scattering than 90°
Expected Observed
Number of scattered particles detected
107
_
_ _ 106
_ _ _ 105
_
_ + 104
_ _ 103
102
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
(a) (b) (c) Scattering angle θ (in degree)
Figure 9.10 In alpha scattering experiment – (a) Rutherford expected (b) experiment
result (c) The variation of alpha particles scattered N(θ) with scattering angle θ

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(d) Very few alpha particles returned back of the nucleus and the alpha particle just
(back scattered) –that is, deflected back before it gets reflected back through 180° is
by 180° defined as the distance of closest approach
In Figure 9.10 (c), the dotted points r0 (also known as contact distance). At this
are the alpha scattering experiment data distance, all the kinetic energy of the alpha
points obtained by Geiger and Marsden particle will be converted into electrostatic
and the solid curve is the prediction from potential energy (Refer unit 1, volume 1 of
Rutherford’s nuclear model. It is observed +2 physics text book).
that the Rutherford’s nuclear model is in
1 mυ 2 = 1 (2e)(Ze)
good agreement with the experimental data. 2 0
4 πε 0 r0
Conclusion made by Rutherford based on
the above observation ⇒ r0 = 1 2 Ze 2 = 1 2 Ze 2
From the experimental observations,
4 πε 0 1 mυ2
2 0 (
4 πε 0 Ek
)
Rutherford proposed that an atom has a lot
of empty space and contains a tiny matter at where Ek is the kinetic energy of the
its centre known as nucleus whose size is of alpha particle.This is used to estimate the
the order of 10-14m. The nucleus is positively size of the nucleus but size of the nucleus
charged and most of the mass of the atom is is always lesser than the distance of closest
concentrated in the nucleus. The nucleus is approach. Further, Rutherford calculated
surrounded by negatively charged electrons. the radius of the nucleus for different
Since static charge distribution cannot be in nuclei and found that it ranges from
a stable equilibrium, he suggested that the 10–14 m to 10–15 m.
electrons are not at rest and they revolve (b) Impact parameter
around the nucleus in circular orbits like
planets revolving around the sun.
(a) Distance of closest approach
Alpha particle
+ θ
+
b 90°
Impact parameter Alpha particle at a very
Alpha particles r0 gold nucleus
distance of closed approach large distance
b
Nucleus
Figure 9.11 Distance of closest approach

and impact parameter Figure 9.12 Impact parameter
When an alpha particle moves straight The impact parameter (b) (see Figure 9.12)
towards the nucleus, it reaches a point is defined as the perpendicular distance
where it comes to rest momentarily and between the centre of the gold nucleus and
returns back as shown in Figure 9.11. The the direction of velocity vector of alpha
minimum distance between the centre particle when it is at a large distance. The

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relation between impact parameter and Hence, Rutherford model could not account
scattering angle can be shown as for the stability of atoms.
    (b) According to this model, emission
b ∝ cot  θ  ⇒ b = K cot  θ  (9.13) of radiation must be continuous and
2 2
must give continuous emission spectrum
1 2 Ze 2 but experimentally we observe only line
where K = and θ is called
4 πε 0 mυ20 (discrete) emission spectrum for atoms.
scattering angle. Equation (9.13) implies
that when impact parameter increases, 9.3.3 Bohr atom model
the scattering angle decreases. Smaller
In order to overcome the limitations of
the impact parameter, larger will be the
the Rutherford atom model in explaining the
deflection of alpha particles.
stability and also the line spectrum observed
Drawbacks of Rutherford model for a hydrogen atom (Figure 9.14), Niels Bohr
Rutherford atom model helps in the made modifications in Rutherford atom
calculation of the diameter of the nucleus model. He is the first person to give better
and also the size of the atom but has the theoretical model of the structure of an atom
following limitations: to explain the line spectrum of hydrogen
(a) This model fails to explain the atom. The following are the assumptions
distribution of electrons around the nucleus (postulates) made by Bohr.
and also the stability of the atom.
++
Figure 9.14 The line spectrum of
__
e hydrogen
Postulates of Bohr atom model:

Instability of atom
(a) The electron in an atom moves
Figure 9.13 Spiral in motion of an around nucleus in circular orbits under the
electron around the nucleus influence of Coulomb electrostatic force
of attraction. This Coulomb force gives
According to classical electrodynamics, necessary centripetal force for the electron
any accelerated charge should emit to undergo circular motion.
electromagnetic radiations continuously. (b) Electrons in an atom revolve around
Due to emission of radiations, the charge the nucleus only in certain discrete orbits
loses its energy. Hence, it can no longer called stationary orbits and electron in such
sustain the circular motion. The radius of orbits do not radiate electromagnetic energy.
the orbit, therefore, becomes smaller and Only those discrete orbits allowed are stable
smaller (undergoes spiral motion) as shown orbits.
in Figure 9.13 and finally the electron should The angular momentum of the electron
fall into the nucleus and the atoms should in these stationary orbits are quantized – that
disintegrate. But this does not happen. is, it can be written as an integer or integral

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multiple of h called as reduced Planck’s The circumference of an electron’s orbit

2π
constant – that is,  (read it as h-bar) and of radius r must be an integral multiple of de
the integer n is called as principal quantum Broglie wavelength – that is,
number. 2πr = nλ (9.14)
h where n = 1,2,3,......
l = n where  =
2π
This condition is known as angular But the de Broglie wavelength (λ)
momentum quantization condition. associated with an electron of mass m moving
According to quantum mechanics, with velocity υ is λ = h where h is called
mυ
particles like electrons have dual nature (Refer
Planck’s constant. Thus from equation (9.14),
unit 8, volume 2 of +2 physics text book). The
standing wave pattern of the de Broglie wave  
2πr = n  h 
associated with orbiting electron in a stable  mυ 
orbit is shown in Figure 9.15.
mυr = n h
2π
For any particle of mass m undergoing
circular motion with radius r and velocity υ, the
magnitude of angular momentum l is given by
r l = r (mυ)
mυr = l = n
(c) Energy of the electron in orbits is not
continuous but only discrete. This is called the
quantization of energy. An electron can jump
from one orbit to another orbit by absorbing
λ or emitting a photon whose energy is equal
to the difference in energy (ΔE) between the
two orbital levels (Figure 9.16)
∆E = E final − Einitial = hv = h c
λ
n=3
where c is the speed of light and λ is the
wavelength and v is the frequency of the
radiation emitted. Thus, the frequency of the
Forbidden
n = 3.3 radiation emitted is related only to change in
atomic energy levels and it does not depend on
frequency of orbital motion of the electron.
n=5
_
_e
E E
f f
hv hv
_ _
_ E E _
e i i e
Figure 9.15 Standing wave pattern for Figure 9.16 Absorption and emission of
electron in a stable orbit radiation

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E X A M P L E 9. 1 Nucleus is assumed to be stationary

The radius of the 5 orbit of hydrogen atom is
th
Electron revolves in nth orbit
13.25 Å. Calculate the de broglie wavelength of radius rn with
speed υn
of the electron orbitting in the 5th orbit.
υn
Solution: Nucleus rn
+Ze + _
2πr = nλ F Electron
m, –e
2 × 3.14 × 13.25Å = 5 × λ Electrostatic attraction
provides centripetal
∴ λ = 16.64Å acceleration
E X A M P L E 9. 2
Figure 9.17 Electron revolving around
Find the (i) angular momentum the nucleus
(ii) velocity of the electron revolving in the
5th orbit of hydrogen atom. Let Z be the atomic number of the atom,
then +Ze is the charge of the nucleus. Let
(h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js, m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg) –e be the charge of the electron. From
Solution Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction
(i) Angular momentum is given by between the nucleus and the electron is
(+Ze)(− −ee)) ˆr
l = n = nh FFcoloumb = 11 (+Ze)(
coloumb =
2π πε00
44πε rrnn
22
−34
= 5× 6.6 ×10 = 5.25×10−34 kgm2s−1 =−
= − 11 Ze Ze22
ˆr
2 × 3.14 πε00 rrnn22
44πε
This force provides necessary centripetal
(ii) Velocity is given by
force
Velocity υ = l mυn2 ˆr
mr F centripetal =
(5.25×10−34 kgm 2s−1 ) rn
= where m be the mass of the electron that
(9.1×10−31 kg)(13.25×10−10 m)
moves with a velocity υn in a circular orbit.
υ= 4.4 ×105 ms−1
Therefore,

Radius of the orbit of the electron and F coloumb = F centripetal
velocity of the electron 2
1 Ze 2 = mυn
Consider an atom which contains the 4 πε 0 rn2 rn
nucleus at rest and an electron revolving
Multiplied and divided by ‘m’
around the nucleus in a circular orbit of
4 πε 0 (mυnrn )2
radius rn as shown in Figure 9.17. Nucleus rn = (9.15)
is made up of protons and neutrons. Since Zme 2
proton is positively charged and neutron is From Bohr’s assumption, the angular
electrically neutral, the charge of a nucleus momentum quantization condition,
is entirely due to the charge of protons. mυnrn = ln = n,

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4 πε 0 (mυnrn )2
∴ rn =
Zme 2
4 πε 0 (n)2 4 πε 0n2 2
rn = =
Zme 2 Zme 2 r2= 4r1
 ε h2  2 ∴ h
rn =  0 2  n (  = )(9.16)
r3= 9r1
 πme  Z 2π r1
where nÎ . Since, ε0, h, e and π are

constants. Therefore, the radius of the orbit
r4= 16r1
becomes
n2
rn = a0
Z Figure 9.18 Variation of radius of the
ε 0h 2 orbit with principal quantum number
where a0 = = 0.529 Å. This is
πme 2
known as Bohr radius which is the smallest υn = h Z
radius of the orbit in hydrogen atom. Bohr 2πma0 n
radius is also used as unit of length called Bohr.
in atomic physics υn µ 1
1 Bohr = 0.53 Å. For hydrogen atom (Z = 1), n
the radius of nth orbit is
Note that the velocity of electron
rn = a0n2 decreases as the principal quantum number
For n = 1 (first orbit or ground state), (orbit number) increases as shown in Figure
9.19. This curve is the rectangular hyperbola.
r1 = a0 = 0.529 Å This implies that the velocity of electron in
For n = 2 (second orbit or first excited state), ground state is maximum when compared
to that in excited states.
r2 = 4a0 = 2.116 Å
For n = 3 (third orbit or second excited state), Vn
r3 = 9a0 = 4.761 Å
and so on.
υn µ 1
n
Thus the radius of the orbit from centre
increases with n, that is, rn ∝ n2 as shown in
Figure 9.18.
O n
Further, Bohr’s angular momentum
quantization condition leads to Figure 9.19 Variation of velocity of
mυna0n2  2 the electron in the orbit with principal
= n h ∴ rn = a0 n  quantum number
Z 2π  Z 

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The energy of an electron in the nth orbit Notice that the energy of the first excited
Since the electrostatic force is a conservative state is greater than that of the ground state,
force, the potential energy for the nth orbit is second excited state is greater than that of the
(+Ze)(−e) 2 first excited state and so on. Thus, the orbit
Un = 1 = − 1 Ze
4 πε 0 rn 4 πε 0 rn which is closest to the nucleus (r1) has lowest
1 Z 2
me 4  ε 0h2 n2  energy (minimum energy what it is compared
= − 2 2 2  rn =  
4ε0 h n  πme 2 Z  with other orbits). So, it is often called
ground state energy (lowest energy state).
The kinetic energy of the electron in nth
The ground state energy of hydrogen (–13.6
orbit is
eV ) is used as a unit of energy called Rydberg
4 2 (1 Rydberg = –13.6 eV ).
KEn = 1 mυn2 = me2 2 Z2
2 8 ε 0h n The negative value of this energy is
because of the way the zero of the potential
This implies that Un = –2 KEn. Total
energy is defined. When the electron is
energy of the electron in in the nth orbit is
taken away to an infinite distance (very far
En = KEn + U n = KEn − 2KEn = − KEn distance) from nucleus, both the potential
4 2 energy and kinetic energy terms vanish
En = − me2 2 Z2 and hence the total energy also vanishes.
8ε 0h n
The energy level diagram along with the
For hydrogen atom (Z = 1), shape of the orbits for increasing values of n
4 are shown in Figure 9.20. It shows that the
En = − me2 2 12 joule (9.17) energies of the excited states come closer and
8 ε 0h n
closer together when the principal quantum
where n stands for principal quantum number n takes higher values.
number. The negative sign in equation
(9.17) indicates that the electron is bound E X A M P L E 9. 3
to the nucleus. (a) Show that the ratio of velocity of an
Substituting the values of mass electron in the first Bohr orbit to the speed
and charge of an electron (m and e), of light c is a dimensionless number.
permittivity of free space ε0 and Planck’s
(b) Compute the velocity of electrons in
constant h and expressing energy in terms
ground state, first excited state and second
of electron(+(eV)), we get
excited state in Bohr atom model for
hydrogen atom.
En = −13.6 12 eV
n
Solution
or the first orbit (ground state), the total
F
(a) The velocity of an electron in nth orbit is
energy of electron is E1= – 13.6 eV.
For the second orbit (first excited state), υn = h Z
2πma0 n
the total energy of electron is E2= –3.4 eV.
For the third orbit (second excited state), ε 0h 2
where a0 = = Bohr radius. Substituting
the total energy of electron is E3= –1.51 eV πme 2
and so on. for a0 in υn,

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Free electron
Energy, J Energy, eV
n=∞ 0 0
−19
n=5 —0.87×10 —0.54
n=4 −19
—1.36×10 —0.85
n=3 −19
—2.42×10 —1.51 Excited states
n=2 −19
—5.43×10 —3.40
n=1
—21.76×10−19 —13.6 Ground state
Figure 9.20 Energy levels of a hydrogen atom
 2  υ1 2
=α= e
2
υn = e Z = c  e  Z = αcZ
2 ε 0h n  2ε 0hc  n n c 2ε 0hc
where c is the speed of light in free space or (1.6 ×10−19 C)2
α=
vacuum and its value is c = 3 × 108 m s–1and 2 ×(8.854 ×10−12 C 2 N−1m−2 )
α is called fine structure constant. 1
×
For a hydrogen atom, Z = 1 and for the first (6.6 ×10 Nms)×(3×108 ms−1 )
−34
orbit, n = 1, the ratio of velocity of electron 1 1

≈ = which is a dimensionless
in first orbit to the speed of light in vacuum 136.9 137
or free space is number

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⇒α= 1
137
(b) Using fine structure constant, the
velocity of electron can be written as
υn = αcZ
n m M
For hydrogen atom (Z = 1) the velocity of COM
electron in nth orbit is r2 r1
υn = c 1 = (2.19 ×106 ) 1 ms−1
137 n n
For the first orbit (ground state), the
Let V be the velocity of the nuclear motion
velocity of electron is
and υ be the velocity of electron motion.
υ1 = 2.19 ×106 ms−1 Since the total linear momentum of the
system is zero,
For the second orbit (first excited state),
the velocity of electron is −mυ + M υ = 0 or
υ2 = 1.095×106 ms−1 MV = mυ = p

pe + pn = 0 or
For the third orbit (second excited state),
the velocity of electron is p e = pn = p
Hence, the kinetic energy of the system is
υ3 = 0.73×106 ms−1
pn2 p2 p2  1 1 
Here, υ1 > υ2 > υ3 KE = + e =  + 
2 M 2m 2  M m 
Let 1 + 1 = 1 . Here the reduced mass
E X A M P L E 9. 4 M m µm
The Bohr atom model is derived with the is, µ m = mM

M +m
assumption that the nucleus of the atom
is stationary and only electrons revolve Therefore, the kinetic energy of the system
around the nucleus. Suppose the nucleus is p2
now is KE =
also in motion, then calculate the energy of 2µ m
this new system.
Since the potential energy of the system is
Solution same, the total energy of the hydrogen can
be expressed by replacing mass by reduced
Let the mass of the electron be m and
mass, which is
mass of the nucleus be M. Since there is
µ e4
no external force acting on the system, the En = − m2 2 12
centre of mass of hydrogen atom remains 8 ε 0h n
at rest. Hence, both nucleus and electron Since the nucleus is very heavy compared
move about the centre of mass as shown in to the electron, the reduced mass is closer
figure. to the mass of the electron.

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EI = E2 – E1 = –3.4 eV – (–13.6 eV) = 10.2 eV

In 1931, H.C. Urey and co-
Note workers noticed that in the Similarly, the excitation energy for
shorter wavelength region an electron from ground state (n = 1) to
of the hydrogen spectrum lines, faint second excited state (n = 3) is called second
companion lines are observed. From excitation energy, which is
the isotope displacement effect (isotope EII = E3 – E1 = –1.51 eV – (–13.6 eV) = 12.1 eV
shift), the isotope of the same element can and so on.
produce slightly different spectral lines.
Excitation potential is defined as
The presence of these faint lines confirmed
excitation energy per unit charge.
the existence of isotopes of hydrogen atom
For hydrogen atom, the first excitation
(which is named as Deuterium).
state energy is
On calculating wavelength or wave
number difference between the faint EI = eVI
and bright spectral lines, atomic mass First excitation potential for hydrogen
of deuterium is measured to be twice atom is,
that of atomic mass of hydrogen atom.
Bohr atom model could not explain this ⇒ VI = 1 EI = 10.2 volt
e
isotopic shift. Thus by considering nuclear Similarly, second excitation potential is,
motion (although the movement of the
nucleus is much smaller) into account in ⇒ VII = 1 EII = 12.1 volt and so on.
e
the Bohr atom model, the wave number
Ionization energy and ionization potential
or wavelength difference between the
lines produces by the hydrogen atom An atom is said to be ionized when an
and deuterium is theoretically calculated electron is completely removed from the atom
which perfectly agreed with the – that is, it reaches the state with energy En→∞ .
spectroscopic measured values. The minimum energy required to remove an
electron from an atom in the ground state is
The difference between hydrogen
atom and deuterium is in the number known as binding energy or ionization energy.
of neutron. Hydrogen atom contains For hydrogen atom, the ground state
an electron and a proton, whereas ionization energy is,
deuterium has an electron, a proton Eionizaation = E∞ − E1 = 0 − (−13.6 eV)
and a neutron. = 13.6 eV
When an electron is in nth state of an atom,
Excitation energy and excitation potential the energy required to remove an electron
The energy required to excite an from that state – that is, the corresponding
electron from lower energy state to any ionization energy is
higher energy state is known as excitation  
Eionization = E∞ − En = 0 − − 132.6 Z 2 eV
energy.  n 
The excitation energy for an electron = 132.6 Z 2 eV
from ground state (n = 1) to first excited n
state (n = 2) is called first excitation energy. At normal room temperature, the electron
For hydrogen atom, it is in a hydrogen atom (Z=1) spends most of
its time in the ground state. The amount of

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Table 9.1
Physical quantity Ground state First excited state Second excited state
Radius (rn ∝ n2) 0.529 Å 2.116 Å 4.761 Å
Velocity (vn ∝ n-1) 2.19 × 106 m s-1 1.095 × 106 m s-1 0.73 × 106 m s-1
Total Energy (En ∝ n-2) –13.6 eV –3.4 eV –1.51 eV
energy required to remove an electron from (c) When a photon with energy 42 eV
the ground state of an atom to the outer and another photon with energy 51 eV are
most orbit (E = 0 for n→∞) is known as made to collide with this atom, does this
first ionization energy (13.6 eV). Then, the atom absorb these photons?
hydrogen atom is said to be in ionized state or (d) Determine the radius of its first Bohr
simply called as hydrogen ion, denoted by H+. orbit.
If we supply more energy than the ionization
energy, the excess energy appear as the kinetic (e) Calculate the kinetic and potential
energy of the free electron. energies of electron in the ground state.
Ionization potential is defined as Solutions
ionization energy per unit charge. (a) Given that
Vionization = 1 Eionization = 132.6 Z 2 V En = − 542.4 eV

e n n
Thus, for a hydrogen atom (Z =1), the For n = 1, the ground state energy
ionization potential is E1 = –54.4 eV and for n = 2, E2 = –13.6 eV.
Similarly, E3 = –6.04 eV, E4 = –3.4 eV and so
V = 132.6 volt on.
n
For large value of principal quantum
The radius, velocity and total energy in
number – that is, n = ∞, we get E∞ = 0 eV.
ground state, first excited state and second
excited state are given in Table 9.1. 0 n=∞
—3.4 n=4
—6.04 n=3
E X A M P L E 9. 5
—13.6 n=2
Suppose the energy of an electron
in hydrogen–like atom is given as —54.4(eV) n=1
En = − 542.4 eV where nÎ . Calculate (b) For a hydrogen-like atom, ground state
n
energy is
the following:
(a) Sketch the energy levels for this atom E1 = − 132.6 Z 2 eV
n
and compute its atomic number. where Z is the atomic number. Hence,
(b) If the atom is in ground state, compute comparing this energy with given energy, we
its first excitation potential and also its get, – 13.6 Z2 = – 54.4 ⇒ Z = ±2. Since, atomic
ionization potential. number cannot be negative number, Z = 2.

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The first excitation energy is for Photon B, E4 – E1 = 51 eV, which means,

EI = E2 − E1 = −13.6 eV − (−54.4 eV) Photon B can be absorbed by this atom.
a0 ×n2
= 40.8 eV (d) The radius of Bohr orbit is rn =
z
Hence, the first excitation potential is For n = 1, z = 2
(40.8 eV) a0
VI = 1 EI = r1 =
2
e e
= 40.8 volt 0.529
=
2
The first ionization energy is = 0.265 Å
Eionization = E∞ − E1 = 0 − (−54.4 eV)
(e) Since, total energy is equal to negative of
= 54.4 eV
kinetic energy in Bohr atom model, we get
Hence, the first ionization potential is  
KEn = −En = −− 542.4 eV
(54.4 eV)  n 
Vionization = 1 Eionization =
e e
= 542.4 eV
= 54.4 volt n
(c) Consider two photons to be A and B. Since, Potential energy is negative of twice
Given that photon A with energy 42 eV the kinetic energy,
and photon B with energy 51 eV
 
From Bohr assumption, difference in U n = −2KEn = −2  542.4 eV
 n 
energy levels is equal to the energy photon
absored, then atom will absorb energy, = − 1082.8 eV
n
otherwise, not.
For a ground state, put n =1
E2 − E1 = −13.6 eV − (−54.4 eV)
Kinetic energy is KE1 = 54.4 eV and
= 40.8 eV ≈ 41eV
Potential energy is U1 = –108.8 eV
Similarly,
E3 − E1 = −6.04 eV − (−54.4 eV)
= 48.36 eV 9.3.4 Atomic spectra
Materials in the solid, liquid and gaseous
E4 − E1 = −3.4 eV − (−54.4 eV)
states emit electromagnetic radiations when
= 51eV
they are heated up and these emitted radiations
E3 − E2 = −6.04 eV − (−13.6 eV) usually exhibit continuous spectrum. For
= 7.56 eV example, when white light is examined
and so on. through a spectrometer, electromagnetic
But note that E2 – E1 ≠ 42 eV, E3 – E1 ≠ 42 eV, radiations of all wavelengths are observed
E4 – E1 ≠ 42 eV and E3 – E2 ≠ 42 eV. which is a continuous spectrum.
In early twentieth century, many scientists
For all possibilities, no difference in energy is spent considerable time in understanding the
an integer multiple of photon energy. Hence, characteristic radiations emitted by the atoms
photon A is not absorbed by this atom. But of individual elements exposed to a flame or

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High voltage
difference
Diffraction
grating
Line spectrum
Low-pressure gas
Figure 9.21 Spectrum of an atom
electrical discharge. When they were viewed electrons get sufficient energy as given
or photographed, instead of a continuous by Bohr’s postulate (c), it absorbs energy
spectrum, the radiation contains of a set with particular wavelength (or frequency)
of discrete lines, each with characteristic and jumps from one stationary state
wavelength. In other words, the wavelengths (original state) to another state with those
of the radiation obtained are well defined and wavelengths (or frequencies) for the colours
their positions and intensities are characteristic that are not observed are seen as dark lines
of the element as shown in Figure 9.21. in the absorption spectrum as shown in
This implies that these spectra are unique Figure 9.22 (b).
to each element and can be used to identify Hydrogen spectrum
the element of the gas (like finger print used n=5 n=4 n=3 n=5 n=4
to identify a person) – that is, it varies from
one gas to another gas. This uniqueness of
line spectra of elements made the scientists to λ(nm)
determine the composition of stars, sun and
400 500 600 700 400 500
also used to identify the unknown compounds.
(a) Emission spectrum of hydrogen (b) Absorption
Hydrogen spectrum (in wavelength) (in w
Hydrogen spectrum
When the hydrogen gas enclosed in a
n = 5up,nit
tube is heated = 4emits electromagnetic
n=3 n=5 n=4 n=3
radiations of certain sharply-defined
characteristic wavelength (line spectrum),
called hydrogen emission spectrum (Refer λ(nm) λ(nm)
unit 5, volume 1 of +2 physics text book).
400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700
The emission spectrum of hydrogen is
(a) Emission spectrum of hydrogen (b) Absorption spectrum of hydrogen
shown in Figure 9.22(a).
(in wavelength)
When any gas is heated up, the thermal (in wavelength)
energy is supplied to excite the electrons.
Similarly by all occurring light on the Figure 9.22 Hydrogen spectrum
(a) emission (b) absorption
atoms, electrons can be excited. Once the

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Since electrons in excited states have very series approach a limiting value known as the
small life time, these electrons jump back to series limit. These series are named as Lyman
ground state through spontaneous emission series, Balmer series, Paschen series, Brackett
in a short duration of time (approximately series, Pfund series, etc. The wavelengths of
10–8 s) by emitting the radiation with same these spectral lines perfectly agree with the
wavelength (or frequency) corresponding wavelengths calculate using equation derived
to the colours it absorbed (Figure 9.22 (a)). from Bohr atom model.
This is called emission spectroscopy.
1 = R  1 − 1  = v
The wavelengths of these lines can be λ  n2 m2  (9.18)
calculated with great precision. Further,
the emitted radiation contains wavelengths where v is known as wave number which
both lesser and greater than wavelengths of is inverse of wavelength, R is known as
lines in the visible spectrum. Rydberg constant whose value is 1.09737 ×
107 m-1 and m and n are positive integers such
n=5 Ionised atom
that m > n. The various spectral series are
n=4
E=0
—0.85
(Continuous energy levels)
discussed below:
—1.5 n=3 Excited
states
—3.4
n=2
Paschen series
(a) Lyman series
Balmer
—5 series For n = 1 and m = 2,3,4....... in equation
Energy (eV)
The lowest energy level is

called the ground state and
(9.18), the wave numbers or wavelength of
all other states are called as
excited states
spectral lines of Lyman series which lies in
—10
ultra-violet region,
 
v = 1 = R  12 − 12 
n=1 Ground state
—13.6
Lyman
—15
series
λ=
c
v
= —
hc
E2 E1
(to calculate wavelengths
and frequencies)
λ 1 m 
(b) Balmer series
Wavelength, λ
For n = 2 and m = 3,4,5....... in equation
1875 nm
820 nm
122 nm
365 nm
656 nm
91 nm
spectral lines of Balmer series which lies in

visible region,
 
v = 1 = R  12 − 12 
Lyman λ 2 m 
series Balmer series Paschen series
(c) Paschen series
UV Visible light IR Put n = 3 and m = 4,5,6....... in equation
Figure 9.23 Spectral series – Lyman, (9.18). The wave number or wavelength of
Balmer, Paschen series spectral lines of Paschen series which lies in
infra-red region (near IR) is
Notice that the spectral lines of hydrogen as
 
shown in Figure 9.23 are grouped in separate v = 1 = R  12 − 12 
series. In each series, the distance of separation λ 3 m 
between the consecutive wavelengths (d) Brackett series
decreases from higher wavelength to the For n = 4 and m = 5,6,7........ in equation
lower wavelength, and also wavelength in each (9.18), the wave numbers or wavelength of

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spectral lines of Brackett series which lies in 9.4

infra-red region (middle IR), NUCLEI
 
v = 1 = R  12 − 12 
λ 4 m  Introduction
(e) Pfund series In the previous section, we have
discussed about various preliminary
For n = 5 and m = 6,7,8........ in equation
atom models, Rutherford’s alpha particle
scattering experiment and Bohr atom model.
spectral lines of Pfund series which lies in
These played a vital role to understand the
infra-red region (far IR),
structure of the atom and the nucleus. In this
 
v = 1 = R  12 − 12  section, the structure of the nuclei and their
λ 5 m  properties, classifications are discussed.
Different spectral series are listed in
Table 9.2. 9.4.1 Composition of nucleus
Table 9.2 Atoms have a nucleus surrounded by
n m Series Name Region electrons. The nucleus contains protons
and neutrons. The neutrons are electrically
1 2,3,4..... Lyman Ultraviolet
neutral (q = 0) and the protons have positive
2 3,4,5..... Balmer Visible charge (q =+ e) equal in magnitude to the
3 4,5,6..... Paschen Infrared charge of the electron (q = –e). The number
4 5,6,7...... Brackett Infrared of protons in the nucleus is called the
atomic number and it is denoted by Z. The
5 6,7,8..... Pfund Infrared
number of neutrons in the nucleus is called
neutron number (N). The total number
Limitations of Bohr atom model
of neutrons and protons in the nucleus is
The following are the drawbacks of Bohr
called the mass number and it is denoted
atom model
by A. Hence, A = Z+N.
(a) Bohr atom model is valid only for
The two constituents of nucleus namely
hydrogen atom or hydrogen like-atoms
neutrons and protons, are collectively
but not for complex atoms.
called as nucleons. The mass of a proton
(b) When the spectral lines are closely
is 1.6726 ×10−27 kg which is roughly 1836
examined, individual lines of hydrogen
times the mass of the electron. The mass of
spectrum are accompanied by a
a neutron is slightly greater than the mass of
number of faint lines. This is called fine
the proton and it is equal to 1.6749 ×10−27 kg.
structure. This cannot be explained by
To specify the nucleus of any element, we
Bohr atom model.
use the following general notation
(c) Bohr atom model fails to explain the
A
intensity variations in the spectral lines. Z X
(d) The distribution of electrons in various where X is the chemical symbol of
levels cannot be completely explained the element, A is the mass number and
by Bohr atom model. Z is the atomic number. For example, the

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nitrogen nucleus is represented by 157 N and it can be produced only in nuclear

. It implies that nitrogen nucleus contains reactions in the laboratory or by cosmic rays.
15 nucleons of which 7 are protons Since the chemical properties of any
(Z = 7) and 8 are neutrons (N = A – Z = 8). atom are determined only by electrons, the
Note that once the element is specified, isotopes of any element have same electronic
the value of Z is known and subscript Z is structure and same chemical properties. So
sometimes omitted. For example, nitrogen the isotopes of the same element are placed
nucleus is simply denoted as 15 N and we call in the same location in the periodic table.
it as ‘nitrogen fifteen’. Isobars:
Since the nucleus is made up of positively Isobars are the atoms of different
charged protons and electrically neutral elements having the same mass number
neutrons, the overall charge of the nucleus A, but different atomic number Z. In other
is positive and it has the value +Ze. But the words, isobars are the atoms of different
atom is electrically neutral which implies that chemical elements which have same number
the number of electrons in the atom is equal of nucleons. For example 1640 S , 1740Cl , 1840 Ar ,
to the number of protons in the nucleus.
19 K and 20 Ca are isobars having same mass
40 40
number 40 but different atomic numbers.

9.4.2 sotopes, isobars, and
I Unlike isotopes, isobars are chemically
isotones different elements. They have different
Isotopes: physical and chemical properties.
In nature, there are atoms of a particular Isotones:
element whose nuclei have same number of Isotones are the atoms of different
protons but different number of neutrons. elements having same number of neutrons.
These kinds of atoms are called isotopes. 5 B and 6 C are examples of isotones with
12 13
In other words, isotopes are atoms of 7 neutrons each.

the same element having same atomic
number Z, but different mass number A. 9.4.3 tomic and nuclear
A
For example, hydrogen has three isotopes masses
and they are represented as 11H (hydrogen), The mass of nuclei is very small (about
1 H (deuterium),and 1 H (tritium). Note that 10 kg or less). Therefore, it is more
2 3 -25
all the three nuclei have one proton and, convenient to express it in terms of another
hydrogen has no neutron, deuterium has 1 unit namely, the atomic mass unit (u). One
neutron and tritium has 2 neutrons. atomic mass unit (u) is defined as the (1/12)th
The number of isotopes for the particular of the mass of the isotope of carbon
element and their relative abundances 6 C which is more abundant in naturally
12
(percentage) vary with each element. For occurring isotope of carbon.

example, carbon has four main isotopes: 116 C , In other words
6 C , 6 C and 6 C . But in nature, the percentage
12 13 14
of 126 C is approximately 98.9%, that of 136 C is mass of 126 C atom 1.9926 ×10−26
1u= =
1.1% and that of 146 C is 0.0001%. The other 12 12
−27
carbon isotope 116 C , does not occur naturally = 1.660 ×10 kg

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In terms of this atomic mass unit, the different methods have been carried out
mass of the neutron = 1.008665 u, the on the nuclei of various atoms. The nuclei
mass of the proton =1.007276 u, the mass of atoms are found to be approximately
of the hydrogen atom = 1.007825 u and the spherical in shape. It is experimentally found
mass of 126 C = 12u. Note that usually mass that radius of nuclei for Z > 10, satisfies the
specified is the mass of the atom, not mass following empirical formula
of the nucleus. To get the nuclear mass of
1
particular nucleus, the mass of electrons has R = R0 A 3 (9.19)
to be subtracted from the corresponding
atomic mass. Experimentally the atomic Here A is the mass number of the nucleus
mass is determined by the instrument and the constant R0 = 1.2 F, where 1 F =
called Bainbridge mass spectrometer. If we 1 × 10–15 m.The unit fermi (F) is named after
determine the atomic mass of the element Enrico Fermi.
without considering the effect of its isotopes,
we get the mass averaged over different
isotopes weighted by their abundances. E X A M P L E 9. 7
197
Calculate the radius of 79 Au nucleus.
E X A M P L E 9. 6
Solution
Calculate the average atomic mass of
chlorine if no distinction is made between According to the equation (9.19),
its different isotopes? 1
R = 1.2 × 10 −15 × (197) 3 = 6.97 × 10 −15 m
Solution Or R = 6.97 F
The element chlorine is a mixture of
75.77% of 1735Cl and 24.23% of 17
37
Cl . So the
average atomic mass will be E X A M P L E 9. 8
75.77 24.23 Calculate the density of the nucleus with
× 34.96885u + × 36.96593u
100 100 mass number A.
= 35.453u
Solution
In fact, the chemist uses the average atomic
mass or simply called chemical atomic From equation (9.19), the radius of the
1
weight (35.453 u for chlorine) of an element. nuclecus, R = R0 A 3 . Then the volume of
So it must be remembered that the atomic the nucleus
mass which is mentioned in the periodic
table is basically averaged atomic mass. V = 4 πR 3 = 4 πR03 A
3 3
By ignoring the mass difference between
9.4.4 ize and density of the
S the proton and neutron, the total mass of
nucleus the nucleus having mass number A is equal
The alpha particle scattering experiment to A.m where m is mass of the proton and
and many other measurements using is equal to 1.6726 x 10-27 kg.

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Mass of 6 electrons = 6 × 0.00055 u = 0.0033 u

+ n + Proton
n n + The expected mass of carbon-12 nucleus
+ n
+ + = 6.05196 u + 6.04362 u = 12.09558 u
n
n + + But using mass spectroscopy, the atomic
+ n n Neutron
mass of carbon-12 atom is found to be 12
u. So if we subtract the mass of 6 electrons
Nuclear density (0.0033 u) from 12 u, we get the nuclear
mass of carbon-12 atom which is equal
ρ = mass of the nuclei = A.m = m to 11.9967 u. Hence the experimental
Volume ofthe nuclei 4 πR 3 A 4 πR 3
3 0 3 0 mass of carbon-12 nucleus is less than the
total mass of its individual constituents by
The above expression shows that the
∆m = 0.09888 u . This difference in mass ∆m
nuclear density is independent of the mass
is called mass defect. In general, if M, mp,
number A. In other words, all the nuclei (Z >
and mn are mass of the nucleus ( ZA X ), the
10) have the same density and it is an important
mass of a proton and the mass of a neutron
characteristic property of all nuclei.
respectively, then the mass defect is given by
We can calculate the numerical
value of this density by substituting the
corresponding values.
( )
∆m = Zm p + Nmn − M (9.20)
Where has this mass disappeared? The

ρ= 1.67 ×10−27 = 2.3×1017 kg m-3.
4 π ×(1.2 ×10−15 )3 answer was provided by Albert Einstein
3 with the help of famous mass-energy
relation ( E = mc 2 ) . According to this
It implies that nucleons are extremely
relation, the mass can be converted into
tightly packed or compressed state in the
energy and energy can be converted into
nucleus and compare this density with the
mass. In the case of the carbon-12 nucleus,
density of water which is 103 kg m-3.
when 6 protons and 6 neutrons combine to
form carbon-12 nucleus, mass equal to mass
A single teaspoon of nuclear
defect disappears and an energy equivalent
matter would weigh about
to missing mass. This energy is called the
trillion tons.
binding energy of the nucleus (BE) and
is equal to ( ∆m ) c 2 . In fact, to separate
the carbon-12 nucleus into individual
9.4.5 Mass defect and
constituents, we must supply the energy
binding energy
equal to binding energy of the nucleus.
It is experimentally found out that the mass We can write the equation (9.20) in
of any nucleus is always less than the sum of the terms of binding energy
masses of its individual constituent particles.
For example, consider the carbon-12 nucleus
which is made up of 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
( )
BE = Zm p + Nmn − M c 2 (9.21)
Mass of 6 neutrons = 6 ×1.00866 u = 6.05196 u It is always convenient to work with the

Mass of 6 protons = 6 × 1.00727 u = 6.04362 u mass of the atom rather than with the mass of

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the nucleus. Hence by adding and subtracting The binding energy of the 24 He nucleus is
the mass of the Z electrons, we get 28.33 MeV.
( )
BE = Zm p + Zme + Nmn − M − Zme c 2 (9.22)
9.4.6 Binding energy curve
( )
BE =  Z m p + me + Nmn − M − Zme  c 2 In the previous section, the origin of the
where m p + me = mH (mass of hydrogen binding energy is discussed. Now we can
atom) find the average binding energy per nucleon
BE . It is given by
BE = [ ZmH + Nmn − ( M + Zme ) ] c 2 (9.23)
BE =
[ Zm H + Nmn − M A ] c 2
(9.25)
Here M + Zme = M A where M A is the A
mass of the atom of an element ZA X .
The average binding energy per nucleon is
Finally, the binding energy in terms of
the average energy required to separate single
the atomic masses is given by
nucleon from the particular nucleus. When
BE = [ ZmH + Nmn − M A ] c 2 (9.24) BE is plotted against A of all known nuclei. We
get BE aveage curve as shown in Figure 9.24.
Using Einstein’s mass- 10
16
8O 56
26 Fe
Note
120
energy equivalence,
avg. binding energy per nucleon (MeV)
4 50 Sn
2He
8 238
the energy equivalent 92 U
of one atomic mass unit

6
1u = 1.66 × 10 −27 × (3 × 108 ) 2
= 14.94 × 10 −11 J ≈ 931MeV
4
3
2He
E X A M P L E 9. 9 2
2
1H
Compute the binding energy of 24 He 0

0 50 100 150 200 250
nucleus using the following data: Atomic Number of nucleons, A (mass number)
mass of Helium atom, M A ( He) = 4.00260 u Figure 9.24 Avg. binding energy of the
and that of hydrogen atom, mH = 1.00785 u. nucleons
Solution:
Important inferences from of the average
Binding energy BE = [ ZmH + Nmn − M A ] c 2
binding energy curve:
For helium nucleus, Z = 2, N = A–Z = 4–2 = 2 (1) The value of BE rises as the mass number
Mass defect increases until it reaches a maximum
value of 8.8 MeV for A = 56 (iron) and
∆m = ( 2 × 1.00785 u ) + ( 2 × 1.008665 u ) − 4.00260 u 
then it slowly decreases.
0785 u ) + ( 2 × 1.008665
u ) − 4.00260 u  ∆m = 0.03043 u (2) The average binding energy per nucleon
B.E = 0.03043u × c 2 is about 8.5 MeV for nuclei having mass
number lying between A = 40 and 120.
B.E = 0.03043 × 931MeV = 28 .33MeV
These elements are comparatively more
1uc = 931MeV  stable and not radioactive.
2

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(3) For higher mass numbers, the curve drops For example, the electrostatic repulsive force
slowly and BE for uranium is about 7.6 between two protons separated by a distance
MeV. Such nuclei are unstable and exhibit 10 −15 m
radioactive.
( )
2
From Figure 9.24, if two light nuclei with q2 1.6 × 10 −19
F = k × 2 = 9 × 10 ×
9
≈ 230 N
A<28 combine with a nucleus with A<56, r ( )
2
10 −15
the binding energy per nucleon is more for
final nucleus than initial nuclei. Thus, if The acceleration experienced by a proton
the lighter elements combine to produce a due to the force of 230 N is
nucleus of medium value A, a large amount
F 230 N
of energy will be released. This is the basis a= = −27
≈ 1.4 × 1029 m s −2 .
m 1.67 × 10 kg
of nuclear fusion and is the principle of the
hydrogen bomb. This is nearly 1028 times greater than the
(4) If a nucleus of heavy element is split
acceleration due to gravity. So if the protons in
(fission) into two or more nuclei of
the nucleus experience only the electrostatic
medium value A, the energy released
force, then the nucleus would fly apart in
would again be large. The atom bomb is
an instant. Then how the protons are held
based on this principle and huge energy of
together in the nucleus?
atom bombs comes from this fission when
From this observation, it was concluded
it is uncontrolled. Fission is explained in
the section 9.7 that there must be a strong attractive force
between protons to overcome the repulsive
E X A M P L E 9. 10 Coulombic force. This attractive force which
holds the nucleons together is called strong
Compute the binding energy per nucleon
nuclear force. The properties of the nuclear
of 24 He nucleus.
force were understood through various
Solution experiments carried out between 1930s and
1950s. A few properties of the nuclear force are
From Example 9.9, we found that the BE of
(i) The nuclear force is of very short range,
2 He =28.33 Mev
4
acting only up to a distance of a few fermi.
Binding energy per nucleon = B.E = But inside the nucleus, the repulsive
28.33 MeV/4 ~
_ 7 MeV. Coulomb force or attractive gravitational
forces between two protons are much
weaker than the nuclear force between
9.5 two protons. Similarly, the gravitational
NUCLEAR FORCE force between two neutrons is also much
weaker than nuclear force between the
Nucleus of the atoms contains protons and neutrons. So nuclear force is the strongest
neutrons. From electrostatics, we learnt that force in nature.
like charges repel each other. In the nucleus, (ii) The nuclear force is attractive and acts
since the protons are separated by a distance with an equal strength between proton-
of about a few fermi (10−15 m ), they must exert proton, proton-neutron, and neutron –
on each other a very strong repulsive force. neutron.

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(iii) Nuclear force does not act on the The phenomenon of radioactivity was
electrons. So it does not alter the chemical first discovered by Henri Becquerel in
properties of the atom. 1896. Later, Marie Curie and her husband
Pierre Curie did a series of experiments
in detail to understand the phenomenon
9.6 of radioactivity. In India, Saha Institute
RADIOACTIVITY of Nuclear Physics (SINP), Kolkata is the
premier institute pursuing active research
In the binding energy curve, the in nuclear physics.
stability of the nucleus that has Z > 82
starts to decrease and these nuclei are fairly During early days of
unstable nuclei. Some of the unstable decay Note nuclear physics research,
naturally by emitting certain particles to the term ‘radiation’ was
form a stable nucleus. The elements with used to denote the emanations from
atomic number Z > 82 and isotopes of radioactive nuclei. Now we know that
lighter nuclei belong to the category of α rays are in fact 24 He nuclei and β rays
naturally-occurring radioactive nuclei. are electrons or positrons. Certainly,
Each of these radioactive nuclei decays to they are not electromagnetic radiation.
another nucleus by the emission of 24 He The γ ray alone is electromagnetic
nucleus ( α - decay) or electron or positron radiation.
( β - decay) or gamma rays ( γ - decay).
The phenomenon of spontaneous
emission of highly penetrating radiations 9.6.1 Alpha decay
such as α, β and γ rays by an element is When an unstable nucleus decay by
called radioactivity and the substances emitting an α-particle ( 24 He nucleus), it
which emit these radiations are called loses two protons and two neutrons. As a
radioactive elements. These radioactive result, its atomic number Z decreases by 2
elements can be heavy elements (Z > 82), and the mass number decreases by 4. We
isotopes of lighter and heavy elements and write the alpha decay process symbolically
these isotopes are called radioisotopes. For in the following way
example, carbon isotope 146 C is radioactive
but 126 C is not. A
Z X→ Y + 24 He (9.26)
A− 4
Z −2
Radioisotopes have a variety of
applications such as carbon dating, cancer Here X is called the parent nucleus and
treatment, etc. When a radioactive nucleus Y is called the daughter nucleus.
undergoes decay, the mass of the system Example: Decay of Uranium 238 92 U to
decreases – that is, the mass of the initial thorium 90Th with the emission of 24 He
234
nucleus before decay is always greater than nucleus (α-particle)

the sum of the masses of the final nucleus 238
U→ 234
Th + 24 He
and the emitted particle. This difference in
92 90
mass ∆m ,<it0appears as the energy according As already mentioned, the total mass of the
to Einstein’s relation E = ∆m c 2 . daughter nucleus and 24 He nucleus is always

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less than that of the parent nucleus. The E X A M P L E 9. 1 1

difference in mass ( ∆m = mX − mY − mα )
is released as energy called disintegration (a) Calculate the disintegration energy
energy Q and is given by when stationary 232 92 U nucleus decays
to thorium 90Th with the emission of
228
Q = (mX − mY − mα ) c 2 (9.27) α particle. The atomic masses are of

92 U = 232.037156 u , 90Th = 228.028741u
232 228
and 2 He = 4.002603 u
4
Note that for spontaneous decay
(natural radioactivity) Q >0. In alpha (b) Calculate kinetic energies of Th
228
90
decay process, the disintegration energy and α-particle and their ratio.
is certainly positive (Q > 0). In fact, the
disintegration energy Q is also the net Solution
kinetic energy gained in the decay process The difference in masses
or if the parent nucleus is at rest, Q is the ∆m = (mU − mTh − mα )
total kinetic energy of daughter nucleus and
the 24 He nucleus. Suppose Q < 0, then the = (232.037156–228.028741 – 4.002603)u
decay process cannot occur spontaneously The mass lost in this decay = 0.005812 u
and energy must be supplied to induce the
Since 1u = 931MeV, the energy Q released
decay.
is
Q = (0.005812u)×(931MeV / u)
In alpha decay, why does = 5.41 MeV
Note the unstable nucleus
emit 24 He nucleus? Why This disintegration energy Q appears as
it does not emit four separate the kinetic energy of α particle and the
nucleons? After all 24 He consists of daughter nucleus.
two protons and two neutrons. For In any decay, the total linear momentum
example, if 23892 U nucleus decays must be conserved.
into 90Th by emitting four separate
234
nucleons (two protons and two Total linear momentum of the parent
neutrons), then the disintegration nucleus = total linear momentum of the
energy Q for this process turns out daughter nucleus and α particle
to be negative. It implies that the Since before decay, the uranium nucleus is
total mass of products is greater at rest, its momentum is zero.
92 U ) nucleus.
than that of parent( 238
This kind of process cannot occur By applying conservation of momentum,
in nature because it would violate we get
conservation of energy. In any decay  
0 = mThvTh + mαv α
process, the conservation of energy,  
laws of linear momentum and laws mαv α = −mThvTh
of angular momentum must be It implies that the alpha particle and
obeyed. daughter nucleus move in opposite
directions.

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In magnitude mα υα = mTh υTh β− decay:

mTh In β- decay, the atomic number of
The velocity of α particle υα = υ
mα Th the nucleus increases by one but its mass
number remains the same. This decay is
Since mTh > mα , v α > vTh . The ratio of the represented by
kinetic energy of α particle to that of the A
X → Z +A1Y + e− + ν (9.28)
Z
daughter nucleus
K . Eα 1 mα υ2 α It implies that the element X becomes Y
2
= by giving out an electron and an antineutrino
K .ETh 1 m υ2
2 Th Th
( ν ). In otherwords, in each β- decay, one
By substituting, the value of υα into the neutron in the nucleus of X is converted
above equation, we get into a proton by with the emission of an
K .Eα mTh 228.028741 electron (e–) and an antineutrino. Thus,
= = = 57
K .ETh mα 4.002603
n → p + e− + ν
The kinetic energy of α particle is 57 times
Where p -proton, ν -antineutrino.
greater than the kinetic energy of the
Example: Carbon ( 146 C ) is converted
90Th ).
daughter nucleus ( 228
into nitrogen ( 147 N ) through β- decay.
The disintegration energy Q = total kinetic
14
energy of products 6 C → 147 N + e− + ν
K .Eα + K .ETh = 5.41 MeV β+ decay:
57 K .ETh + K .ETh = 5.41MeV In β+ decay, the atomic number is
decreased by one and again its mass number
5.41
K .ETh = MeV = 0.093MeV remains the same. This decay is represented by
58
K .Eα = 57 K .ETh = 57 × 0.093 = 5.301 MeV
A
Z X → Z−A1Y + e + + ν
(9.29)
In fact, 98% of total kinetic energy is taken It implies that the element X becomes Y
by the α particle. by giving out an positron and neutrino ( ν ).
In otherwords, for each β+ decay, a proton
in the nucleus X is converted into a neutron
9.6.2 Beta decay a positron (e+) and a neutrino. Thus,
In beta decay, a radioactive nucleus emits p → n + e+ + ν
either electron or positron. If electron (e–) is Example: Sodium ( 1122 Na ) is converted
emitted, it is called β- decay and if positron into neon ( 1022 Ne ) through β+ decay.
(e+) is emitted, it is called β+ decay. The
22 22
positron is an anti-particle of an electron 11 Na → 10 Ne + e + + ν
whose mass is same as that of electron and However a single proton (not inside
charge is opposite to that of electron – that is, any nucleus) cannot exhibit β+ decay due
+e. Both positron and electron are referred to energy conservation, because neutron
to as beta particles. mass is larger than proton mass. But a single

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A very interesting application of alpha decay is in smoke detectors which

prevent us from any hazardous fire.
Battery holder Radioactive source Current
Alarm
housing detector
– Radioactive
+ source
+ –
Ions
Fire smoke
Buzzer
The smoke detector uses around 0.2 mg of man-made weak radioactive isotope called
95 Am ). This radioactive source is placed between two oppositely charged
americium ( 241
metal plates and α radiations from 241 95 Am continuously ionize the nitrogen, oxygen
molecules in the air space between the plates. As a result, there will be a continuous flow
of small steady current in the circuit. If smoke enters, the radiation is being absorbed by
the smoke particles rather than air molecules. As a result, the ionization and along with
it the current is reduced. This drop in current is detected by the circuit and alarm starts.
The radiation dosage emitted by americium is very much less than safe level, so it can
be considered harmless.
neutron (not inside any nucleus) can exhibit decay, it was found that the beta particle
β- decay. (i.e, electron) has a continuous range of
It is important to note that the electron energies. But the conservation of energy
or positron which comes out from nuclei and momentum gives specific single values
during beta decay are not present inside for energy of electron and the recoiling
the nuclei but they are produced only nucleus Y. It seems that the conservation
during the conversion of neutron into of energy, momentum are violated and
proton or proton into neutron inside the could not be explained why energy of beta
nucleus. particle having continuous range of values.
Neutrino: So beta decay remained as a puzzle for
several years.
Initially, it was thought that during
After a detailed theoretical and
beta decay, a neutron in the parent nucleus
experimental study in 1931, W.Pauli
is converted into the daughter nuclei by
proposed a third particle which must be
emitting only electron as given by
emitted in the beta decay process carrying
A
X→ A
Y + e− (9.30) away missing energy and momentum.
Z Z +1
Fermi later named this particle as neutrino
But the kinetic energy of electron (little neutral one) since it mass is small
coming out of the nucleus did not match and is neutral carrying no charge. For many
with the experimental results. In alpha years, the neutrino (symbol ν , Greek nu)
decay, the alpha particle takes only certain was hypothetical and could not be verified
allowed discrete energies whereas in beta experimentally. Finally, the neutrino was

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detected experimentally in 1956 by Fredrick an electron of maximum of energy

Reines and Clyde Cowan. Later Reines 13.4 MeV.
received Nobel prize in physics in the year (2) it undergoes beta ray emission to
1995 for his discovery. an excited state of carbon ( 126 C * ) by
The neutrino has the following properties emitting an electron of maximum
· It has zero charge energy 9.0 MeV followed by gamma
· It has an antiparticle called anti-neutrino. decay to ground state by emitting a
· Recent experiments showed that the photon of energy 4.4 MeV.
neutrino has very small mass. It is represented by
· It interacts very weakly with the matter. 12
5 B → 126 C + e− + ν
Therefore, it is very difficult to detect it. In
12
fact, in every second, trillions of neutrinos 6 C * → 126 C + γ
coming from the sun are passing through
our body without causing interaction. In this decay process, the
daughter nucleus is in an
excited state, denoted by
9.6.3 Gamma emission 12C∗, and the beta emissionis
6
followed by a gamma emission.
In α and β decay, the daughter
nucleus is in the excited state most 12B
5
of the time. The typical life time of
excited state is approximately 10-11s. e–
So this excited state nucleus immediately 13.4 MeV
ENERGY
returns to the ground state or lower energy e– 12C∗

state by emitting highly energetic photons 6
called γ rays. In fact, when the atom is in 4.4 MeV γ

the excited state, it returns to the ground 12C
state by emitting photons of energy in the 6
order of few eV. But when the excited state In this decay process, the
nucleus returns to its ground state, it emits daughter nucleus 126 C is left
a highly energetic photon (γ rays) of energy in the ground state.
in the order of MeV. The gamma emission

Figure 9.25 Gamma emission
is given by
A
Z X * → ZA X + gamma ( γ ) rays (9.31)
Here the asterisk(*) indicates the excited 9.6.4 Law of radioactive

state nucleus. In gamma emission, there is decay
no change in the mass number or atomic In the previous section, the decay
number of the nucleus. process of a single radioactive nucleus was
Boron ( 125 B ) has two beta decay modes as discussed. In practice, we have bulk material
shown in Figure 9.25: of radioactive sample which contains a
(1) it undergoes beta decay directly into vast number of the radioactive nuclei and
ground state carbon ( 126 C ) by emitting not all the radioactive nucleus in a sample

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decay at the same time. It decays over a N

 ln N  = −λt
  N0
period of time and this decay is basically a
 
random process. It implies that we cannot ln  N  = −λt
predict which nucleus is going to decay or  N 0 
rather we can determine like probabilistic Taking exponentials on both sides, we get
basis (like tossing a coin). We can calculate
approximately how many nuclei in a sample N = N 0 e−λt (9.35)
are decayed over a period of time.
[Note: e ln x = e y ⇒ x = e y ]
At any instant t, the number of decays
 dN  Equation (9.35) is called the law of
per unit time, called rate of decay   is radioactive decay. Here N denotes the number
dt
proportional to the number of nuclei ( N ) at of undecayed nuclei present at any time t and
the same instant. N 0 denotes the number of nuclei present
dN initially time t=0. Note that the number of atoms
∝N
dt is decreasing exponentially over the length of
By introducing a proportionality time. This implies that the time taken for all
constant, the relation can be written as the radioactive nuclei to decay will be infinite.
Equation (9.35) is plotted in Figure 9.26.
dN = −λN (9.32)
dt N0
Number of undecayed nuclei
N = N0e–λt
Here proportionality constant λ is
called decay constant which is different
for different radioactive sample and the N0/2
negative sign in the equation implies that N
is decreasing with time. N0/4
By rewriting the equation (9.32), we get N0/8
N0/16
dN = −λNdt (9.33) T1/2 2T1/2 3T1/2 4T1/2 Time t

Here dN represents the number of nuclei Figure 9.26 Law of radioactive decay
decaying in the time interval dt.
Let us assume that at time t = 0 s, the We can also define another useful
number of nuclei present in the radioactive quantity called activity (R) or decay rate
sample be N 0 . By integrating the equation which is the number of nuclei decayed per
(9.33), we can calculate the number of dN
second and it is denoted as R = . Note
undecayed nuclei N present at any time t. dt
From equation (9.33), we get that activity R is a positive quantity.
From equation (9.35), we get
dN = −λ dt
N (9.34)
R = dN = λN 0 e−λt (9.36)
N t
dt
dN = − λ dt
∫ N ∫
N0 0 R = R0 e−λt (9.37)

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where R0 = λN 0 initially present to reduce to one half of

the initial amount.
The equation (9.37) is also equivalent
The half-life is the important
to radioactive law of decay. Here R0 is
characteristic of every radioactive sample.
the activity of the sample at t=0 and R
Some radioactive nuclei are known to have
is the activity of the sample at any time t.
half-life as long as 1014 years and some nuclei
From equation (9.37), activity also shows
have very shorter half-life time (10-14s).
exponential decay behavior. The activity R
We can express half-life in terms of the
also can be expressed in terms of number of
decay constant. At t = T1/ 2 , the number of
undecayed atoms present at any time t.
N0
− λt
From equation (9.37), since N = N 0 e , undecayed nuclei N = .
2
we write By substituting this value in to the
R = λN (9.38) equation (9.35), we get
N0
Equation (9.38) implies that the activity = N 0 e−λT1/2
2
at any time t is equal to the product of decay
constant and number of undecayed nuclei 1 = e−λT1/2 or e λT1/2 = 2
2
present at that time t. Since N decreases with
Taking logarithm on both sides and
time, R also decreases.
rearranging the terms,
The SI unit of activity R is Becquerel and
one Becquerel (Bq) is equal to one decay per
T1/2 = ln 2 = 0.6931 (9.39)
second. There is also another standard unit λ λ
for the activity called Curie(Ci).
1 Curie =1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 decays per second One should not think that
Note shorter half-life material
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
is safer than longer half-
life material because it will not last
long. The shorter half-life sample will
Initially one curie was
Note
have higher activity and it is more
defined as number of
‘radioactive’ which is more harmful.
decays per second in 1 g
of radium and it is equal to 3.7 × 1010 If the number of atoms present at t=0
decays/s. N0
is N 0 , then atoms remain undecayed
2
N0
in first half-life and atoms remain
9.6.5 Half-life 4
undecayed after second half life and so on.
It is difficult to calculate the time taken In general, after n half-lives, the number of
by a given a sample of N atoms to decay nuclei remaining undecayed is given by
completely. However, we can calculate the n
time taken by the given sample of atoms to  1
N =   N 0 (9.40)
reduce some fraction of the initial amount.  2
We can define the half-life T1/ 2 as the where n can be integer or non-integer.
time required for the number of atoms Since the activity of radioactive sample also

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obeys the exponential decay law, we can also Using mean life, the half-life can be
write an equation for an activity similar to rewritten as
equation (9.36).
After n half-lives, the activity or decay T1/2 = τ ln 2 = 0.6931 τ (9.44)
rate of any radioactive sample is
n Mean life : Not for examination
 1
R =   R0 (9.41) The integration in the equation (9.42)
 2
can be performed using integration by
Mean life (τ): parts.
When the radioactive nucleus decays, ∞ ∞
∫ λN t e λN 0 ∫ t e−λt dt
− λt
the nucleus which disintegrates first has zero 0 dt
life time and the nucleus which decays last τ= 0
= 0
N0 N0
has an infinite lifetime. The actual life time
for each nucleus varies from zero to infinity. ∞
Therefore, it is meaningful to define average τ = λ ∫ t e−λt dt

0
life or mean life time t, that the nucleus
survives before it decays. u=t dv = e−λt dt
The mean life time of the nucleus is the ∞
∞  t e−λt  ∞
 e−λt 
ratio of sum or integration of life times τ = λ∫ t e  
∫  −λ  dt
− λt
dt =λ   − λ
of all nuclei to the total number nuclei 0  −λ  0 0
present initially.
The total number of nuclei decaying in By substituting the limits, the first
term in the above equation becomes zero.
the time interval from t to t + ∆t is equal
to R∆t = λN 0e−λt ∆t . It implies that until the ∞
τ = ∫ e−λt dt = − 1 e−λt  = 1

∞
time t, this R∆t number of nuclei lived. So λ 0 λ

0
the life time of these R∆t nuclei is equal to
tR∆t . In the limit ∆t ® 0 , the total life time
of all the nuclei would be the integration of
tRdt from the limit t = 0 to t = ∞ . E X A M P L E 9. 1 2
Mean life
Calculate the number of nuclei of carbon-14
∞ ∞ undecayed after 22,920 years if the initial
∫ t [ Rdt ] ∫ t λ N 0 e − λt dt  number of carbon-14 atoms is 10,000. The
t=
0
= 0
(9.42) half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years.
N0 N0

Solution
After a few integration (refer box item),
To get the time interval in terms of half-
the expression for mean life time,
life,
t 22, 920 yr
τ=
1
(9.43) n= = =4
λ T1/ 2 5730 yr
Note that mean life and decay constant The number of nuclei remaining undecayed
are inversely proportional to each other. after 22,920 years,

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n 4 (c) Activity after 2 hours can be

 1  1
N =   N 0 =   × 10, 000 calculated in two different ways:
 2  2
Method 1: R = R0 e–λt
N = 625
At t = 2 hr = 7200 s
–3
R = 3.75 × 103 × e–7200 ×1.155 ×10
E X A M P L E 9. 13
R = 3.75 × 103 × 2.4 ×10–4 = 0.9 Ci
A radioactive sample has 2.6 µg of pure n
 
7 N which has a half-life of 10 minutes. R =  1  R 00
13
Method 2:
(a) How many nuclei are present initially? 2
(b) What is the activity initially? (c) What 120 min
Here n = = 12
is the activity after 2 hours? (d) Calculate 10 min
mean life of this sample. 12
 
R =  1  × 3.75×103 ≈ 0.9 Ci
2
Solution
(a) To find N0, we have to find the T1/2 10 × 60
number of 137 N atoms in 2.6µg . The (d) mean life τ = =
0.6931 0.6931
atomic mass of nitrogen is 13. Therefore, = 865.67 s
13 g of 137 N contains Avogadro number
( 6.02 × 1023 ) of atoms.
9.6.6 Carbon dating
In 1 g, the number of 137 N atoms present is
23 The interesting application of beta decay
equal to 6.02 ´10 . So the number of 137 N
13 is radioactive dating or carbon dating. Using
atoms present in 2.6µg is this technique, the age of an ancient object
can be calculated. All living organisms
23
N 0 = 6.02 ×10 × 2.6 ×10−6 = 12.04 ×1016 absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from air
13 to synthesize organic molecules. In this
(b) To find the initial activity R0 , we absorbed CO2, the major part contains 126 C
have to evaluate decay constant λ and very small fraction ( 1.3 × 10−12 ) contains
0.6931 = 0.6931 = 1.155×10−3 s−1 radioactive 146 C whose half-life is 5730 years.
λ=
T1/2 10 × 60 Carbon-14 in the atmosphere is always
decaying but at the same time, cosmic
Therefore
rays from outer space are continuously
R0 = λN 0 = 1.155×10-3 ×12.04 ×1016
bombarding the atoms in the atmosphere
=13.90 ×1013 decays/s which produces 146 C . So the continuous
= 13.90 ×1013 Bq production and decay of 146 C in the
atmosphere keep the ratio of 146 C to 126 C
In terms of a curie, always constant. Since our human body,
13 tree or any living organism continuously
R0 = 13.90 ⋅ 1010 = 3.75⋅ 103 Ci absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, the ratio
3.7 ⋅ 10
since 1Ci = 3.7 ⋅ 1010Bq of 146 C to 126 C in the living organism is also
nearly constant. But when the organism

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dies, it stops absorbing CO2. Since 146 C starts Solution

to decay, the ratio of 146 C to 126 C in a dead To calculate the age, we need to know the
organism or specimen decreases over the initial activity (R0) of the characol (when
years. Suppose the ratio of 146 C to 126 C in the the sample was alive).
ancient tree pieces excavated is known, then
the age of the tree pieces can be calculated. The activity R of the sample
R = R0 e−λt (1)
E X A M P L E 9. 14
To find the time t, rewriting the above
Keezhadi (கீழடி), a small hamlet, has R
equation (1), e λt = 0
become one of the very important R
archeological places of Tamilandu. It is By taking the logarithm on both sides, we
located in Sivagangai district. A lot of R 
artefacts (gold coins, pottery, beads, iron get t = 1 ln  0  (2)
λ  R 
tools, jewellery and charcoal, etc.) have
Here R = 38 decays/s=38 Bq.
been unearthed in Keezhadi which have
given substantial evidence that an ancient To find decay constant, we use the equation
urban civilization had thrived on the banks
λ = 0.6931 = 0.6931
of river Vaigai. To determine the age of T1/2 5730 yr × 3.156 ×107 s / yr
those materials, the charcoal of 200 g sent ∴
for carbon dating is given in the following [ 1yr = 365.25 × 24 × 60 × 60 s = 3.156 × 107 s]
figure (b). The activity of 146 C is found to be λ = 3.83×10−12 s−1
37 decays/s. Calculate the age of charcoal.
To find the initial activity R0 , we use
the equation R0 = λN 0 . Here N 0 is the
number of carbon-14 atoms present in the
sample when it was alive. The mass of the
characol is 200 g. In 12 g of carbon, there
are 6.02 × 1023 carbon atoms. So 200g
contains
6.02 ×1023 atoms / mol

× 200 ≈ 1×1025 atoms
Figure (a) Keezhadi – excavation site 12 g / mol
When the tree(sample) was alive, the ratio
of 146 C to 126 C is 1.3 × 10−12 . So the total
number of carbon-14 atoms is given by
N 0 = 1×1025 ×1.3×10−12 = 1.3×1013 atoms
The initial activity
R0 = 3.83×10−12 ×1.3×1013 ≈ 50 decays / s
= 50 Bq
Figure (b) – Characol which was sent for By substituting the value of R0 and λ in the
carbon dating equation (2), we get

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1  50  with emission of proton, electron, and

t= × ln  
3.83 × 10 −12
 37  antineutrino with the half life of 13 minutes.
Neutrons are classified according to their
t = 0.301 ×1012 ≈7.86 × 1010 sec kinetic energy as (i) slow neutrons (0 to 1000 eV)
3.83 (ii) fast neutrons (0.5 MeV to 10 MeV).
In years The neutrons with average energy of about
7.86 ×1010 s ≈ 2500 years 0.025 eV in thermal equilibrium are called
t=
3.156 ×107 s / yr thermal neutron, because at 298K, the
thermal energy kT  0.025eV . Slow and fast
In fact, the excavated materials were to USA
neutrons play a vital role in nuclear reactors.
sent for carbon dating by Archeological
Department of Tamilnadu and the report 9.7
confirmed that the age of Keezhadi NUCLEAR FISSION
artefacts lies between 2200 years to 2500
years (Sangam era- 400 BC to 200 BC).
In 1939, German scientists Otto Hahn
The Keezhadi excavations experimentally
and F. Strassman discovered that when
proved that urban civilization existed in
uranium nucleus is bombarded with a slow
Tamil Nadu even 2000 years ago!
neutron, it breaks up into two smaller nuclei
of comparable masses with the release of
9.6.7 Discovery of Neutrons energy. The process of breaking up of the
nucleus of a heavier atom into two smaller
In 1930, two German physicists Bothe
nuclei with the release of a large amount of
and Becker found that when beryllium
energy is called nuclear fission. The fission
was bombarded with α particles, highly
is accompanied by the release of neutrons.
penetrating radiation was emitted. This
The energy that is released in the nuclear
radiation was capable of penetrating the
fission is of many orders of magnitude
thick layer of lead and was unaffected by
greater than the energy released in chemical
the electric and magnetic fields. Initially,
reactions.
it was thought as γ radiation. But in the
Uranium undergoes fission reaction in
year 1932, James Chadwick discovered that
90 different ways. The most common fission
those radiations are not EM waves but they
92 U nuclei are shown here.
reactions of 235
contain uncharged particles of mass little
greater than the mass of the proton. He U + 01n → U * → 141
56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n + Q
235 236 92 1
called them as neutrons. The above reaction

92 92
(9.45)
can be written as
U + 01n →
235
U * → 140
236
54 Xe + 38 Sr + 2 0 n + Q
94 1
9
Be + 24 He → 126 C + 01n 92 92
4
(9.46)
where n denotes neutron.
1
Here Q is energy released during the

0
Neutrons are fairly stable inside the fission of each uranium nucleus. When a
nucleus. But outside the nucleus they slow neutron is absorbed by the uranium
are unstable. If the neutron comes out nucleus, the mass number increases by
of the nucleus (free neutron), it decays 92 U . But
one and goes to an excited state 236 *

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this excited state does not last longer than Mass defect ∆m = 236.054398 u – 235.829095 u
10-12s and decay into two daughter nuclei = 0.225303 u
along with the release of 2 or 3 neutrons. So the energy released in each fission =
In each reaction, on an average, 0.225303 × 931MeV ≈ 200 MeV
2.5 neutrons are emitted. It is shown in
Figure 9.27 This energy first appears as kinetic
energy of daughter nuclei and neutrons. But
n Neutron later, this kinetic energy appears in the form
capture
of heat given to the surrounding.
Chain reaction:
When one 235 92 U nucleus undergoes
fission, the energy released might be
Excited small. But from each fission reaction, three
nucleus
neutrons are released. These three neutrons
can cause further fission in three other 235 92 U
nuclei which in turn produce nine neutrons.
Fission These nine neutrons initiate fission in
another nine 235 92 U nuclei which produces 27
n Daughter
Neutrons nuclei neutrons and so on. This process is called a
n chain reaction and the number of neutrons
goes on increasing almost in geometric
n
progression. It is shown in Figure 9.28.
There are two kinds of chain reactions:
Figure 9.27 Nuclear fission
(i) uncontrolled chain reaction (ii) controlled
chain reaction. In an uncontrolled chain
Energy released in fission: reaction, the number of neutrons multiply
We can calculate the energy (Q) released indefinitely and the entire amount of energy
in each uranium fission reaction. We choose is released in a fraction of second.
the most observed fission reaction which is The atom bomb is an example of nuclear
given in the equation (9.45). fission reaction in which uncontrolled chain
235
U + 01n → 236 * 141 92 1 reaction occurs. Atom bombs produce
92 92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n + Q
massive destruction on mankind. During
Mass of 235
92 U = 235.045733 u World War II, on August 6 and 9 in the year
1945, USA dropped two atom bombs in two
Mass of 01n = 1.008665 u places of Japan, Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Total mass of reactants = 236.054398 u As a result, lakhs of people were killed and
the two cities were completely destroyed.
Mass of 141
56 Ba = 140.9177 u Even now the people who are living in
Mass of 92
36 Kr = 91.8854 u those places have side effects caused by the
explosion of atom bombs.
Mass of 3 neutrons = 3.025995 u It is possible to calculate the typical energy
The total mass of products = 235.829095 u released in a chain reaction. In the first step,

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One incoming neutron

causes a fission event in
a 235U nucleus.
235 U
92
92Kr
36
141
56 Ba 135
Several neutrons
138I 51 I
53
from the initial 138Xe 98 Nb
54 41
fission event cause 95Y
fission in additional 95 39
235U nuclei. 38Sr
The number of neutrons

and the number of fission 235
events grow rapidly. 92 U
Figure 9.28 Nuclear chain reaction
one neutron initiates the fission process in E X A M P L E 9. 1 5

one nucleus by producing three neutrons Calculate the amount of energy released
and energy of about 200 MeV. In the second when 1 kg of 235 92 U undergoes fission
step, further three nuclei undergo fission, reaction.
in third step nine nuclei undergo fission, in
fourth step 27 nucleus undergo fission and Solution
so on. In the 100th step, the number of nuclei 235 g of 235
92 U has 6.02 × 10 atoms. In one
23
which undergo fission is around 2.5 × 1040 gram of 235

92 U , the number of atoms is equal
. The total energy released after 100th step
6.02 × 1023
is 2.5 × 1040 × 200MeV = 8 × 1029 J . It is really to = 2.56 × 1021 .
235
an enormous amount of energy which is
equivalent to electrical energy required in So the number of atoms present in 1 kg of
92 U = 2.56 × 10 × 1000 = 2.56 × 10
235 21 24
Tamilnadu for several years.
If the chain reaction is controllable, then Each 235
92 U nucleus releases 200 MeV of
we can harvest an the enormous amount energy during the fission. The total energy
of energy for our needs. It is achieved in a 92 U is
released by 1kg of 235
controlled chain reaction. In the controlled Q = 2.56 × 1024 × 200 MeV = 5.12 × 1026 MeV
chain reaction, the average number of
neutrons released in each stage is kept In terms of joules,
as one such that it is possible to store the Q = 5.12 × 1026 × 1.6 × 10 −13 J = 8.192 × 1013 J .
released energy. In nuclear reactors, the
In terms of kilowatt hour,
controlled chain reaction is carried out
8.192 × 1013
and the produced energy is used for power Q= = 2.27 × 107 kWh
3.6 × 106
generation or for research purpose.

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This is enormously large amount of energy with plutonium or polonium is used as the
which is enough to keep 100 W bulb operating neutron source. During fission of 235 92 U , only
for 30,000 years. To produce this much energy fast neutrons are emitted but the probability of
by chemical reaction, around 20,000 tons of initiating fission by it in another nucleus is very
TNT(tri nitro toluene) has to be exploded. low. Therefore, slow neutrons are preferred for
Nuclear reactor: sustained nuclear reactions.
Nuclear reactor is a device in which the Moderators: The moderator is a

nuclear fission takes place in a self-sustained material used to convert fast neutrons into
controlled manner and the energy produced is slow neutrons. Usually the moderators are
used either for research purpose or for power chosen in such a way that they must be very
generation. The first nuclear reactor was built light nuclei having mass comparable to
in the year 1942 at Chicago, USA by physicist that of neutrons. Hence, these light nuclei
Enrico Fermi. The main parts of a nuclear undergo collision with fast neutrons and
reactor are fuel, moderator and control rods. the speed of the neutron is reduced (Note
In addition to this, there is a cooling system that a billiard ball striking a stationary
which is connected with power generation set billiard ball of equal mass would itself be
up. stopped but the same billiard ball bounces
Fuel: The fuel is fissionable material, off almost with same speed when it strikes
usually uranium or plutonium. Naturally a heavier mass. This is the reason for
occurring uranium contains only 0.7% of 235 92 U
using lighter nuclei as moderators). Most
and 99.3% are only 92U . So the 92U must
238 238
of the reactors use heavy water (D2O) and
be enriched such that it contains at least 2% graphite as moderators. The blocks of
92 U . In addition to this, a neutron
to 4% of 235 uranium stacked together with blocks of
source is required to initiate the chain reaction graphite (the moderator) to form a large
for the first time. A mixture of beryllium pile is shown in the Figure 9.29 (a) & (b).
Control rods Hot liquid

Heat exchanger
Shielding Steam
Electric
Turbine
generator
Water
Pump
Uranium containers Pump
Cold liquid
Figure 9.29 (a) Block diagram of Nuclear reactor

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Hot water Heat Electric

(or liquid exchanger generator
Core Steam turbine
(fuel and moderator) sodium) Steam
Water
Control
rods
Condenser
Containment
vessel (shielding) Pump
Pump
Shielding
Cooling water
Figure 9.29 (b) Schematic diagram of nuclear reactor
Control rods: The control rods are used to surrounded by a concrete wall of thickness of
adjust the reaction rate. During each fission, about 2 to 2.5 m.
on an average 2.5 neutrons are emitted and in
Cooling system:The cooling system
order to have the controlled chain reactions,
removes the heat generated in the reactor
only one neutron is allowed to cause another
core. Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid
fission and the remaining neutrons are
sodium are used as coolant since they have
absorbed by the control rods.
very high specific heat capacity and have large
Usually cadmium or boron acts as control
boiling point under high pressure. This coolant
rod material and these rods are inserted into
passes through the fuel block and carries away
the uranium blocks as shown in the Figure 9.29
the heat to the steam generator through heat
(a) and (b). Depending on the insertion depth
exchanger as shown in Figure 9.29(a) and (b).
of control rod into the uranium assembly,
The steam runs the turbines which produces
the average number of neutrons produced
electricity in power reactors.
per fission is set to be equal to one or greater
than one. If the average number of neutrons
produced per fission is equal to one, then India has 22 nuclear reactors
reactor is said to be in critical state. In fact, all Note in operation. Nuclear
the nuclear reactors are maintained in critical reactors are constructed in
state by suitable adjustment of control rods. If two places in Tamilnadu, Kalpakkam
it is greater than one, then reactor is said to be and Kudankulam. Even though
in super-critical and it may explode sooner or nuclear reactors are aimed to cater to
our energy need, in practice nuclear
may cause massive destruction.
reactors now are able to provide only
Shielding: For a protection against 2% of energy requirement of India.
harmful radiations, the nuclear reactor is

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9.8 into heat. When the temperature is high

enough to initiate the thermonuclear fusion,
NUCLEAR FUSION
they start to release enormous energy which
tends to stabilize the star and prevents it
When two or more light nuclei (A<20) from further collapse.
combine to form a heavier nucleus, then
The sun’s interior temperature is around
it is called nuclear fusion. In the nuclear
1.5 × 107 K . In sun, 6 × 1011 kg of hydrogen
fusion, the mass of the resultant nucleus is
is converted into helium every second and
less than the sum of the masses of original
sun has enough hydrogen such that these
light nuclei. The mass difference appears as
fusion reactions last for another 5 billion
energy. The nuclear fusion never occurs at
years. When the hydrogen is burnt out, the
room temperature unlike nuclear fission. It
sun will enter into new phase called red giant
is because when two light nuclei come closer
where helium will fuse to become carbon.
to combine, they is strongly repelled by the
During this stage, sun will expand greatly in
coulomb repulsive force.
size and all its planets will be engulfed in it.
To overcome this repulsion, the two light
According to Hans Bethe, the sun is
nuclei must have enough kinetic energy
powered by proton-proton cycle of fusion
to move closer to each other such that the
reaction. This cycle consists of three steps
nuclear force becomes effective. This can
and the first two steps are as follows:
be achieved if the temperature is very much
1
greater than 107 K. When the surrounding 1 H + 11H → 12 H + e + + ν (9.44)
temperature reaches around 107K, lighter
1
nuclei start fusing to form heavier nuclei 1 H + 12 H → 23 He + γ (9.45)
and this resulting reaction is called
A number of reactions are possible in the
thermonuclear fusion reaction.
third step. But the most dominant one is
Energy generation in stars: 3
2 He + 23 He → 24 He + 11H + 11H (9.46)
The natural place where nuclear fusion
occurs is the core of the stars, since their The overall energy produced in the above
temperature is of the order of 107K. In fact, reactions is about 27 MeV. The radiation
the energy generation in every star is only energy we receive from the sun is due to
through thermonuclear fusion. In most of these fusion reactions.
the stars including our Sun hydrogen atoms
fuse into helium and in some stars helium Elementary particles:
atoms fuse into heavier elements.
An atom has a nucleus surrounded by
The early stage of a star is in the form electrons and the nucleus is made up of
of cloud and dust. Due to their own protons and neutrons. Till 1960s, it was
gravitational pull, these clouds fall inward. thought that protons, neutrons and electrons
As a result, its gravitational potential energy are fundamental building blocks of matter.
is converted to kinetic energy and finally In 1964, physicists Murray Gellman and

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George Zweig theoretically proposed that in nature. Our planets are bound to the sun
protons and neutrons are not fundamental through gravitational force of the sun. In +2
particles; in fact they are made up of quarks. volume 1, we have learnt that between two
These quarks are now considered elementary charges there exists electromagnetic force
particles of nature. Electrons are fundamental and it plays major role in most of our day-to-
or elementary particles because they are day events. In this unit, we have learnt that
not made up of anything. In the year 1968, between two nucleons, there exists a strong
the quarks were discovered experimentally nuclear force and this force is responsible
by Stanford Linear Accelerator Centre for stability of the nucleus. In addition
(SLAC), USA. There are six quarks namely, to these three forces, there exists another
up, down, charm, strange, top and bottom fundamental force of nature called the weak
and their antiparticles. All these quarks have force. This weak force is even shorter in
fractional charges. For example, charge of range than nuclear force. This force plays
2
up quark is + e and that of down quark is an important role in beta decay and energy
3
1
− e. production of stars. During the fusion of
3 hydrogen into helium in sun, neutrinos and
According to quark model, proton is enormous radiations are produced through
made up of two up quarks and one down
weak force. The detailed mechanism of
quark and neutron is made up of one up
weak force is beyond the scope of this book
quark and two down quarks as shown in the
and for further reading, appropriate books
Figure 9.30.
can be referred.
u d Gravitational, electromagnetic, strong
+2e –1e and weak forces are called fundamental
3 3
d d u u forces of nature. It is very interesting to
–1e –1e +2e +2e realize that, even for our day-to-day life,
3 3 3 3
we require these four fundamental forces.
To put it in simple words: We live on Earth
Neutron Proton
because of Earth’s gravitational attraction
Figure 9.30 Constituents of nucleons on our body. We are standing on the surface
of the Earth because of the electromagnetic
The study of elementary particles is
force between atoms of the surface of the
called particle physics and it is an active area
Earth and atoms in our foot. The atoms
of research even now. Till date, more than
in our body are stable because of strong
20 Nobel prizes have been awarded in the
nuclear force. Finally, the lives of species on
field of particle physics.
earth depend on the solar energy from the
Fundamental forces of nature: sun and it is due to weak force which plays
It is known that there exists gravitational vital role during nuclear fusion reactions
force between two masses and it is universal going on in the core of the sun.

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SUMMARY
A device used to study the conduction of electricity through partical gases at low
pressure is known as gas discharge tube
Charge per unit mass is known as specific charge or normalized charge, and it is
independent of gas used and also nature of electrodes used in the experiment.
The minimum distance between alpha particle and centre of the nucleus just before
it gets reflected back by 180° is defined as distance of closest approach r0.
The impact parameter (b) (see Figure 9.12) is defined as the perpendicular distance
between the centre of the gold nucleus and the direction of velocity vector of alpha
particle when it is at a large distance.
According to Bohr atom model, angular momentum is quantized.
2
The radius of the orbit in Bohr atom model is rn = a0 n
Z
ε 0h 2
The radius of first orbit hydrogen atom is a0 = 2
= 0.529 Å and it is also known
as Bohr radius πme
The velocity of electron in nth orbit is υn = h Z ms–1.

2πma0 n
The fine structure constant is α = 1 which is a dimensionless constant
137 4 2 2
The total energy of electron in the nth orbit is En = − me2 2 Z2 = −13.6 Z2 eV .
8 ε 0h n n
The energy required to excite an electron from the lower energy state to any higher
energy state is known as excitation energy and corresponding potential supplied is
known as excitation potential.
The minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom in the ground
state is known as binding energy or ionization energy.
The potential difference through which an electron should be accelerated to get
ionization energy is known as ionization potential.
The wavelength of spectral lines of Lyman series lies in ultra-violet region
The wavelength of spectral lines of Balmer series lies in visible region while those of
Paschen and Brackett series lie in infra-red region
The nucleus of element X having atomic number Z and mass number A is represented
by ZA X .
The emprical relation connecting radius of nucleus (Z > 10) R and mass number A is
given by R = R0 A1/ 3 where R0 = 1.2 F
The density of nucleus ρ = 2.3×1017 kg m−3 , and the nuclear matter in a highly
compressed state.
If M, mp and mn are masses of a nucleus ( ZA X ), proton and neutron respectively , then
the mass defect is ∆m = ( Zm p + Nmn ) − M

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The binding energy of nucleus B.E = ( Zm p + Nmn − M ) c 2

The average binding energy per nucleon is maximum for iron which is 8.8 MeV.
Alpha decay: ZA X → AZ−−42Y + 24 He
A
β- decay: Z X → Z +A1Y + e− + ν
A
β+ decay: Z X → Z−A1Y + e + + ν
Gamma emission: ZA X * → ZA X + γ
Law of radioactive decay: N = N 0 e−λt
n
 1
In general, after n half lives, the number of nuclei left undecayed is N =   N 0
 2
The relation between half-life and decay constant is T1/2 = ln 2 = 0 . 6931 .
1 λ λ
Mean lite τ = ; T1/2 = 0.6931 = 0.6931τ .
λ λ
If a heavier nucleus decays into lighter nuclei, it is called nuclear fission
If two lighter nuclei fuse to form heavier nucleus, it is called nuclear fusion
In nuclear reactors, the nuclear chain reaction is controlled. In stars, the energy
generation is through nuclear fusion.

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CONCEPT MAP
Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Atom models Nucleus
J.J. Thomson Properties
α - scattering Binding
experiment energy
Rutherford Radioactive
decays
Bohr atom Nuclear

model fusion & fission
Hydrogen Elementary
spectrum particles

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EVALUATION
I Multiple
Multiple Choice
choice Questions
questions (c) 1.5
Vw × 10 C kg
11 –1
Va
(a) (b)
1. (d) 1.8
Va × 1011 C kg–1 Vw
1. Suppose
The speed an alpha
of lightparticle
in anaccelerated
isotropic
by a potential
medium depends on, of V volt is allowed 7. Theλratio of the wavelengths Vradiation
λ
(c) w (d) a a
to collide with a nucleus of atomic emitted
λa for the transition Vw λ w=2 to
from n
(a) its intensity
number Z, then the distance of closest 6. n in Li , He
= 1 twinkle to, H is
due and
++ +
(b)its wavelength Stars

approach of alpha particle to the (a)1: 2: 3 (b) 1: 4: 9
(c) the nature of propagation (a) reflection
nucleus is (c)
(d) the Zmotion of the source w.r.to (b) 3:2:1 (d) 4: 9: 36
total internal reflection
V 8. The electric potential of an electron is
(a) 14
mediumV. 4 Å (b) 14 . 4 Å (c) refraction
Z r
2. A rod ofZ length 10 cm lies alongV the (d) polarisation
given by V = V0 ln   , where r0 is a
(c) 1.44 axis
Å of a concave (d) 1mirror
.44 Åof  r0 
principal V Z 7. When a biconvex lens of glass having
constant. If Bohr atom model is valid,
focal length 10 cm in such
2. In a hydrogen atom, the electron a way that refractive index 1.47 is dipped in a
then variation of radius of nth orbit rn
its end closer
revolving in tothe
the fourth
pole is 20 cm away
orbit, has liquid, it acts as a plane sheet of glass.
with the principal quantum number n
from the
angular mirror. The
momentum length
equal to of the This implies that the liquid must have
is
image is, (AIPMT Main 2012) refractive index,
(a) h (b) h 1
(a) 2.5 cm π 5cm
(b) (a) less
rn ∝than one (b) rn ∝ n
n
4hcm
(c) 10 2h15cm
(d) (b) less than that of glass
(c) (d) 1
π π rn ∝ 2 than that of glass
(c) greater (d) rn ∝ n2
3. An object is placed in front of a convex
3. mirror
Atomicofnumber of H-like n
focal length of atom
f andwith
the (d) equal to that ofradius
glass of 27 Al is
9. If the nuclear
ionization
maximum potential
and minimum for n = 1 of
122.4 Vdistance is
8. 3.6
The fermi,
radius the of curvature
approximate of nuclear
curved
an object
(a) 1 (b)from
2 the (c)mirror such
3 (d) 4 that the surfaceofat aCu thininplanoconvex lens is 10
radius 64
fermi is
imageratio
4. The formed
betweenis real
theand magnified.
radius of first cm 2.4
and the refractive index
(a) (b)is1.2
1.5. If the
(IEE Main 2009)]
three orbits of hydrogen atom is plane surface is silvered, then the focal
(c) 4.8 (d)3.6
(a) 1:2:3
2f and c c and ∞
(b) 2:4:6 length will be,
10. The nucleus is approximately spherical
(c) 1:4:9
f and O (d) 1:3:5
None of (a) 5 cm (b) 10 cm
in shape. Then the surface area of
5. thesecharge of cathode rays particle is
The (c) 15 cmhaving mass number (d) 20Acm
nucleus varies
4. Forpositive
(a) light incident from air (b)onto a slab of
negative 9. as
An air bubble in glass slab of refractive
refractive
neutralindex 2. Maximum (d) notpossible index
(c) defined (a) A2 /1.5
3 (near normal incidence)
(b) A4 / 3 is 5
angle of refraction is, cm deep when viewed from one5surface
6. In J.J. Thomson e/m experiment, (c) A1/ 3 (d) A /3
(a) 30o
electrons are accelerated (b) 45through
o
and 3 cm deep when viewed from the
11. The mass of a 37 Li nucleus is 0.042 u
(c) 60o enter the region(d)of90crossed
2.6 kV o
opposite face. The thickness of the slab
less than the sum of the masses of all its
5. electric field and wavelength
If the velocity magnetic field of lightof is,
nucleons. The average binding energy
strength
in air is 3.0 × 10λ Vm
Va and 4
and and
–1
that1.0 10 Tis,
in ×water–3
(a) 8 cm (b) 10 cm
a per nucleon of 37 Li nucleus is nearly
respectively,
Vw and λ w, then andthe pass throughindex
refractive it andof (c) 12 cm (d) 16 cm
undeflected, then the specific charge is (a) 46 MeV (b) 5.6 MeV
water is, 10. A ray of light travelling in a transparent
(a) 1.6 × 1010 C kg–1 (c) 3.9MeV (d)23 MeV
medium of refractive index n falls, on a
(b) 1.7 × 1011 C kg–1

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12. M p denotes the mass of the proton Answers

and M n denotes mass of a neutron. 1) b 2) d 3) c 4) c 5) b
A given nucleus of binding energy B,
6) b 7) d 8) b 9) c 10) A
contains Z protons and N neutrons.
The mass M(N,Z) of the nucleus is 11) b 12) c 13) b 14) c 15) b
given by(where c is the speed of light)
(a) M ( N , Z ) = NM n + ZM p − Bc 2 II Short answer questions
(b) M ( N , Z ) = NM n + ZM p + Bc 2 1. What are cathode rays?.
(c) M ( N , Z ) = NM n + ZM p − B / c 2 2. Write the properties of cathode rays.

3. Give the results of Rutherford alpha
(d) M ( N , Z ) = NM n + ZM p + B / c 2
scattering experiment.
13. A radioactive nucleus (initial mass
4. Write down the postulates of Bohr
number A and atomic number Z)
atom model.
emits two α-particles and 2 positrons.
The ratio of number of neutrons to that 5. What is meant by excitation energy.
of proton in the final nucleus will be 6. Define the ionization energy and
ionization potential.
A−Z −4 A− Z −2
(a) (b) 7. Write down the draw backs of Bohr
Z −2 Z −6
A− Z −4 A − Z − 12 atom model.
(c) (d)
Z −6 Z −4 8. What is distance of closest approach?
14. The half-life period of a radioactive 9. Define impact parameter.
element A is same as the mean life 10. Write a general notation of nucleus
time of another radioactive element B. of element X. What does each term
Initially both have the same number of denote?
atoms. Then 11. What is isotope? Give an example.
(a) A and B have the same decay rate 12. What is isotone? Give an example.
initially
13. What is isobar? Give an example.
(b) A and B decay at the same rate always
14. Define atomic mass unit u.
(c) B will decay at faster rate than A
15. Show that nuclear density is almost
(d) A will decay at faster rate than B. constant for nuclei with Z > 10.
15. A radiative element has N 0 number 16. What is mass defect?
of nuclei at t=0. The number of nuclei
17. What is binding energy of a nucleus?
remaining after half of a half-life (that
1 Give its expression.
is, at time t = T1 )
2 2
18. Calculate the energy equivalent of
N0 N0 1 atomic mass unit.
(a) (b)
2 2 19. Give the physical meaning of binding
energy per nucleon.
N0 N0
(c) (d) 20. What is meant by radioactivity?
4 8

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21. Give the symbolic representation of 9. Discuss the gamma emission process
alpha decay, beta decay and gamma with example.
emission. 10. Obtain the law of radioactivity.
22. In alpha decay, why the unstable 11. Discuss the properties of neutrino and
nucleus emits 24 He nucleus? Why it its role in beta decay.
does not emit four separate nucleons? 12. Explain the idea of carbon dating.
23. What is mean life of a radia active 13. Discuss the process of nuclear fission
nucleus? Give the expression. and its properties.
24. What is half-life of a radia active 14. Discuss the process of nuclear fusion
nucleus? Give the expression. and how energy is generated in stars?
25. What is meant by activity or decay 15. Describe the working of nuclear reactor
rate? Give its unit. with a block diagram.
26. Define curie. 16. Explain in detail the four fundamental
27. What are the constituent particles of forces in nature.
neutron and proton? 17. Briefly explain the elementary particles
present in nature.
III Long answer questions
1. Explain the J.J. Thomson experiment Exercises
to determine the specific charge of 1. Consider two hydrogen atoms HA
electron. and HB in ground state. Assume that
2. Discuss the Millikan’s oil drop hydrogen atom HA is at rest and
experiment to determine the charge of hydrogen atom HB is moving with a
an electron. speed and make head-on collision
3. Derive the energy expression for an with the stationary hydrogen atom HA.
eletron is the hydrogen atom using After the collision, both of them move
Bohr atom model. together. What is minimum value
4. Discuss the spectral series of hydrogen of the kinetic energy of the moving
atom. hydrogen atom HB, such that any one
5. Explain the variation of average binding of the hydrogen atoms reaches first
energy with the mass number using excitation state.
graph and discuss about its features. [Ans: 20.4 eV]
6. Explain in detail the nuclear force. 2. In the Bohr atom model, the frequency
7. Discuss the alpha decay process with of transitions is given by the following
example. expression
8. Discuss the beta decay process with 1 1 
v = Rc  2 − 2  , where n < m,
examples. n m 

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Consider the following transitions: ratio of decayed numbers of A and B

Transitions m→n nuclei after 80 minutes.
1 [Ans: 5:4]
3→2
2 7. On your birthday, you measure the
2 →1
activity of the sample 210 Bi which has a
3 3 →1 half-life of 5.01 days. The initial activity
that you measure is 1µCi . (a) What is
Show that the frequency of these the approximate activity of the sample
transitions obey sum rule (which is on your next birthday? Calculate (b)
known as Ritz combination principle) the decay constant (c) the mean life (d)
[Ans: v3→2 + v2→1 = v3→1 ] initial number of atoms.
3. (a) A hydrogen atom is excited by [Ans: (a) 10-22 µCi (b) 1.6 × 10−6 s −1
radiation of wavelength 97.5 nm. Find
the principal quantum number of the (c) 7.23days (d) 2.31 × 1010 ]
excited state. 8. Calculate the time required for 60%
(b) Show that the total number of lines of a sample of radon undergo decay.
in emission spectrum is n(n -1) . Given T1/ 2 of radon =3.8 days
2
Compute the total number of possible [Ans: 5.022 days]
lines in emission spectrum as given in(a).
9. Assuming that energy released by
[Ans: (a) n =4 (b) 6 possible transitions]
the fission of a single 235 92 U nucleus
4. Calculate the radius of the earth if is 200MeV, calculate the number of
the density of the earth is equal to the fissions per second required to produce
density of the nucleus.[mass of earth 1 watt power.
5.97 × 1024 kg ]. [Ans: 3.125 × 1010 ]
[Ans: 180 m ]
10. Show that the mass of radium ( 22688 Ra )
5. Calculate the mass defect and the
with an activity of 1 curie is almost a
binding energy per nucleon of the
gram. Given T1/ 2 =1600 years.
47 Ag nucleus. [atomic mass of Ag =
108
107.905949] 11. Characol pieces of tree is found from

 ∆m = 0.990391u and  an archeological site. The carbon-14
Ans:  
 B.E = 8.5MeV  content of this characol is only 17.5%
that of equivalent sample of carbon
6. Half lives of two radioactive elements
from a living tree. What is the age of
A and B are 20 minutes and 40 minutes
tree?
respectively. Initially, the samples have
equal number of nuclei. Calculate the [Ans: 1.44 × 104 yr]

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BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
1. Introduction to Modern Physics, H.S. Mani and G.K. Mehta, East-West Press, New Delhi
2. Concepts of Modern Physics, Arthur Beiser, McGraw Hill, 6th edition
3. Concepts of Physics – H. C. Verma, Volume 2, Bharati Bhawan Publisher
4. Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Wiley Publishers, 10th edition
5. Physics for scientist and engineers with modern physics, Serway and Jewett, Brook/Coole
publishers, 8th edition
6. Physics for scientist and engineers with modern physics, Paul Tipler and Gene Mosca,
Sixth edition, W.H.Freeman and Company

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ICT CORNER
Atomic and Nuclear physics
In this activity you will be able to(i) experimentally demon- Topic: Millikan's oil
strate the concept of Millikan’s oil drop experiment (ii) find the
terminal velocity of the drop and (iii) find the charge on a drop. drop experiment
STEPS:
• Open the browser and type“vlab.amrita.edu” in the address bar.
• Click ‘Physical Sciences’tab. Thenclick ‘Modern Physics Virtual Lab’ and then click ‘Millikan's oil drop
experiment’. Go to “simulator” tab to do the experiment.
• Click on ‘START’ button. Click on Combo box to choose the oil.
• Click ‘START’ button of stop watch and notice the time taken t1 by a drop, to travel distance l1 between
l1
any two points. Calculate the terminal velocity υ1 =
t1
• Click ‘Voltage On’ to suspend the same oil drop in air, which is the balancing voltage V.
• Click the ‘X Ray ON’ button and notice the time taken t2 by same drop to travel distance l2 between any
l
two points. Calculate the terminal velocity υ2 = 2
t2
6πηr (υ1 + υ2 )d
• Charge of drop is calculated using the equation q = . r-radius of oil drop (can be
V
measure using Microscope), η-viscosity of air (1.81 × 10-5 kgm-1s-1), d is the distance between the plates.
Step1 Step2
Step3 Step4
Note:
1. One time sign up is needed to do simulation. Then login using that username and
password.
2. Install flash player in your browserif it is not there.
URL:
http://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=195&sim=357&cnt=4

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UNIT ELECTRONICS AND

10 COMMUNICATION
Electronics is clearly the winner of the day

– John Ford.
Learning Objectives

• Energy band diagram in semiconductors
• Types of semiconductors
• Formation of p-n junction diode and its V-I characteristics
• Rectification process
• Special purpose diodes
• Transistors and their immediate applications
• Digital and analog signals
• Logic gates, Boolean algebra and De Morgan’s theorem
• Modulation and its types
• Basic elements of communication system
• Propagation of electromagnetic waves through space
• Some important communication systems
10.1 Evolution of Electronics:

INTRODUCTION The history of electronics began with the
invention of vacuum diode by J.A. Fleming
Electronics has become a part of our in 1897. This was followed by a vacuum
daily life. All gadgets like mobile phones, triode implemented by Lee De Forest to
computers, televisions, music systems control electrical signals. This led to the
etc work on the electronic principles. introduction of tetrode and pentode tubes.
Electronic circuits are used to perform Subsequently, the transistor era began
various operations in devices like air with the invention of bipolar junction
conditioners, microwave oven, dish transistor by Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley
washers and washing machines. Besides in 1948 for which they received Nobel prize
this, its applications are widespread in in 1956. The emergence of germanium
all fields like communication systems, and silicon semiconductor materials made
medical diagnosis and treatments and this transistor gain popularity, in turn its
even handling money through ATMs. application in different electronic circuits.
195
195
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The following years witnessed the

invention of the integrated circuits (ICs) Passive components:
Note components that cannot
that helped to integrate the entire electronic
generate power in a circuit.
circuit on a single chip which is small in size
and cost-effective. Since 1958 ICs capable Active components: components that
of holding several thousand electronic can generate power in a circuit.
components on a single chip such as small-
scale, medium-scale, large-scale, and very-
large scale integration started coming
into existence. Digital integrated circuits
became another robust IC development
that enhanced the architecture of
computers. All these radical changes led to (a)
the introduction of microprocessor in 1969
by Intel.
The electronics revolution, in due
course of time, accelerated the computer
revolution. Now the world is on its way
towards small particles of nano-size,
far too small to see. This helps in the (b) (c)
miniaturization to an unimaginable size.
A room-size computer during its invention
has now emerged as a laptop, palmtop,
iPad, etc. In the recent past, IBM has
released the smallest computer whose size
is comparable to the tip of the rice grain, (d) (e)
measuring just 0.33 mm on each side. Figure 10.1 Evolution of computers
Electronics is the branch of physics which (a) One of the world’s first computers
incorporates technology to design electrical (b) Desktop computer (c) Laptop computer
(d) Palmtop computer (e) Smallest computer
circuits using transistors and microchips.
by IBM kept near the tip of the rice grain
It depicts the behaviour and movement of
electrons and holes in a semiconductor,
electrons and ions in vacuum or gas. The world’s first computer
Electronics deals with electrical circuits ‘ENIAC’ was invented by
that involve active components such as J. Presper Eckert and
transistors, diodes, integrated circuits John Mauchly at the University of
and sensors, associated with the passive Pennsylvania. The construction work
components like resistors, inductors, started in 1943 and got over in 1946. It
capacitors and transformers. occupied an area of around 1800 square
This chapter deals with semiconductor feet. It had 18,000 vacuum tubes and it
devices like p-n junction diodes, bipolar weighed around 50 tons.
junction transistors and logic circuits.
196 Unit 10 electronics and C ommunication

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10.1.1 nergy band diagram

E energy levels will be closely spaced and will
of solids be difficult to differentiate the orbitals of
one atom from the other and they look like
In an isolated atom, the electronic energy
a band as shown in Figure 10.2. This band
levels are widely separated and are far apart
of very large number of closely spaced
and the energy of the electron is decided by the
energy levels in a very small energy range
orbit in which it revolves around the nucleus.
is known as energy band.
However, in the case of a solid, the atoms
are closely spaced and hence the electrons in The energy band formed due to the
the outermost energy levels of nearby atoms valence orbitals is called valence band (VB)
influence each other. This changes the nature and that formed due to the unoccupied
of the electron motion in a solid from that in orbitals to which electrons can jump when
an isolated atom to a large extent. energised is called the conduction band
The valence electrons in an atom are (CB). The energy gap between the valence
responsible for the bonding nature. Let band and the conduction band is called
us consider an atom with one electron forbidden energy gap (Eg). Electrons
in the outermost orbit. It means that the cannot exist in the forbidden energy gap.
number of valence electrons is one. When A simple pictorial representation of
two such atoms are brought close to each the valence band and conduction band
other, the valence orbitals are split up into is shown in Figure 10.2(a). EV represents
two. Similarly the unoccupied orbitals of the maximum energy of the valence band
each atom will also split up into two. The and EC represents minimum energy of the
electrons have the choice of choosing any
conduction band. The forbidden energy gap,
one of the orbitals as the energy of both the
Eg = EC– Ev. We know that the Coulomb force
orbitals is the same. When the third atom of
of attraction between the orbiting electron
the same element is brought to this system,
the valence orbitals of all the three atoms are and the nucleus is inversely proportional to
split into three.The unoccupied orbitals also the distance between them. Therefore, the
will split into three. electrons in the orbitals closer to the nucleus
In reality, a solid is made up of millions of are strongly bound to it. Hence, the electrons
atoms. When millions of atoms are brought closer to nucleus require a lot of energy to be
close to each other, the valence orbitals and excited. The electrons in the valence band
the unoccupied orbitals are split according are loosely bound to the nucleus and can be
to the number of atoms. In this case, the easily excited to become free electrons.
Free
Conduction band electrons
EC CB CB CB
Conduction
Forbidden band
energy gap Eg Eg = 6eV Eg = 1eV
Valence
EV band
Valence band VB VB
VB Holes
Insulator Conductor Semiconductor
Electron (a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 10.2 (a) Schematic representation of valence band, conduction band and forbidden
energy gap. Energy band structure of (b) Insulator (c) Conductor (d) Semiconductor
Unit 10 electronics and C ommunication 197

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The energy of the orbiting (Figure 10.2(d)). At a finite temperature,

Note electrons is measured in electron thermal agitations in the solid can break the
volts (eV). covalent bond between the atoms (covalent
bond is formed due to the sharing of electrons
to attain stable electronic configuration).
10.1.2 Classification of
This releases some electrons from valence
materials
band to conduction band. Since free electrons
The classification of solids into insulators, are small in number, the conductivity of
metals, and semiconductors can be explained the semiconductors is not as high as that
with the help of the energy band diagram. of the conductors. The resistivity value of
i) Insulators semiconductors is from 10–5 Ωm to 106 Ωm.
The energy band structure of insulators
In semiconductors, electrons
is shown in Figure 10.2(b). The valence band Note in the valence band are bound
and the conduction band are separated by a electrons which cannot move.
large energy gap. The forbidden energy gap Hence, they cannot contribute for
is approximately 6 eV in insulators. The gap conduction.
is very large that electrons from valence band
cannot move into conduction band even on When the temperature is increased further,
the application of strong external electric field more number of electrons are promoted to
or the increase in temperature. Therefore, the the conduction band and they increase the
electrical conduction is not possible as the free conduction. Thus, we can say that the electrical
electrons are not available for conduction and conduction increases with the increase in
hence these materials are called insulators. Its temperature. In other words, resistance
resistivity is in the range of 1011–1019 Ωm. decreases with increase in temperature. Hence,
semiconductors are said to have negative
ii) Conductors
temperature coefficient of resistance. The
In condutors, the valence band and
most important commonly used elemental
conduction band overlap as shown in Figure
semiconducting materials are silicon (Si) and
10.2(c). Hence, electrons can move freely
germanium (Ge). The values of forbidden
into the conduction band which results in
energy gap for Si and Ge at room temperature
a large number of free electrons available in
are 1.1 eV and 0.7 eV respectively.
the conduction band. Therefore, conduction
becomes possible even at low temperatures.
10.2
The application of electric field provides
sufficient energy to the electrons to drift in a TYPES OF
particular direction to constitute a current. SEMICONDUCTRORS
For condutors, the resistivity value lies
between 10–2 Ωm and 10–8 Ωm. 10.2.1 Intrinsic
iii) Semiconductors semiconductors
In semiconductors, there exists a narrow A semiconductor in its pure form
forbidden energy gap ( Eg < 3 eV ) between without any impurity is called an intrinsic
the valence band and the conduction band semiconductor. Here, impurity means

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Conduction Band
EC
Free electron
Si Si Si
E
Si Si g Si
Covalent bond Hole

Si Si Si EV Si Si Si
Si Si Si Valence electron Si Si Si Broken

covalent bond
Valence Band
(b)
(a) (a)
Conduction Band Conduction Band Free
electron
EC EC
Eg Eg
Hole
EV EV
Valence Band Valence Band

(b) (b)
Figure 10.3 (a) Two dimensional Figure 10.4 (a) The presence of free
Conduction
crystal lattice Band(b) Valence Free
of silicon electron, hole and broken covalent bond
electron in the intrinsic silicon crystal
band and conduction band of intrinsic
ECsemiconductor (b) Presence of electrons in the
conduction band and holes in the
E
valence band at room temperature
presence of anyg other foreign atom in the
crystal lattice. The silicon latticeHole
is shown electrons as shown in Figure 10.4(b). The
in
EV Figure 10.3(a). Each silicon atom has vacancies produced in the valence band are
four electrons in the outermost orbit and is called holes. As the holes are deficiency of
covalently bonded with four neighbouring electrons, they are treated to possess positive
atoms to form the lattice. The band diagram charges. Hence, electrons and holes are the
for this caseValence Bandin Figure 10.3(b).
is shown two charge carriers in semiconductors.
(b)
A small increase in temperature is In intrinsic semiconductors, the number
sufficient enough to break some of the of electrons in the conduction band is equal to
covalent bonds and release the electrons the number of holes in the valence band. The
free from the lattice (10.4(a)). As a result, electrical conduction is due to the electrons
some states in the valence band become in the conduction band and holes in the
empty and the same number of states in valence band. The corresponding currents
the conduction band will be occupied by are represented as I e and I h respectively.

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i) n-type semiconductor
Definition of a hole: When an ii) p-type semiconductor
Note electron is excited, covalent
bond is broken. Now octet rule i) n-type semiconductor
will not be satisfied. Thus each excited A n-type semiconductor is obtained
electron leaves a vacancy to complete by doping a pure silicon (or germanium)
bonding. This ‘deficiency’ of electron is crystal with pentavalent impurity atoms
termed as a ‘hole’ (from V group of periodic table) such
as phosphorus, arsenic and antimony as
The total current I is always the sum of shown in Figure 10.5(a). The dopant has
the electron current and the hole current. five valence electrons while the silicon
That is, I = I e + I h . atom has four valence electrons. During
An intrinsic semiconductor behaves the process of doping, a few of the
like an insulator at 0 K. The increase in silicon atoms are replaced by pentavalent
temperature increases the number of
charge carriers (electrons and holes).
The schematic diagram of the intrinsic
semiconductor in band diagram is shown
in Figure 10.4(b). The intrinsic carrier +4 +4 +4
Si Si Si
concentration is the number of electrons
in the conduction band or the number of
holes in the valence band in an intrinsic +4 +5 +4
semiconductor. Si P Si
10.2.2 Extrinsic semiconductors Free

electron
The carrier concentration in an +4 +4 +4
intrinsic semiconductor is not sufficient Si Si Si
enough to develop efficient electronic

devices. Another way of increasing the (a)
carrier concentration in an intrinsic
semiconductor is by adding impurity
atoms. Conduction band
The process of adding impurities to
the intrinsic semiconductor is called
doping. It increases the concentration of
Donor
charge carriers (electrons and holes) in the
energy
semiconductor and in turn, its electrical levels Valence band
conductivity. The impurity atoms are called
dopants and its order is approximately
100 ppm (parts per million). Figure 10.5 n-type extrinsic
On the basis of the type of impurity semiconductor: (a) Free electron which
added, extrinsic semiconductors are is loosely attached to the lattice
(b) Representation of donor energy level
classified into:

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dopants. Four of the five valence electrons each impurity atom provides one extra
of the impurity atom form covalent electron to the conduction band in addition
bonds with four silicon atoms. The fifth to the thermally generated electrons. These
valence electron of the impurity atom is thermally generated electrons leave holes in
loosely attached with the nucleus as it is valence band. Hence, the majority carriers
not used in the formation of the covalent of current in an n-type semiconductor are
bond. electrons and the minority carriers are
The energy level of the loosely attached holes. Such a semiconductor doped with
fifth electron from the dopant is found a pentavalent impurity is called an n-type
just below the conduction band edge and semiconductor.
is called the donor energy level as shown
ii) p-type semiconductor
in Figure 10.5(b). At room temperature,
these electrons can easily move to the In p-type semiconductor, trivalent impurity
conduction band with the absorption of atoms (from III group of periodic table) such
thermal energy. It is shown in the Figure as boron, aluminium, gallium and indium are
10.6. Besides, an external electric field also added to the silicon (or germanium) crystal.
can set free the loosely bound electrons The dopant with three valence electrons can
and lead to conduction. form three covalent bonds with three silicon
atoms. Of the four covalent bonds, three bonds
Electrons from are complete and the remaining one bond is
EC dopants incomplete with one electron. This electron
Donor energy vacancy present in the fourth covalent bond is
level
Eg represented as a hole.
EV
Thermally To make complete covalent bonding
generated
hole with all four neighbouring atoms, the
dopant is in need of one more electron.
These dopants can accept electrons from
Figure 10.6 Thermally generated the neighbouring atoms. Therefore, this
holes in the valence band and the free impurity is called an acceptor impurity.
electrons generated by the dopants
The energy level of the hole created by
in the conduction band (n-type
semiconductor) each impurity atom is just above the
valence band and is called the acceptor
It is important to note that the energy energy level, as shown in Figure 10.7(b).
required for an electron to jump from the For each acceptor atom, there will
valence band to the conduction band in an be a hole in the valence band; this is in
intrinsic semiconductor is 0.7 eV for Ge and addition to the holes left by the thermally
1.1 eV for Si, while the energy required to generated electrons. In such an extrinsic
set free a donor electron is only 0.01 eV for semiconductor, holes are the majority
Ge and 0.05 eV for Si. carriers and thermally generated electrons
The V group pentavalent impurity atoms are minority carriers as shown in Figure
donate electrons to the conduction band 10.8. The extrinsic semiconductor thus
and are called donor impurities. Therefore, formed is called a p-type semiconductor.

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The n-type and p-type

semiconductors are neutral
+4 +4 +4
Si Si Si because only neutral atoms are
Hole doped to the intrinsic semiconductors.
+4 +3 +4
Si B Si
10.3
DIODES
+4 +4 +4
Si Si Si
10.3.1 P-N Junction formation

(a) i) Formation of depletion layer
A single piece of semiconductor crystal
Conduction band is suitably doped such that its one side is
p-type semiconductor and the other side is
Acceptor
energy
n-type semiconductor. The contact surface
levels between the two sides is called p-n junction.
Whenever p-n junction is formed, some of
the free electrons diffuse from the n-side to
Valence band
the p-side while the holes from the p-side to
the n-side. The diffusion of charge carriers
(b)
happens due to the fact that the n-side
Figure 10.7 p-type extrinsic semiconductor has higher electron concentration and the
(a) Hole generated by the dopant p-side has higher hole concentration. The
(b) Representation of acceptor energy level diffusion of the majority charge carriers
Conduction band across the junction gives rise to an electric
Thermally
generated current, called diffusion current.
Ec electron
When an electron leaves the n-side, a
pentavalent atom in the n-side becomes a
Eg
positive ion. The free electron migrating
Acceptor energy
into p-side recombines with a hole present
EV level in a trivalent atom near the junction and the
trivalent atom becomes a negative ion. Since
Hole from
dopant such ions are bonded to the neighbouring
Valence band atoms in the crystal lattice, they are unable
to move. As the diffusion process continues,
Figure 10.8 Thermally generated a layer of positive ions and a layer of
electron in the conduction band and the negative ions are created on either side of the
holes generated by the dopants in the
valence band (p-type semiconductor) junction accordingly. The thin region near

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there is no net electric current across the

Diffusion current
junction. Thus, a p-n junction is formed.
Hole diffusion Electron diffusion
– – + + ii) Junction potential or barrier potential

– – + + The movement of charge carriers across
p – – + +
n the junction takes place only to a certain point
– – + + beyond which the depletion layer acts like
– – + + a barrier to further diffusion of free charges
Electron drift Hole drift across the junction. This is due to the fact
that the immobile ions on both sides establish
Depletion region
an electric potential difference across the
Drift current
junction.
Free electron
Hole
Electric field
Depletion region
Figure 10.9 Formation of p–n junction – – + +
– – + +
p – – + +
n
the junction which is free from charge – – + +
carriers (free electrons and holes) is called – – + +
depletion region (Figure 10.9).

– Vb +
An electric field is set up between the
positively charged layer in the n-side and
the negatively charged layer in the p-side Figure 10.10 Barrier potential formed
in the depletion region as shown in the across the junction
Figure 10.9. This electric field makes
electrons in the p-side drift into the n-side This difference in potential across
and the holes in the n-side into the p-side. the depletion layer is called the barrier
The electric current produced due to the potential (Vb) as shown in Figure
motion of the minority charge carriers 10.10. At 25 0C, this barrier potential is
by the electric field is known as drift approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V
current. The diffusion current and drift for germanium.
current flow in opposite directions.
Though drift current is less than diffusion 10.3.2 P-N Junction diode
current initially, equilibrium is reached A p-n junction diode is formed when
between them at a particular time. With each a p-type semiconductor is fused with an
electron (or hole) diffusing across the junction, n-type semiconductor. It is a device with
the strength of the electric field increases single p-n junction as shown in Figure
thereby increasing the drift current till the two 10.11(a) and its circuit symbol is shown
currents become equal. Hence at equilibrium, in Figure 10.11(b).

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the junction. In addition, the accelerated

P N electrons experience a strong attraction by
(a) the positive potential applied to the p-side.
This results in the movement of electrons in
the n-side towards the p-side and similarly,
p n holes in the p-side towards the n-side. When
the applied voltage is increased, the width of
Conventional current flow the depletion region and hence the barrier
(b) potential are further reduced. This results in
Figure 10.11 p-n junction diode a large number of electrons passing through
(a) Schematic representation the junction resulting in an exponential rise
(b) Circuit symbol in current through the junction.
Depletion region
Holes Electrons
Biasing a diode – +
Biasing means providing external – +
energy to charge carriers to overcome the

+ p – +
n –
barrier potential and make them move in – +
a particular direction. The charge carriers

– +
can either move towards the junction or away

+ –
from the junction. The external voltage
applied to the p-n junction is called bias Figure 10.12 Schematic representation of
a p-n junction diode under forward bias
voltage. Depending on the polarity of the
external source to the p-n junction, we have
ii) Reverse bias
two types of biasing:
If the positive terminal of the battery is
i) Forward bias
connected to the n-side and the negative
ii) Reverse bias
terminal to the p-side, the junction is said to
i) Forward bias be reverse biased as shown in Figure 10.13.
If the positive terminal of the external Depletion region
Holes Electrons
voltage source is connected to the p-side – – – + + +
and the negative terminal to the n-side, it is

p n
– – – + + +
called forward bias as shown in Figure 10.12. – – – – + + + +
The application of a forward bias potential – – – + + +
pushes electrons in the n-side and the holes – – – + + +
in the p-side towards the junction. This

– +
initiates the recombination with the ions
near the junction which in turn reduces the Figure 10.13 Schematic representation of
width of the depletion region and hence the a p-n junction diode under reverse bias
barrier potential.
The electron from the n-side is now As the positive terminal is connected
accelerated towards the p-side as it to the n-type material, the electrons in the
experiences a reduced barrier potential at n-side are attracted towards the positive

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terminal and the holes in the p-side are current through the diode. The voltage across
attracted by the negative terminal. This the diode is varied by varying the biasing
increases the immobile ion concentration voltage across the DC power supply. The
at the junction. The net effect is the forward bias voltage and the corresponding
widening of the depletion region leading forward bias current are noted. A graph is
to an increase in the barrier potential. plotted by taking the forward bias voltage (VF)
Consequently, the majority charge carriers along the x-axis and the current (IF) through
from both sides experience a great potential the diode along the y-axis. This graph is
barrier to cross the junction. This reduces called the forward V-I characteristics of the
the diffusion current across the junction p-n junction diode and is shown in Figure
drastically. 10.14(b). Four inferences can be brought out
Yet, a small current flows across the from the graph:
junction due to the minority charge carriers
R mA
in both regions. The reverse bias for majority + –
charge carriers serves as the forward bias for + +
minority charge carriers. The current that (0 –12V) D V
– –
flows under a reverse bias is called the reverse
saturation current. It is represented as Is. (a)
The reverse saturation current is
independent of the applied voltage and IF (mA)
it depends only on the concentration of
the thermally generated minority charge
carriers. Even a small voltage is sufficient Forward
enough to drive the minority charge bias
carriers across the junction.
VF(V)
The reverse saturation current
Note of a silicon diode doubles for Knee
every 10 °C rise in temperature. voltage
(b)
10.3.3 Characteristics of a Figure 10.14 p-n junction diode
junction diode (a) Diode under forward bias
i) Forward characteristics (b) Forward characteristics
It is the study of the variation in current
through the diode with respect to the applied (i) At room temperature, a potential
voltage across the diode when it is forward difference equal to the barrier potential
biased. is required before a reasonable forward
The p-n junction diode is forward biased current starts flowing across the diode. This
as shown in Figure 10.14(a). An external voltage is known as threshold voltage or
resistance (R) is used to limit the flow of cut-in voltage or knee voltage (Vknee). It

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is approximately 0.3 V for germanium and R µA

+ –
0.7 V for silicon. The current flow is
negligible when the applied voltage is less – +
than the threshold voltage. Beyond the (0 –15V) D V
+
threshold voltage, increase in current is –
significant even for a small increase in
(a)
voltage.
(ii) The graph clearly infers that the
Reverse IF (mA)
current flow is not linear and is exponential. breakdown
Hence it does not obey Ohm’s law. voltage
–VR(V)
(iii) The forward resistance (rF) of the
diode is the ratio of the small change in
voltage ( ∆VF ) to the small change in current Reverse bias
∆VF
( ∆I F ) . That is, r = ∆I F
F
.
(iv) Thus the diode behaves as a (b) –IR (µA)

conductor when it is forward biased.
Figure 10.15 p-n junction diode
However, if the applied voltage is
(a) Diode under reverse bias
increased beyond a rated value, it will (b) Reverse characteristics
produce an extremely large current which
may destroy the junction due to overheating. current in µA flows across the junction.
This is called as the breakdown of the diode This is due to the flow of the minority
and the voltage at which the diode breaks charge carriers and is called the leakage
down is called the breakdown voltage. current or reverse saturation current.
Thus, it is safe to operate a diode between This reverse current is independent of the
the threshold voltage and the breakdown voltage up to a certain voltage, known as
voltage. breakdown voltage.
ii) Reverse characteristics
The circuit to study the reverse Ideal diode: It acts like a
characteristics is shown in Figure 10.15(a). Note conductor when it is forward
In the reverse bias, the p-side of the diode biased. When it is reverse
biased, it acts like an insulator. For
is connected to the negative terminal and
ideal diodes, the forward resistance
n-side to the positive terminal of the dc
is zero and barrier potential is
power supply.
considered negligible.
A graph drawn between the reverse bias
voltage and the current across the junction
is called the reverse characteristics of a The forward and reverse charactristics
p-n junction diode. It is shown in Figure are given in one graph as shown in
10.15(b). Under this bias, a very small Figure 10.16.

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IF (mA) E X A M P L E 10 . 2
A silicon diode is connected with 1kΩ
Forward resistor as shown. Find the value of current
bias flowing through AB.
A
1kΩ B
+3.3 V –7.4 V
–VR(V) VF(V) Solution

The P.D. between A and B is given by
V = [VA–VB]–Vb(Si)
Reverse
= [3.3 – (–7.4)] – 0.7
bias
= 10.7 – 0.7 = 10 V
The value of current flowing through AB
–IR (µA) can be obtained using Ohm’s law.
Figure 10.16 Forward and reverse V 10 −2

I= = = 10 A = 10 mA
R 1×10 3
charactristics of a diode
E X A M P L E 10. 1
10.3.4 Rectification
An ideal diode and a 5 Ω The process in which alternating voltage
resistor are connected in or alternating current is converted into
series with a 15 V power direct voltage or direct current is known
supply as shown in figure as rectification. The device used for this
below. Calculate the current that flows process is called as rectifier. In this section,
through the diode. we will discuss two types of rectifiers namely,
half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier
+
15V 5Ω i) Half wave rectifier circuit
–
The half wave rectifier circuit consists
of a transformer, a p-n junction diode and
Solution a resistor (Figure 10.17(a)). In a half wave
The diode is forward biased and it is rectifier circuit, either a positive half or the
an ideal one. Hence, it acts like a closed negative half of the AC input is passed through
switch with no barrier voltage. Therefore, by the diode while the other half is blocked.
current that flows through the diode can Only one half of the input wave is rectified.
be calculated using Ohm’s law. Therefore, it is called half wave rectifier. Here,
a p-n junction diode acts as a rectifier diode.
V = IR
During the positive half cycle
I = V = 15 = 3A When the positive half cycle of the AC
R 5
input signal passes through the circuit,

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terminal A becomes positive with respect The output of the half wave rectifier
to terminal B. The diode is forward biased is not a steady DC voltage but a pulsating
and hence it conducts. The current flows wave. This pulsating voltage cannot be used
through the load resistor RL and the AC for electronic equipments. A constant or
voltage developed across RL constitutes a steady voltage is required which can be
the output voltage V0 and the waveform obtained with the help of filter circuits and
of the output voltage is shown in Figure voltage regulator circuits.
10.17(b). Efficiency (η) is the ratio of the output DC
power to the AC input power supplied to the
During the negative half cycle circuit. Its value for half wave rectifier is 40.6 %.
When the negative half cycle of the AC
input signal passes through the circuit, If the direction of the diode
terminal A is negative with respect to Note is reversed, the negative half
terminal B. Now the diode is reverse biased of the AC signal is passed
and does not conduct. Hence no current through and the positive half is blocked.
passes through RL. The reverse saturation
current in a diode is negligible. Since there ii) Full wave rectifier
is no voltage drop across RL, the negative
The positive and negative half cycles
half cycle of AC supply is suppressed at the
of the AC input signal are rectified in this
output.
circuit and hence it is called the full wave
rectifier. The circuit is shown in Figure
A I +
10.18(a). It consists of two p-n junction
AC
Diode
diodes, a centre tap transformer and a load
RL Vo
Input resistor RL. The centre is usually taken as
the ground or zero voltage reference point.
B (a) –
With the help of the centre tap transformer,
each diode rectifies one half of the total
vi
secondary voltage.
During positive half cycle
time When the positive half cycle of the AC
0
input signal passes through the circuit,
terminal M is positive, C is at zero potential and
N is at negative potential. This forward biases
vo diode D1 and reverse biases diode D2. Hence,
being forward biased, diode D1 conducts and
current flows along the path MD1 ABC.
0 During negative half cycle
(b) time
When the negative half cycle of the AC
Figure 10.17 (a) Half wave rectifier input signal passes through the circuit,
circuit (b) Input and output waveforms
terminal N becomes positive, C is at zero

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Current flow during

positive half cycle Centre tap transformer:
M A
+ Note There is a facility to tap
D1 at halfway point in the
C
AC
Input RL Vo secondary windings. This helps to
D2 measure the induced voltage from
B
– one end of the secondary to the
N
Current flow during centre point. If the centre tap point is
negative half cycle
(a) grounded, then the voltage across the
secondary will be divided into two
vi halves. For example, if the voltage
across the secondary is 240 V, then the
voltage across one end and the centre
time tap point is +120 V and at the other
0 end it is –120 V.
vo 10.3.5 Breakdown mechanism

The reverse current or the reverse
saturation current due to the minority
0
charge carriers is small. If the reverse bias
(b) time applied to a p-n junction is increased beyond
Figure 10.18 (a) Full wave rectifier a point, the junction breaks down and the
circuit (b) Input and output waveforms reverse current rises sharply. The voltage
at which breakdown happens is called the
breakdown voltage and it depends on the
potential and M is at negative potential.
width of the depletion region, which in
This forward biases diode D2 and reverse
turn depends on the doping level.
biases diode D1. Hence, being forward
A normal p-n junction diode gets
biased, diode D2 conducts and current
damaged at this point. Specially designed
flows along the path ND2 ABC.
diodes like Zener diode can be operated at
During both postive and negative half
this region and can be used for the purpose
cycles of the input signal, the current flows
of voltage regulation in circuits. There are
through the load in the same direction. The
two mechanisms that are responsible for
output signal corresponding to the input
breakdown under increasing reverse voltage.
signal is shown in Figure 10.18(b). Though
both half cycles of AC input are rectified, i) Avalanche breakdown
the output is still pulsating in nature. Avalanche breakdown occurs in a lightly
The efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier doped junctions which have wide depletion
is twice that of a half wave rectifier and is region. When reverse bias voltage exceeds a
found to be 81.2 %. It is because of power certain value, the minority charge carriers are
losses in the winding, the diode and the load accelerated by reverse voltage and their kinetic
resistance. energy increases. These charge carriers collide

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with semiconductor atoms while passing 10.3.6 Zener diode

through the depletion region. This leads to the
breaking up of covalent bonds and this results Zener diode is a heavily doped silicon
in the generation of electron - hole pairs. diode used in reverse biased condition and
The newly generated charge carriers are is named after its inventor Clarence Melvin
also accelerated by the reverse voltage resulting Zener. It is specially designed to be operated in
in more collisions and further production of the breakdown region. The doping level of the
charge carriers. This cumulative process leads silicon diode can be varied to have a wide range
to an avalanche (uncontrollably large number) of breakdown voltages from 2 V to over 1000 V.
of charge carriers across the junction. This As explained in the previous section, Zener
causes diode current to rise abruptly and breakdown occurs due to the breaking up of
breakdown takes place. This breakdown is covalent bonds by the strong electric field
called avalanche breakdown.
set up in the depletion region by the reverse
ii) Zener breakdown voltage. It produces an extremely large number
Heavily doped p-n junctions have narrow of electrons and holes which constitute the
depletion layers whose width is of the order reverse saturation current. The current is
of <10–6 m. When reverse voltage across limited by both external resistance and power
this junction is increased to the breakdown dissipation of the diode. A Zener diode is
limit, a very strong electric field of strength shown in Figure 10.19(a) and its circuit symbol
3 × 107 V m–1 is set up across the narrow is given in Figure 10.19(b).
layer. This electric field is strong enough to It looks like an ordinary p-n junction
break or rupture the covalent bonds in the diode except that n-side lead resembles the
lattice and thereby generating electron-hole shape of the letter ‘z’. The arrow head points
pairs. This effect is called Zener effect. the direction of conventional current. In
Even a small further increase in reverse Figure 10.19(a), black ring indicates the
voltage produces a large number of charge n-side lead.
carriers which move across the junction
through the thin depletion region. This process
gives rise to a large amount reverse current
or breakdown current and this breakdown is Figure 10.19 Zener diode
called Zener breakdown. (a) Commercial picture (b) Circuit symbol
In Avalanche breakdown, V-I Characteristics of Zener diode

Note the minority charge carriers The circuit to study the forward and reverse
gain sufficient energy from characteristics of a Zener diode is shown in
excessive reverse bias voltage to
break covalent bond in order to produce
Figure 10.20(a) and Figure 10.20 (b). The V-I
new charge carriers. But Zener breakdown characteristics of a Zener diode is shown in
occurs due to the direct rupture of covalent Figure 10.20(c). The forward characteristic of
bonds because of the existence of the a Zener diode is similar to that of an ordinary
strong electric field. Since depletion region p-n junction diode. It starts conducting
is thin, Zener breakdown occurs usually
at lesser reverse bias voltage compared to approximately around 0.7 V. However, the
Avalanche breakdown voltage. reverse characteristics is highly significant in
Zener diode. The increase in reverse voltage

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normally generates very small reverse current. • Maximum current limited by maximum
While in Zener diode, when the reverse voltage power dissipation, I Z (max ) →
is increased to the breakdown voltage (VZ), the The Zener diode is operated in the reverse
increase in current is very sharp. The voltage bias condition with the voltage greater than
remains almost constant throughout the VZ and current less than IZ(max). The reverse
breakdown region. In Figure 10.20(c), IZ(max) characteristic is not exactly vertical which
represents the maximum reverse current. If the means that the diode possesses some small
reverse current is increased further, the diode resistance called Zener dynamic impedance.
will be damaged. The important parameters Zener resistance is the inverse of the slope of
of the reverse characteristics are the curve in the breakdown region. It means
• Zener breakdown voltage, VZ → an increase in the Zener current produces
• Minimum current to sustain breakdown, only a very small increase in the reverse
I Z (min) → voltage. However this can be neglected.
(a) mA
The voltage of an ideal Zener diode does
R
+ – not change once it goes into breakdown. In
other words, VZ remains almost constant
+ +
+ (0 –12V)
D even when IZ increases considerably.
– – V
–
The maximum reverse bias
Note that can be applied before
(b) R mA entering into the Zener
+ –
region is called the peak inverse voltage,
– + commercially referred as PIV rating.
+ (0 –15V) D
– +
V
– Applications
The zener diode can be used
(c) IF (mA) • as voltage regulator

• for calibrating voltages
Forward
bias
• to provide fixed reference voltage in a
region network for biasing
• to protect of any gadget against damage
–VZ from accidental application of excessive
–VR(V) VF(V)
voltage.
Knee
Iz(min) voltage Zener diode as a voltage regulator
Zener breakdown Zener diode working in the breakdown
region
Constant
zener voltage
region can serve as a voltage regulator whose
Iz(max) circuit diagram is given in Figure 10.21. A
–IR (µA)
series resistance Rs of suitable value is used to
limit the Zener current to avoid any damage
Figure 10.20 Zener diode (a) Forward to the diode. This resistance also plays a role
bias (b) Reverse bias (c) V-I characteristics
in voltage regulation. The fluctuating DC

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input voltage is applied to the circuit and E X A M P L E 10 . 3

constant output voltage Vo is taken across
the load resistance RL which is connected Find the current through the Zener diode
in parallel with Zener diode. The output when the load resistance is 2 kΩ. Use diode
voltage is maintained constant as long as the approximation.
input voltage is greater than VZ . I RS = 1 kΩ A IL
Rs IL
+
I
RL= 2kΩ
15 V VZ = 9 V
Iz
Vi RL Vo
Vz
B
–
Figure 10.21 Circuit to study voltage Solution
regulation by Zener diode Voltage across AB, VZ = 9V
Voltage drop across RS = 15 – 9 = 6V
If the input DC voltage is increased, the
Zener current increases thereby increasing Therefore current through the resistor RS,
current through Rs and the voltage drop 6 = 6 mA
I=
across Rs is also increased. The increased 1×103
current flows through the diode without
Voltage across the load resistor, VAB = 9V
affecting the IL. Since Zener diode is
operated in the breakdown region, the Current through load resistor,
Zener breakdown voltage across the diode VAB
is nearly constant even though the reverse IL = = 9 3 = 4.5 mA
RL 2 ×10
bias current through the diode increases
The current through the Zener diode,
considerably. The increase in input voltage
is dropped across Rs and hence it is also I Z = I − I L = 6 mA − 4.5 mA =1.5 mA
called dropping resistance. Because of the
parallel connection, the voltage across RL 10.3.7 Optoelectronic devices
is also equal to Zener breakdown voltage
which is taken as constant output voltage V0. Optoelectronics deals with devices which
If the input DC voltage is decreased, convert electrical energy into light and light
the diode takes a smaller current and the into electrical energy using semiconductors.
voltage drop across Rs is reduced. Thus, Optoelectronic device is an electronic device
the output voltage V0 remains constant. which utilizes light for useful applications. We
To sum up, if there is any change in input will discuss some important optoelectronic
voltage, the voltage drop across Rs changes devices namely, light emitting diodes, photo
accordingly. But the voltage across Zener diodes and solar cells.
diode or voltage across RL remains i) Light Emitting Diode (LED)
constant. Thus the Zener diode acts as a LED is a p-n junction diode which
voltage regulator. emits visible or invisible light when it is

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forward biased. Since electrical energy is The colour of the light is determined
converted into light energy, this process by the energy band gap of the material.
is also called electroluminescence. The Therefore, LEDs are available in a wide
circuit symbol of LED is shown in Figure range of colours such as blue (SiC), green
10.22(a). The direction of arrows indicates (AlGaP) and red (GaAsP). Now a days,
that light is emitted from the diode. LED which emits white light (GaInN) is
(a) also available.
Applications
p n The light emitting diodes are used in
· indicator lamps on the front panel of the
+ – (b)
scientific and laboratory equipments.
· seven-segment displays.
P-type N-type · traffic signals, emergency vehicle lighting
etc.
· remote control of television, air
Hole Electron conditioner etc.
Conduction
Light
band
Recombi-
Eg
nation
Valence
band E X A M P L E 10 . 4
Figure 10.22 (a) Circuit symbol of Determine the wavelength
LED (b) Schematic diagram to explain of light emitted from LED
recombination process which is made up of GaAsP semiconductor
whose forbidden energy gap is 1.875 eV.
When the p-n junction is forward
Mention the colour of the light emitted
biased, the conduction band electrons on
n-side and valence band holes on p-side (Take h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js).
diffuse across the junction. When they Solution
cross the junction, they become excess
E g = hc
minority carriers (electrons in p-side and λ
holes in n-side). These excess minority Therefore,
carriers recombine with oppositely charged −34 8
majority carriers in the respective regions, λ = hc = 6.6 ×10 × 3×−10

Eg 1.875×1.6 ×10 19
i.e. the electrons in the conduction band
= 660 nm
recombine with holes in the valence band
as shown in the Figure 10.22(b). The wavelength 660 nm corresponds to
During recombination process, energy red colour light.
is released in the form of light (radiative)
or heat (non-radiative). For radiative ii) Photodiodes
recombination, a photon of energy hv is A p-n junction diode which converts
emitted. For non-radiative recombination, an optical signal into electric signal is
energy is liberated in the form of heat. known as photodiode. Thus, the operation

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of photodiode is exactly inverse to that of This reverse current in the absence of any
an LED. Photodiode works in reverse bias incident light is called dark current and is
condition. Its circuit symbol is shown in due to the thermally generated minority
Figure 10.23(a). The direction of arrows carriers.
indicates that the light is incident on the
Applications
photodiode.
The device consists of a p-n junction The photodiodes are used in
semiconductor made of photosensitive · alarm system
material kept safely inside a plastic case as · count items on a conveyor belt
shown in Figure 10.23(b). It has a small · photoconductors
transparent window that allows light to be · compact disc players, smoke detectors
incident on the p-n junction. Photodiodes
· medical applications such as detectors for
can generate current when the p-n junction
computed tomography etc.
is exposed to light and hence are called as
light sensors. iii) Solar cell
(a) (b)
A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic
cell, works on the principle of photovoltaic
p n effect. Accordingly, the p-n junction of
the solar cell generates emf when solar
radiation falls on it. The construction
Figure 10.23 (a) Circuit symbol
(b) Schematic view of photodiode details and cross-sectional view are shown
in Figure 10.24.
When a photon of sufficient energy In a solar cell, electron–hole pairs are
(hv) strikes the depletion region of the generated due to the absorption of light
diode, some of the valence band electrons photons near the junction. Then the charge
are elevated into conduction band, in turn carriers are separated due to the electric
holes are developed in the valence band. field of the depletion region. Electrons move
This creates electron-hole pairs. The towards n–type silicon layer and holes move
amount of electron-hole pairs generated towards p-type silicon layer. The electrons
depends on the intensity of light incident reaching the n-side are collected by the front
on the p-n junction. contact (metal finger contact) and holes
These electrons and holes are swept reaching p-side are collected by the back
across the p-n junction by the electric
Sunlight
field created by reverse voltage before Front electrical
recombination takes place. Thus, holes contacts
Anti-reflective
move towards the p-side and electrons – – – – – –
coating
n-side
towards the n-side. When the external –+ Depletion
circuit is made, the electrons flow through region
p-side
+ + + + + +
the external circuit and constitute the Back electrical
contact
photocurrent.
When there is no incident light, there Figure 10.24 Cross-sectional view of a
solar cell
exists a reverse current which is negligible.

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electrical contact. Thus a potential difference a p-type material sandwiched between

is developed across solar cell.When an two n-type materials (NPN transistor).
external load is connected to the solar cell, To protect it against moisture, it is sealed
photocurrent flows

through the load. inside a metal or a plastic case. The two
Many solar cells are connected together types of transistors with their circuit
either in series or in parallel combination symbols are shown in Figure 10.25.
to form a solar panel. Many solar panels
Emitter JCB Collector
are connected with each other to form solar E C
arrays. For high power applications, solar E N P N C

panels and solar arrays are used.
JEB B
Base
B
Applications: NPN Transistor
i) Solar cells are widely used in (a)
calculators, watches, toys, portable power Emitter Collector
JCB
supplies, etc. E C
ii) Solar cells are used in satellites and E P N P C

space applications.
B
JEB
iii) Solar panels are used for commercial B
Base
production of electricity. PNP Transistor
(b)
10.4 Figure 10.25 Schematic Diagram of
THE BIPOLAR JUNCTION (a) NPN transistor and circuit symbol
(b) PNP transistor and circuit symbol
TRANSISTOR [BJT]
Introduction The three regions formed are called

In 1951, William Schockley invented as emitter, base and collector which are
the modern version of transistor. It is provided with terminals or ohmic contacts
a semiconductor device that led to a labeled as E, B, and C. As BJT has two p-n
technological revolution in the twentieth junctions, two depletion layers are formed
century. The heat loss in transistor is across the emitter-base junction (JEB) and
very less. This has laid the foundation collector-base junction (JCB) respectively.
for integrated chips which contain The circuit symbol carries an arrowhead
thousands of miniaturized transistors. at the emitter lead pointing from p to n
The emergence of the integrated chips indicating the direction of conventional
led to increasing applications in the fast current.
developing electronics industry. Emitter:
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) The main function of the emitter is
The BJT consists of a semiconductor to supply majority charge carriers to the
(silicon or germanium) crystal in which collector region through the base region.
an n-type material is sandwiched between Hence, emitter is more heavily doped than
two p-type materials (PNP transistor) or the other two regions.

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Base:
In a PNP transistor, base and
Base is very thin (10–6 m) and very lightly
Note collector will be negative with
doped region when compared to the other
respect to emitter indicated
two regions. by the middle letter N whereas base
Collector: and collector will be positive in an
The main function of collector is to NPN transistor indicated by the middle
collect the majority charge carriers supplied letter P.
by the emitter through the base. Hence,
collector is made physically larger than the
10.4.1 Transistor circuit
other two as it has to dissipate more power.
configurations
It is modarately doped.
There are three types of circuit
Because of the differing size connections for operating a transistor based
Note and the amount of doping, on the terminal that is used in common to
the emitter and collector both input and output circuits.
cannot be interchanged. i) Common-Base (CB) configuration
The base is common to both the input
Transistor Biasing
and output circuits. The schematic and
The application of suitable DC voltages circuit symbol are shown in Figure 10.26(a)
across the transistor terminals is called and 10.26(b). The input current is the
biasing. The transistor biasing is done emitter current IE and the output current is
differently for different uses. The different the collector current IC. The input signal is
modes of transistor biasing are given below. applied between emitter and base while the
Forward Active: output is measured between collector and
In this bias, the emitter-base junction base.
is forward biased and the collector-base
E C
junction is reverse biased. The transistor IE
N P N
IC
is in the active mode of operation. In B
this mode, the transistor functions as an VEB – IB

+
VCB
+ –
amplifier.
Saturation: (a)
Here, the emitter-base junction and
IE E C IC
collector-base junction are forward biased.
B
The transistor has a very large flow of VEB – +
VCB
+ IB –
currents across the junctions. In this mode,
transistor is used as a closed switch.
(b)
Cut-off:
In this bias, the emitter-base junction and Figure 10.26 NPN transistor in common
base configuration (a) Schematic circuit
collector-base junction are reverse biased.
diagram (b) Circuit symbol
Transistor in this mode acts an open switch.

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ii) Common-Emitter (CE) configuration IE
In this configuration, the emitter is

common to both the input and output E
N –
circuits as shown in Figure 10.27. The B
P +
VEC
IB
base current IB is the input current and the + N
– V C
collector current IC is the output current. The BC IC
input signal is applied between emitter and (a)
base while the output is measured between IE
collector and emitter. RE
E
–
IC V
B + EC
C IB
N +
VBC C
–
P + V IC
IB B
VBE + N – CE
– (b)
IE E
Figure 10.28 NPN transistor in
(a)
common collector configuration
IC (a) Schematic circuit diagram
(b) Circuit symbol
C
IB B +V
CE
VBE + E –
–
IE 10.4.2 Transistor action in
(b)
the common base mode
Figure 10.27 NPN transistor in common The operation of an NPN transistor
emitter configuration (a) Schematic in the common base mode is explained
circuit diagram (b) Circuit symbol below. The current flow in a common
base NPN transistor in the forward active
iii) Common-Collector (CC)
mode is shown in Figure 10.29.
configuration
Here, the collector is common to both
n++ P n+
the input and output circuits as shown in
Electrons
Figure 10.28. The base current IB is the IE E C IC
input current and the emitter current IE Recombination

iB1 iB2
is the output current. The input signal is
B
applied between base and collector while VEB IB VCB
the output is measured between emitter
and collector.
Figure 10.29 Flow of current in a NPN
transistor
As the output is taken from
Note the emitter in common
collector configuration, it is Basically, a BJT can be considered as
called an emitter follower. two p-n junction diodes connected back-
to-back. In the forward active bias of the

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transistor, the emitter-base junction is milliamperes for emitter and collector

forward biased by a DC power supply VEB currents.
and the collector-base junction is reverse It is to be noted that if the emitter current
biased by the bias power supply VCB. The is zero, then the collector current is almost
forward bias decreases the depletion zero. It is therefore imperative that a BJT is
region across the emitter-base junction called a current controlled device. Applying
and the reverse bias increases the depletion Kirchoff ’s law, we can write the emitter
region across the collector-base junction. current as the sum of the collector current
Hence, the barrier potential across the and the base current.
emitter-base junction is decreased and
that across the collector-base junction is I E = I B + I C (10.1)
increased. The voltage across the emitter-
base junction is represented as VEB and Since the base current is very small,
that across the collector-base junction we can write I E ≈ I C . There is another
as VCB. component of collector current due to
In an NPN transistor, the majority the thermally generated electrons called
charge carriers in the emitter are electrons. reverse saturation current, denoted as
As it is heavily doped, it has a large number I CO . This factor is temperature sensitive.
of electrons. The forward bias across the Therefore, care must be taken towards
emitter-base junction causes the electrons the stability of the system at high
in the emitter region to flow towards the temperatures.
base region and constitutes the emitter
The ratio of the collector current to the
current (IE). The electrons after reaching
emitter current is called the forward current
the base region recombine with the holes
gain (α) of a transistor.
in the base region. Since the base region is
very narrow and lightly doped, the number IC
of holes in it is not sufficient to recombine α= (10.2)
IE
with electrons from emitter. Hence
most of the electrons reach the collector The a of a transistor is a measure of
region. the quality of a transistor. Higher the
Eventually, the electrons that reach value of a, better is the quality of the
the collector region will be attracted by transistor. It means that the collector
the collector terminal as it has positive current is closer to the emitter current.
potential and flow through the external The value of a is less than unity and it
circuit. This constitutes the collector ranges from 0.95 to 0.99. This indicates
current (IC). The holes that are lost due that the collector current is 95% to 99%
to recombination in the base region are of the emitter current.
replaced by the positive potential of the
bias voltage VBE and constitute the base Working of a PNP transistor
current (IB). The magnitude of the base The working of a PNP transistor is similar
current will be in microamperes as against to that of the NPN transistor except for the

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fact that the emitter current I E is due to holes of an NPN transistor in the common emitter
and the base current I B is due to electrons. mode is given in Figure 10.30. The bias supply
However, the current through the external voltages VBB and VCC bias the base-emitter
circuit is due to the flow of electrons. junction and collector-emitter junction
respectively. The junction potential at the
E X A M P L E 10. 5 base-emitter is represented as VBE and that at
In a transistor connected in the common the collector-emitter as VCE. The rheostats R1
base configuration, α =0.95 , I E =1 mA . and R2 are used to vary the base current and
Calculate the values of I C and I B . collector current respectively.
Solution The static characteristics of the BJT are
IC i) Input characteristics
α=
IE ii) Output characteristics
iii) Transfer characteristics
I C = α I E = 0.95×1= 0.95 mA
i) Input characteristics
I E = I B + IC
Input characteristic curves give the
∴ I B = I E − I C =1− 0.95 = 0.05 mA relationship between the base current (IB)
and base to emitter voltage (VBE) at constant
collector to emitter voltage (VCE) and are
10.4.3 Static Characteristics
Initially, the collector to emitter
of Transistor in Common
voltage is set to a particular value (above
Emitter Mode
0.7 V to reverse bias the junction). Then the
The know-how of certain parameters like base-emitter voltage is increased in suitable
the input resistance, output resistance, and steps and the corresponding base-current is
current gain of a transistor are very important recorded. A graph is plotted with VBE along the
for the effective use of transistors in circuits. x-axis and IB along the y-axis. The procedure is
The circuit to study the static characteristics repeated for different values of VCE.
IC
IB _ +
C mA
+ B +
_ +
VBB R1 + E VCC
μA VCE R2
_ + _ _
VBE IE
_
Figure 10.30 NPN transistor in common emitter configuration

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IB(µA)  ∆V 
ri =  BE  (10.3)
 ∆I B 
V
VCE =1V CE
VCE = 2V The input impedance is high for a

transistor in common emitter configuration.
∆IB
ii) Output characteristics
The output characteristics give the
relationship between the collector current (IC)
and the collector to emitter voltage (VCE) at
VBE(V) constant input current (IB) and are shown in
0 Vknee
∆VBE Figure 10.32.
Initially, the base current is set to a
Figure 10.31 Input characteristics particular value. Then collector-emitter
voltage is increased in suitable steps and
The following observations are made the corresponding collector current is
from the graph. recorded. A graph is plotted with VCE along
· The curve looks like the forward the x-axis and IC along the y-axis. This
characteristics of an ordinary p-n junction procedure is repeated for different values of
diode. IB. The four important regions in the output
· There exists a threshold voltage or knee characteristics are:
voltage (Vknee) below which the base current I C(mA)
is very small. This value is 0.7 V for silicon Active region
and 0.3 V for germanium transistors. IB = 40 μA

A
Beyond the knee voltage, the base current IB = 30 μA
Δ IC
increases with the increase in base-emitter
IB = 20 μA
Saturation region
voltage.
IB = 10 μA
· It is also noted that the increase in
the collector-emitter voltage decreases
the base current. This shifts the curve 0
IB =0
ΔV VCE(V)
outward. This is because the increase in Cut-off region CE
collector-emitter voltage increases the
Figure 10.32 Output characteristics
width of the depletion region which in
turn, reduces the effective base width and
i) Saturation region
thereby the base current.
When VCE is increased above 0 V, the I C
Input impedance increases rapidly and reaches a saturation
The ratio of the change in base-emitter value at a particular value of VCE , called
voltage ( ∆VBE ) to the corresponding change knee voltage. The initial part of the curve
in base current ( ∆I B ) at a constant collector- OA (the ohmic region) between the origin 0
emitter voltage (VCE ) is called the input and the knee point A is called saturation
impedance (ri). The input impedance is not region. Transistors are always operated
constant in the lower region of the curve. above this knee voltage.

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ii) Cut-off region Forward current gain

A small collector current exists even after The ratio of the change in collector current
the base current is reduced to zero. This ( ∆IC ) to the corresponding change in base
region below the curve for IB = 0 is called current ( ∆I B ) at constant collector-emitter
cut-off region because the main collector
voltage (VCE) is called forward current gain (β).
current is cut-off.
 ∆I 
iii) Active region β=  C  (10.5)
The central region of the curves is called  ∆I B 
VCE
active region. In this region, the base-emitter
Its value is very high and it generally
junction remains in the forward biased
ranges from 50 to 200.
condition and the collector-emitter junction
remains in the reverse biased condition. IC (mA)
The transistor in this region can be used for
voltage, current and power amplification.
iv) Breakdown region ∆IC
If the collector-emitter voltage is ∆IB

increased beyond the rated value given by IB(A)
the manufacturer, the collector current
increases enormously leading to the junction Figure 10.33 Current transfer
breakdown of the transistor. This avalanche characteristics
breakdown can damage the transistor.
Output impedance
The ratio of the change in the collector- 10.4.4 Relation between α
emitter voltage ( ∆VCE ) to the corresponding and β
change in the collector current (∆ I C ) at There is a relation between current
constant base current (IB) is called output gain in the common base configuration α
impedance (r0). and current gain in the common emitter
configuration β which β
 ∆V 
ro = CE  (10.4) α =is given below.
 ∆I C  1+ β
IB
β α
The output impedance for transistor in α= (or) β = (10.6)
1+ β 1− α
common emitter configuration is very low.
β= α
1 − α The collector current is
iii) Current transfer characteristics
Note independent of the collector-
This gives the relationship between the
emitter voltage in the active
collector current (IC) and the base current region.
(IB) at constant collector-emitter voltage
(VCE) and is shown in Figure 10.33. It is seen
E X A M P L E 10 . 6
that a small IC flows even when IB is zero.
This current is called the common emitter In the circuit shown in the figure, the input
leakage current (ICEO), which is due to the voltage Vi is 20 V, VBE = 0 V and VCE = 0 V.
flow of minority charge carriers. What are the values of IB , IC , β?

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20 V which determine the operating point or

the working point of a transistor. If the
R C 4 kΩ
operating point is chosen at the middle of
C the DC load line (point Q), the transistor
RB
Vi B can effectively work as an amplifier. The
500 kΩ
E operating point determines the maximum
signal that can be obtained without being
distorted.
Vi 20 V For a transistor to work as a open switch,
IB = = = 40 µA VBE = 0V 
RB 500 kΩ the Q point can be chosen at the cut-off
VCC 20 V VCE = 0V  region and to work as a closed switch, the Q
IC = = = 5 mA
RC 4 kΩ point can be chosen in the saturation region.

I 5 mA
β= C = = 125
I B 40 µA
10.4.6 Transistor as a switch
A transistor in saturation region acts
10.4.5 Operating Point as a closed switch while in cut-off region;
it acts as an open switch. It functions like
The operating point is a point where an electronic switch that helps to turn ON
the transistor can be operated efficiently. or OFF a given circuit by a small control
A straight line drawn by joining the points signal which keeps the transistor either in
A (VCC , 0) and B (0, VCC / RC ) is called the DC saturation region or in cut-off region. The
load line. The DC load line superimposed on circuit is shown in Figure 10.35.
the output characteristics of a transistor is
IC
used to learn the concept of operating point
of the transistor as shown in Figure 10.34. IB B
C RC
5V RB
VO
E
I C (mA) Vin IE VCC
I C = VCC B
RC DC load line
IB = 40 μA
P IB = 30 μA Figure 10.35 Transistor as a switch

Q IB = 20 μA
· When the input is low:
R IB = 10 μA
When the input is low (say 0V), the base
current is zero and transistor is not properly
A IB =0
0
VCE = VCC VCE (V) forward biased. It is in cut off region. As
a result, the collector current is zero and
Figure 10.34 Output characteristics of a correspondingly the voltage drop across RC
transistor in common emitter mode with also becomes nearly zero. The output voltage
the DC load line is high and is equal to VCC. It means that the
no current flows through the transistor and
In Figure 10.34, the points P, Q, R it is said to be switched off. The transistor
are called Q points or quiescent points acts as an open switch.

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· When the input is high: We know that

When the input voltage is increased to a IC
certain high value (say +5 V), the base current β= (or)
IB
(IB) increases and in turn increases the collector
IC = βIB = 120 × 25 μA
current to its maximum. The transistor will
move into the saturation region. The increase = 3000 μA = 3 mA
in collector current (IC) increases the voltage VCE = VCC − I C RC
drop across RC, thereby lowering the output
voltage, close to zero (since V0 = VCC – ICRC). It = 25 − (3mA × 5 k ) =10 V
means that maximum current flows through
the transistor and it is said to be switched on.
6
The transistor acts as a closed switch. B (0, 5mA)
It is manifested that a high input to
4
I C(mA)
the transistor gives a low output and a
low input gives a high output. In addition, Q
we can say that the output voltage is 2
opposite to the applied input voltage.
Therefore, a transistor can be used as an A (25V, 0)
inverter (NOT gate) in computer logic 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
circuitry.
VCE (V)
E X A M P L E 10. 7
The current gain of a common emitter 10.4.7 Transistor as an
transistor circuit shown in figure is 120. amplifier
Draw the DC load line and mark the Q A transistor operating in the active
point on it. (VBE to be ignored). region has the capability to amplify weak
VCC = 25 V signals. Amplification is the process of
IB IC increasing the signal strength (increase in
RB
RC 5 kΩ the amplitude). If a large amplification is
1MΩ
C
required, the transistors are cascaded with
B coupling elements like resistors, capacitors,
VCE and transformers and they are called
E
IE multistage amplifiers.
Here, the amplification of an electrical
signal is explained with a single stage
Solution transistor amplifier which is shown in
Figure 10.36(a). Single stage indicates that
β = 120
the circuit consists of one transistor with
25V 25
Base current, I B = = the allied components. An NPN transistor
1 M Ω 1×106
is connected in the common emitter
= 25 μA configuration.

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+VCC Input AC signal Working of the amplifier

R1 RC +ve · During the positive half cycle
0
IC CC –ve Input signal (VS) increases the forward
C
C1 IB
B voltage across the emitter-base. As a result,
Output AC signal
E the base current (IB in μA) increases.
IE VO
VS +ve Consequently, the collector current (IC in
R2 RE 0
CE
–ve mA) increases β times. This increases the
0V
voltage drop across Rc (IcRc) which in turn
decreases the collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
Figure 10.36 (a) Transistor as an Therefore, the input signal during the
amplifier (b) Input and output waveforms positive half cycle produces negative half
showing 1800 phase reversal.
cycle of the amplified signal at the output.
Hence, the output signal is reversed by 180°
To start with, the Q point or the
as shown in Figure 10.36(b).
operating point of the transistor is fixed so
as to get the maximum signal swing at the · During the negative half cycle
output (neither towards saturation point Input signal (VS) decreases the forward
nor towards cut-off). voltage across the emitter-base. As a result,
A load resistance RC is connected base current (IB in μA) decreases and in turn
in series with the collector circuit decreases the collector current (IC in mA). The
to measure the output voltage. The decrease in collector current (IC) decreases
resistance R 1, R 2 and R E form the biasing the potential drop across RC which in turn
and stabilization circuit. The capacitor C1 increases the collector-emitter voltage (VCE).
allows only the AC signal to pass through. Thus, the input signal during the negative
The emitter bypass capacitor CE provides half cycle produces positive half cycle of the
a low reactance path to the amplified amplified signal at the output.Therefore,
AC signal. The coupling capacitor CC is 1800 phase reversal is observed during the
used to couple one stage of the amplifier negative half cycle of the input signal also as
with the next stage while constructing shown in Figure 10.36(b).
multistage amplifiers.
VS is the sinusoidal input signal source 10.4.8 Transistor as an
applied across the base-emitter. The output oscillator
is taken across the collector-emitter. An electronic oscillator basically converts
DC energy into AC energy of frequency
 I 
Collector current, I C =β I B b = C  ranging from a few Hz to several MHz.
 I B 
Hence, it is a source of alternating current or
voltage. Unlike an amplifier, oscillator does
Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law to the
not require any external signal source.
output loop, the collector-emitter voltage is
Basically, there are two types of oscillators:
given by
Sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal. Sinusoidal
oscillators generate oscillations in the form
VCE = VCC − I C RC (10.7)
of sine waves at constant amplitude and

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frequency as shown in Figure 10.37(a). Non- i) Tank circuit

sinusoidal oscillators generate complex, The LC tank circuit consists of an
non-sinusoidal waveforms like square- inductance L and a capacitor C connected in
wave, triangular-wave and sawtooth-wave parallel as shown in Figure 10.39(b). Whenever
as shown in Figure 10.36 (b), (c), (d). energy is supplied to the tank circuit from a
v v
DC source, the energy is stored in inductor
and capacitor alternatively. This produces
t electrical oscillations of definite frequency.
t
(a)
ii) Amplifier
(b)
v This is a single stage amplifier which
v
amplifies the weak signal produced by the
tank circuit. The required output is supplied
t t
by this amplifier.
(C) (d)
Figure 10.37 (a) Sinusoidal waveform Amplifier Vo

(b) Square waveform (c) Triangular
waveform (d)Sawtooth waveform Tank circuit
Sinusoidal oscillations are of two types: Feedback

Damped and undamped. If the amplitude VF Network
(a)
of the electrical oscillations decreases with
time due to energy loss, it is called damped
oscillations as shown in Figure 10.38(a).
On the other hand, the amplitude of the C L
electrical oscillations remains constant with (b)

time in undamped oscillations as shown in
Figure 10.38(b). Figure 10.39 (a) Block diagram of an
oscillator (b) Tank circuit
v v
iii) Feedback network

t t The circuit used to feed a portion of the
output back to the input is called the feedback
network. If the portion of the output fed to
(a) (b)
the input is in phase with the input, then the
Figure 10.38 (a) Damped oscillations magnitude of the input signal increases. This
(b) Undamped oscillations process is called positive feedback which is
necessary for sustained oscillations.
Transistor oscillator
An oscillator circuit consists of three Working
components. They are i) tank circuit ii) The tank circuit generates electrical
amplifier and iii) feedback network. The oscillations and acts as the AC input source
block diagram is shown in Figure 10.39(a). to the transistor amplifier. Amplifier amplifies

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the input AC signal. In practical oscillator · to generate audio tones

circuits, there is loss of some energy in · to generate clock signal in digital circuits
inductor coils and capacitors due to electrical · as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO
resistance. A small amount of energy is used up
in overcoming these losses during every cycle E X A M P L E 10 . 8
of charging and discharging of the capacitor. Calculate the range of the variable capacitor
Due to this, the amplitude of the oscillations that is to be used in a tuned-collector
decreases gradually. Hence, the tank circuit oscillator which has a fixed inductance
produces damped electrical oscillations. of 150 μH. The frequency band is from
In order to produce undamped 500 kHz to 1500 kHz.
oscillations, a positive feedback is provided
Solution
from output to input by feedback network.
Resonant frequency,
This compensates energy loss in tank circuit.
The frequency of oscillations is determined f= 1
by the values of L and C and is given by 2π LC
On simplifying, we get
f= 1
(10.8)
2π LC C= 1
4π f 2L
2
Barkhausen conditions for sustained i) When frequency = 500 kHz,

oscillations
C= 1 =
The following conditions called 4 × 3.14 × (500 × 103 )2 × 150 × 10 −6
2
Barkhausen conditions should be satisfied =676 pF

for sustained oscillations in the oscillator. ii) When frequency = 1500 kHz,
· There should be positive feedback. 1
· The loop phase shift must be 00 or integral C= = 50 pF
4 × 3.14 × (1500 × 103 )2 × 150 × 10 −6
2
multiples of 2π.
= 75 pF
· The loop gain must be unity. That is,
Therefore, the capacitor range is from 75
Aβ =1.
to 676 pF.
Here, A is the voltage gain of the amplifier,
b is the feedback ratio (the fraction of the
output that is fed back to the input). 10.5
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
There are different types of oscillator
circuits based on the different types of
Digital Electronics is the branch of
tank circuits. Examples: Hartley oscillator,
electronics which deals with digital signals. It
Colpitts oscillator, Phase shift oscillator and
is increasingly used in numerous applications
Crystal oscillator.
ranging from high end processor circuits
Applications of oscillators to miniature circuits for signal processing,
Transistor oscillators are used communication etc. Digital signals are
· to generate periodic sinusoidal or non preferred over analog signals due to their
sinusoidal wave forms better performance, accuracy, speed,
· to generate RF carriers flexibility and immunity to noise.

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10.5.1 Analog and Digital 10.5.2 Logic gates

Signals A logic gate is an electronic circuit whose
There are 2 different types of signals function is based on digital signals. They
used in Electronics. They are (i) Analog are binary in nature. The logic gates are
signals and (ii) Digital signals. An analog considered as the basic building blocks of
signal is a continuously varying voltage or most of the digital systems. They have one
current with respect to time. Such signals output with one or more inputs. There are
are employed in rectifying circuits and three types of basic logic gates: AND, OR,
transistor amplifier circuits. and NOT. The other logic gates are Ex-OR,
Digital signals are signals which contain NAND, and NOR. They can be constructed
only discrete values of voltages. Digital from the basic logic gates.
signals need two states: switch ON and OFF. Digital electronics deals with
ON is considered as one state and OFF is logical operations. The variables are
considered as the other state. It can also be called logical variables. The operators
defined as high (ON) or low (OFF) state, like logical addition (+) and logical
closed (ON) or open (OFF). These high and multiplication ( . ) are called logical
low states are defined using binary numbers operators. When the logical operators
1 or 0 in Boolean Algebra. The state 1 (+, .) operate on logical variables
represents the terms: circuit on, high voltage, (A, B), they give logical constant (Y). The
a closed switch. Similarly a 0 state represents equation that represents this operation
circuit off, low voltage or an open switch. is called logical statement.
Positive and Negative Logic For example,
In digital systems, there exists two Logical operator: +
voltage levels: 5V (high) and 0V (low). In a Logical variable: A, B
positive logic system; a binary 1 stands for
5V and 0 stands for 0V while in negative Logical constant: Y
logic system, 1 stands for 0V and 0 stands Logical statement: Y = A + B
for 5V as shown in Figure 10.40. The possible combinations of inputs and
(a)
the corresponding output are given in the
1 form of a table called truth table. The circuits
+5v
which perform the basic logical operations
0 0
such as logical addition, multiplication and
0v
Postive logic
inversion are discussed below.
(b)
0 AND gate
+5v
Circuit symbol
0v
1 1 The circuit symbol of a two input AND
Negative logic gate is shown in Figure 10.41(a). A and B are
inputs and Y is the output. It is a logic gate
Figure 10.40 (a) Positive logic
and hence A, B, and Y can have the value of
(b) Negative logic
either 1 or 0.

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A Boolean equation:
AND Y
B Y = A+ B
(a) It performs logical addition and is
different from arithmetic addition.
Inputs Output
A B Y=A.B Logic operation
The output of OR gate is high (logic 1
0 0 0
0 1 0
state) when either of the inputs or both are
1 0 0
high. The truth table of OR gate is shown in
1 1 1 Figure 10.42(b).
(b) NOT gate
Figure 10.41 (a) Two input AND gate Circuit symbol
(b) Truth table The circuit symbol of NOT gate is shown
in Figure 10.43(a). A is the input and Y is the
Boolean equation: output.
Y = A. B
A NOT Y
It performs logical multiplication and is
different from arithmetic multiplication. (a)
Inputs Output
Logic operation
The output of AND gate is high only A Y= A
when all the inputs are high. In the rest of 0 1
the cases, the output is low. It is represented 1 0
in the truth table (Figure 10.41(b)).
(b)
OR gate Figure 10.43 (a) NOT gate (b) Truth table
Circuit Symbol Boolean equation:
The circuit symbol of a two input OR
Y=A
gate is shown in Figure 10.42(a). A and B are
inputs and Y is the output. Logic operation
A
The output is the complement of the
Y
B
OR
Inputs Output input. It is represented with an overbar. It is
A B Y= A+B also called as inverter. The truth table infers
(a) that the output Y is 1 when input A is 0 and
0 0 0
0 1 1
vice versa. The truth table of NOT is shown
1 0 1 in Figure 10.43(b).
1 1 1 NAND gate
Circuit symbol
(b)
The circuit symbol of NAND gate is
Figure 10.42 (a) Two input OR gate
shown in Figure 10.44(a). A and B are inputs
(b) Truth table
and Y is the output.

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A A Z A
Z A OR NOT Y NOR Y
AND NOT NAND B B
B Y B Y
(a)
(a) Inputs Output (OR) Output (NOR)
Inputs Output (AND) Output (NAND) A B Z = A+B Y = A+B
A B Z = A.B Y = A.B 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 (b)
Figure 10.45 (a) NOR gate (b) Truth table
(b)
Figure 10.44 (a)Two input NAND gate
(b) Truth table Ex-OR gate
Circuit symbol
Boolean equation: The circuit symbol of Ex-OR gate is
Y = A.B shown in Figure 10.46(a). A and B are inputs
and Y is the output. The Ex-OR operation is
Logic operation denoted as ⊕.
The output Y equals the complement
of AND operation. The circuit is an AND Boolean equation
gate followed by a NOT gate. Therefore, it
is summarized as NAND. The output is at Y = A. B + A. B
logic zero only when all the inputs are high. Y = A⊕ B
The rest of the cases, the output is high Logic operation
(Logic 1 state). The truth table of NAND The output is high only when either of the
gate is shown in Figure 10.44(b). two inputs is high. In the case of an Ex-OR
gate with more than two inputs, the output
NOR gate
will be high when odd number of inputs are
Circuit symbol high. The truth table of Ex-OR gate is shown
The circuit symbol of NOR gate is shown in Figure 10.46(b).
in Figure 10.45(a). A and B are inputs and
Y is the output. A
Y
Boolean equation: B
Y = A+B (a)
Logic operation Inputs Output (Ex-OR)
The output Y equals the complement of OR A B Y = A⊕ B
operation (A OR B). The circuit is an OR gate 0 0 0
followed by a NOT gate and is summarized 0 1 1
1 0 1
as NOR. The output is high when all the
1 1 0
inputs are low. The output is low for all other
(b)
combinations of inputs. The truth table of
Figure 10.46 (a) Ex-OR gate (b) Truth table
NOR gate is shown in Figure 10.45(b).

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NAND and NOR gates are 10.6

Note known as universal gates BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
because any other logic gate
can be made from NAND or Boolean Algebra is basically a
NOR gates.
choice between two options (i) yes or
no (ii) high or low. These two options
in Boolean algebra are represented by
E X A M P L E 10. 9 binary numbers 0 or 1. It is a concept that
relates logic and mathematics which is a
What is the output Y in the following century old, made up by George Boole in
circuit, when all the three inputs A, B, and 1854. Later the importance of Boolean
C are first 0 and then 1? algebra was realized in the design of
computer circuits. Today we are in a
A X digital world and most of the comforts
P
B Q Y
C that we experience is due to digitization
with the foundation based on Boolean
algebra.
Solution
A B C X = A.B Y = X .C The concept of high (1)

0 0 0 0 1 and low (0) is not a new
1 1 1 1 0 one. In fact, it was applied
in telephone switching circuits by
Shannon in 1938.
E X A M P L E 10. 10 Laws of Boolean Algebra

The NOT, OR and AND operations
In the combination of the following gates,
discussed in section 10.5.2 are the Boolean
write the Boolean equation for output Y in
operations. The results of these operations
terms of inputs A and B.
can be summarised as:
A
1
B Complement law
Y
2 A Y=A
0 Y = 0 =1
Solution
1 Y =1 = 0
The output at the 1st AND gate: AB
The output at the 2nd AND gate: A B
The complement law can be realised as
The output at the OR gate: Y = A . B + A . B A= A

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OR laws The above laws are used to simplify

A B Y = A+B complicated expressions and to simplify the
0 0 Y = 0+0 = 0 logic circuitry.
0 1 Y = 0+1 = 1
1 0 Y = 1+0 = 1
1 1 Y = 1+1 = 1 10.7
The OR laws can be realised as DE MORGAN’S THEOREM
1st law A+0=A
2nd law A+1=1
10.7.1 De Morgan’s First
3rd law A+A=A
Theorem
4th law A+A=1
Statement
AND laws The first theorem states that the
complement of the sum of two logical
A B Y = A.B inputs is equal to the product of its
0 0 Y = 0.0 = 0 complements.
0 1 Y = 0.1 = 0
Proof
1 0 Y = 1.0 = 0
The Boolean equation for NOR gate is
1 1 Y = 1.1 = 1
Y =A+ B.
The AND laws can be realised as
The Boolean equation for a bubbled
1 law
st
A.0=0 AND gate is Y = A . B .
2nd law A.1=A
Both cases generate same outputs for
3rd law A.A=A same inputs. It can be verified using the
4th law A.A=0 following truth table.
The Boolean operations obey the A B A+B A+B A B A.B
following laws. 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Commutative laws 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
A+B=B+A 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
A.B=B.A 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Associative laws
From the above truth table, we can
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C conclude A + B = A . B .
A . (B . C) = (A .B) . C
Thus De Morgan’s first theorem is
proved. Hence, a NOR gate is equal to a
Distributive laws
bubbled AND gate.
A( B + C) = AB + AC The corresponding logic circuit diagram
A + BC = (A + B) (A + C) is shown in Figure 10.47.

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A A E X A M P L E 10 . 11
Y Y
B B
Prove the Boolean identity AC + ABC = AC
Figure 10.47 NOR gate equals bubbled and give its circuit description.
AND gate Solution
Step 1: AC (1 + B) = AC.1 [OR law-2]
10.7.2 De Morgan’s Second Step 2: AC . 1 = AC [AND law – 2]
Theorem
Statement Therefore, AC + ABC = AC
The second theorem states that the
Thus the Boolean identity is proved.
complement of the product of two inputs is
equal to the sum of its complements. Circuit description:
Proof A AC
The Boolean equation for NAND gate is C
A
Y=AC + ABC = Y=AC
Y = A.B . A
C
B
The Boolean equation for bubbled OR C ABC
gate is Y = A + B .
A and B are the inputs and Y is the output.
The above two equations produces the same
output for the same inputs. It can be verified 10.7.3 Integrated Chips
by using the truth table An integrated circuit is also referred
as an IC or a chip or a microchip (Figure
A B A.B A.B A B A+B 10.49). It consists of thousands to millions
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 of transistors, resistors, capacitors,
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 etc. integrated on a small flat piece of
semiconductor material that is normally
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
silicon.
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Integrated circuits (ICs) are the
keystone of modern electronics. With
From the above truth table we can
the advancement in technology and the
conclude A . B = A + B .
emergence of Very Large Scale Integration
Thus De Morgan’s second theorem is
(VLSI) era it is possible to fit more
proved. Hence, a NAND gate is equal to a
and more transistors on chips of same
bubbled OR gate.
piece.
The corresponding logic circuit diagram
ICs have two main advantages over
is shown in Figure 10.48
ordinary circuits: cost and performance.
A A The size, speed, and capacity of chips
Y
B Y
B
have progressed enormously with the
advancement in technology. Computers,
Figure 10.48 NAND gate equals bubbled
mobile phones, and other digital home
OR gate
appliances are now made possible by the

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10.8
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Introduction
Communication is the process of
exchanging information by speaking,
writing or using some other medium.
Communication has existed since the
dawn of life in this world. Growth in science
and technology removed the locational
disadvantage effectively. Information can
be exchanged from one person to another
anywhere on this Earth. Right from the
researches done in communication by great
scientists like J.C. Bose, G. Marconi and
Alexander Graham Bell, communication
has witnessed development by leaps and
Figure 10.49 Circuits with integrated
chips bounds. The communication industry is one
of the largest in size and is the oldest since
communication through telegraph (1844),
small size and low cost of ICs. ICs can telephone (1876), and Radio (1887) started
function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, centuries back.
microprocessor and computer memory. The intensive research in the mid-
These extremely small ICs can perform and late nineteenth century has led to the
calculations and store data using either development of long-distance transmission
digital or analog technology. Digital ICs use in the shortest possible time. However,
logic gates, which work only with values the 20th century witnessed a leap over the
of ones and zeros. A low signal sent to a development of communication, meeting the
component on a digital IC will result in a demands of speed and secured transfer of data.
value of 0, while a high signal creates a value This section provides a glimpse of the basic
of 1. concepts of electronic communication, some
Digital ICs usually find their important communication systems and their
applications in computers, networking applications.
equipment, and most consumer
electronics. Analog ICs or linear ICs 10.9
work with continuous values. This means
MODULATION
a component on a linear IC can take any
value and output another value. Linear
ICs are typically used in audio and radio The transmission of information
frequency amplification. through short distances does not require

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complicated techniques. The energy phase of the carrier signal remain constant.
of the information signal is sufficient Amplitude modulation is used in radio
enough to be sent directly. However if the and TV broadcasting.
information in the audio frequency range The signal shown in Figure 10.50(a)
(20 to 20,000 Hz) needs to be transmitted is the baseband signal that carries
to long distances across the world, certain information. Figure 10.50(b) shows the
techniques are required to transmit the high-frequency carrier signal and Figure
information without any loss. 10.50(c) gives amplitude modulated
For long distance transmission, the signal. We can see that amplitude of the
low frequency baseband signal (input carrier wave is modified in proportion to
signal) is superimposed onto a high the amplitude of the baseband signal.
frequency radio signal by a process called es
modulation. In the modulation process, a Baseband Signal
(a)
very high frequency signal called carrier
signal (radio signal) is used to carry the Es
Time
baseband signal.
As the frequency of the carrier signal ec
Carrier Signal (b)
is very high, it can be transmitted to long
distances with less attenuation. The carrier Ec
signal is usually a sine wave signal. Time
A sinusoidal carrier wave can be

represented as ec = Ec sin (2πνc t + ϕ), where em Amplitude Modulated
Ec is the amplitude, νc is the frequency and

Signal (c)
ϕ is the initial phase of the carrier wave at Em
any instant of time t. Time
Three characteristics in the carrier
Minimum
Envelope of
signal can be modified by the baseband Amplitude
Modulated Signal
signal during the process of modulation: Maximum
Amplitude
amplitude, frequency and phase of the
carrier signal. Figure 10.50 Amplitude Modulation
Accordingly, we have (i) amplitude (a) Baseband signal (b) Carrier signal
(c) Modulated signal
modulation, (ii) frequency modulation and
(iii) phase modulation.
Advantages of AM
i) Easy transmission and reception
10.9.1 AMPLITUDE ii) Lesser bandwidth requirements
MODULATION (AM) iii) Low cost
If the amplitude of the carrier
Limitations of AM
signal is modified in proportion to the
i) Noise level is high
instantaneous amplitude of the baseband
signal, then it is called amplitude ii) Low efficiency
modulation. Here the frequency and the iii) Small operating range

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10.9.2 FREQUENCY amplitude of the baseband signal increases

MODULATION (FM) in the positive direction (A, C). The increase
in amplitude in the negative half cycle (B,
The frequency of the carrier signal
D) reduces the frequency of the modulated
is modified in proportion to the
wave (Figure 10.51(c)).
instantaneous amplitude of the baseband
When the frequency of the baseband
signal in frequency modulation. Here the
signal is zero (no input signal), there is no
amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal
change in the frequency of the carrier wave.
remain constant.
It is at its normal frequency and is called
The increase in the amplitude of the
as centre frequency or resting frequency.
baseband signal increases the frequency of
Practically this is the allotted frequency of
the carrier signal and vice versa. This leads
the FM transmitter.
to compressions and rarefactions in the
frequency spectrum of the modulated wave Advantages of FM
as shown in Figure 10.51. Louder signal i) In FM, there is a large decrease in
leads to compressions and relatively weaker noise. This leads to an increase in signal-
signals to rarefactions. noise ratio.
es ii) The operating range is quite large.
A Baseband Signal C
(a) iii) The transmission efficiency is very
high as all the transmitted power is useful.
0 Time
iv) FM bandwidth covers the entire
B D frequency range which humans can hear.
ec Due to this, FM radio has better quality
Carrier Signal (b)
compared to AM radio.
0 Limitations of FM
Time
i) FM requires a much wider channel.
ii) FM transmitters and receivers are
em Frequency Modulated (c) more complex and costly.
Signal
iii) In FM reception, less area is covered
compared to AM.
0 Time
A B C D 10.9.3 PHASE MODULATION

Figure 10.51 Frequency Modulation (PM)
(a) Baseband signal (b) Carrier signal In phase modulation, the instantaneous
(c) Frequency modulated signal amplitude of the baseband signal modifies
the phase of the carrier signal keeping its
When the amplitude of the baseband amplitude and frequency constant. This
signal is zero in Figure 10.51(a), the modulation is used to generate frequency
frequency of the modulated signal is the modulated signals. It is similar to frequency
same as the carrier signal. The frequency modulation except that the phase of the
of the modulated wave increases when the carrier is varied instead of varying frequency.

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10.10 ii) Input transducer
THE ELEMENTS OF In communication system, the

AN ELECTRONIC transducer converts the information
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM (in the form of sound, music, pictures
or computer data) into corresponding
electrical signals. The electrical
Electronics plays a major role in equivalent of the original information is
communication. Electronic communication called the baseband signal.
is nothing but the transmission of sound, The best example for the transducer is
text, pictures, or data through a medium. the microphone that converts sound energy
Long distance transmission uses free space into electrical energy.
as a medium.
The elements of the basic communication iii) Transmitter
system are explained with the block diagram It feeds the electrical signal from the
shown in Figure 10.52. transducer to the communication channel.
It consists of circuits such as amplifier,
i) Information (Baseband or input signal) oscillator, modulator and power amplifier.
Information can be in the form of The transmitter is located at the broadcasting
speech, music, pictures or computer data. station.
This information is given as input to the Amplifier: The transducer output is very
input transducer. weak and is amplified by the amplifier.
Transmission Transmission
Antenna Communication
Channel
Information Input
Amplifier
Transducer
Power
Modulator Amplifer
Oscillator
Receiving
Reception
Communication Antenna
Channel Base Band
Signal
Radio Output Information

Demodulator Amplifier
Receiver Transducer
Carrier
waves
Figure 10.52 Block diagram of transmission and reception of voice signals

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Oscillator: It generates high-frequency retransmitted with a carrier signal of different

carrier wave (a sinusoidal wave) for long frequency to the destination. The best example
distance transmission into space. As the energy is the communication satellite in space.
of a wave is proportional to its frequency, the viii) Output transducer
carrier wave has very high energy.
It converts the electrical signal back to its
Modulator: It superimposes the baseband original form such as sound, music, pictures
signal onto the carrier signal and generates or data. Examples of output transducers
the modulated signal. are loudspeakers, picture tubes, computer
Power amplifier: It increases the power monitor etc.
level of the electrical signal in order to cover
a large distance.
10.10.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS IN
iv) Transmitting antenna ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
It radiates the radio signal into space SYSTEM
in all directions. It travels in the form of
For better understanding of the
electromagnetic waves with the speed of light.
communication systems, it is essential to
v) Communication channel know about the following terms.
Communication channel is used to carry i) Range
the electrical signal from transmitter to receiver
It is the maximum distance between the
with less noise or distortion. The examples for
source and the destination up to which the
communication medium are wires, cables,
signal is received with sufficient strength.
optical fibres in wireline communication and
free space in wireless communication. ii) Noise
vi) Receiver It is the undesirable electrical signal
that interferes with the transmitted signal.
The signals that are transmitted through
Noise attenuates or reduces the quality
the communication medium are received by
of the transmitted signal. It may be man-
a receiving antenna which converts EM waves
made (automobiles, welding machines,
into RF signals and are fed into the receiver.
electric motors etc.) or natural (lightning,
The receiver consists of electronic
environmental effects, radiation from sun
circuits like demodulator, amplifier etc.
and stars). Noise cannot be completely
The demodulator extracts the baseband
eliminated. However, it can be reduced
signal from the modulated signal. Then
using various techniques.
the baseband signal is amplified using
amplifier. Finally, it is fed to the output iii) Attenuation
transducer. The loss of strength of a signal while
vii) Repeaters propagating through a medium is known as
attenuation.
Repeaters are used to increase the range or
distance through which the signals are sent. It iv) Bandwidth
is a combination of transmitter and receiver. The frequency range over which the
The signals are received, amplified and baseband signals or the information

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signals such as voice, music, picture etc are to-shore communication and mobile
transmitted is known as bandwidth. If ν1 communication.
and ν2 are the lower and upper-frequency ii) Sky wave propagation
limits of a signal, then the bandwidth,
The mode of propagation in which
BW = ν2 – ν1.
the electromagnetic waves radiated from
v) Bandwidth of transmission system an antenna, directed upwards at large
The range of frequencies required to angles, gets reflected by the ionosphere
transmit a piece of specified information back to Earth is called sky wave
in a particular channel is called channel propagation or ionospheric propagation.
bandwidth or the bandwidth of the The corresponding waves are called sky
transmission system. waves (Figure 10.53(b)).
Ionosphere acts as a reflecting surface.
It is at a distance of approximately 50 km
10.11
and spreads up to 400 km above the Earth's
PROPAGATION OF surface. Due to the absorption of ultraviolet
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES rays, cosmic ray, and other high energy
radiations like α, β rays from sun, the air
The electromagnetic wave transmitted
molecules in the ionosphere get ionized.
by the transmitter travels in three different
This produces charged ions and these
modes to reach the receiver according to its
frequency range. They are Atmosphere
• Ground wave propagation (or) surface

wave propagation (nearly 2 kHz to Radio
tower Earth Home
2 MHz) (a)
• Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric

Ionosphere
propagation (nearly 3 MHz to 30 MHz)
• Space wave propagation (nearly 30
MHz to 400 GHz)
i) Ground wave propagation
If the electromagnetic waves
A B
transmitted by the transmitter glide over Skip zone
ave Sky
the surface of the Earth to reach the receiver, u
o endw
rag e
ce
wa
ve
cov
T Gr cov Skip distan era
then the propagation is called ground (b)
ge
wave propagation. The corresponding

Transmitter Receiver
waves are called ground waves or surface Direct wave
waves. The pictorial representation is shown Refl

ecte
d wave
in Figure 10.53(a). Here both transmitting Earth
and receiving antennas must be close to the (c)
Earth's surface.
Figure 10.53 Propagation of EM waves
It is mainly used in local broadcasting,
(a) Ground wave (b) Sky wave (c) Space wave
radio navigation, for ship-to-ship, ship-

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ions provide a reflecting medium for the The range or distance (d) of coverage of
reflection of radio waves or communication the propagation depends on the height (h)
waves back to Earth within the permitted of the antenna given by the equation,
frequency range. The phenomenon of
bending the radio waves back to Earth is d = 2 Rh (10.9)
nothing but the total internal reflection.
When the angle of incidence at the where R is the radius of the Earth. The
ionosphere is large, the sky wave returns distance of coverage is shown pictorially in
to the ground at a long distance from Figure 10.54.
the transmitter. As this angle is reduced,
the wave returns closer and closer to d
the transmitter. If the angle of incidence
is reduced further, the radio waves
penetrate through the ionosphere. For a
particular angle of incidence, the point of
reception (B) is at the minimum distance
h
from transmitter. The shortest distance
between the transmitter and the point
of reception of the sky wave along the
surface is called as the skip distance. Figure 10.54 Distance of coverage
The ground waves get attenuated as they
move away from the transmitter. At a particular
point (A), there is no reception ground wave. EX AM P L E 1 0 . 1 2
The zone (in between A and B) where there A transmitting antenna has a height of
is no reception of electromagnetic waves 40 m and the height of the receiving
neither ground nor sky is known as skip antenna is 30 m. What is the maximum
zone or skip area (Figure 10.53(b)). distance between them for line-of-sight
communication? The radius of the earth is
iii) Space wave propagation
6.4×106 m.
The process of sending and receiving
information signal through space is
d1 d2
called space wave communication
(Figure 10.53(c)). The electromagnetic
waves of very high frequencies above 30 h1 h2
MHz are called as space waves. These T R

waves travel in a straight line from the
transmitter to the receiver. Hence, it is used
for a line of sight communication (LOS). Solution:
The communication systems like The total distance d between the
television telecast, satellite communication transmitting and receiving antennas will
and RADAR are based on space wave be the sum of the individual distances of
propagation. coverage.

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d = d1 + d2 Earth
transmitting
station
= 2Rh1 + 2Rh2 Uplink
Earth
d1 + d 2 = 2 R ( h1 + h2 ) Satellite
Downlink (in geostationary orbit)
d 1 + d 2 = 2 × 6.4 × 106 ×( 40 + 30 ) Earth
receiving
station
d1 + d 2 = 16 × 102 5 × (6.32 + 5.48)
d1 + d2 = 42217 m = 42.217 km
10.12
SOME IMPORTANT
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Figure 10.55 Satellite communication
system
There are a large number of
communication systems available in the i) Weather satellites: They are used to
market for varied purposes. Here some monitor the weather and climate of Earth.
of the important communication systems By measuring cloud mass, these satellites
are introduced and their applications are enable us to predict rain and dangerous
briefly discussed. storms like hurricanes, cyclones etc.
ii) Communication satellites: They are
10.12.1 SATELLITE AND ITS used to transmit television, radio, internet
COMMUNICATION signals etc. Multiple satellites are used for
long distance communication.
The satellite communication is a mode
of transmission of the signal between iii) Navigation satellites: These are
transmitter and receiver via satellite. The employed to determine the geographic
message signal from the Earth station location of ships, aircrafts or any other
is transmitted to the satellite on board object.
via an uplink (frequency band 6 GHz),
amplified by a transponder and then 10.12.2 FIBRE OPTIC
retransmitted to another Earth station COMMUNICATION
via a downlink (frequency band 4 GHz)
The method of transmitting
(Figure 10.55).
information from one place to another in
terms of light pulses through an optical
Applications fiber is called fiber optic communication.
Satellites are classified into different It works on the principle of total internal
types based on their applications. reflection.

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the objects that are invisible to the human eye

can be determined.
Radar uses electromagnetic waves for
communication. The electromagnetic signal
is initially radiated into space by an antenna
in all directions. When this signal strikes the
targeted object, it gets reflected or reradiated in
Figure 10.56 Optical fibers many directions. This reflected (echo) signal is
received by the radar antenna which in turn is
Applications delivered to the receiver. Then, it is processed
Optical fiber system has a number and amplified to determine the geographical
of applications namely, international statistics of the object. The range is determined
communication, inter-city communication, by calculating the time taken by the signal to
data links, plant and traffic control and travel from RADAR to the target and back.
defense applications. Applications
Merits Radars find extensive applications in

many fields.
i) Fiber cables are very thin and weigh
i) In military, it is used for locating and
less than copper cables.
detecting the targets.
ii) This system has much larger band
ii) It is used in navigation systems such
width. This means that its information
as ship borne surface search, air search and
carrying capacity is larger.
missile guidance systems.
iii) Fiber optic system is immune to
iii) Radars are used to measure
electrical interferences.
precipitation rate and wind speed in
iv) Fiber optic cables are cheaper than meteorological observations.
copper cables.
iv) It is employed to locate and rescue
Demerits people in emergency situations.
i) Fiber optic cables are more fragile

when compared to copper wires. 10.12.4 MOBILE
ii) It is an expensive technology. COMMUNICATION
Mobile communication is used to
communicate with others in different
10.12.3 RADAR AND
locations without the use of any physical
APPLICATIONS
connection like wires or cables. It allows
Radar basically stands for Radio the transmission over a wide range of area
Detection and Ranging System. It is one of without the use of the physical link. It enables
the important applications of communication the people to communicate with each other
systems and is mainly used to sense, detect, regardless of a particular location like office,
and locate distant objects like aircraft, ships, house etc. It also provides communication
spacecraft, etc. The angle, range or velocity of access to remote areas.

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iv) It enables smart classrooms, online

availability of notes, monitoring student
activities etc. in the field of education.
10.12.5 INTERNET
Internet is a fast growing technology
in the field of communication system with
multifaceted tools. It provides new ways
and means to interact and connect with
Figure 10.57 Mobile communication people. Internet is the largest computer
It provides the facility of roaming – that is, network recognized globally that connects
the user may move from one place to another millions of people through computers. It
without the need of compromising on the finds extensive applications in all walks of
communication. The maintenance and life.
cost of installation of this communication Applications:
network are also cheap. i) Search engine: The search engine
Applications is basically a web-based service tool used
i) It is used for personal communication to search for information on World Wide
and cellular phones offer voice and data Web.
connectivity with high speed. ii) Communication: It helps millions
ii) Transmission of news across the of people to connect with the use of social
globe is done within a few seconds. networking: emails, instant messaging
services and social networking tools.
iii) Using Internet of Things (IoT), it is
made possible to control various devices iii) E-Commerce: Buying and selling
from a single device. Example: home of goods and services, transfer of funds
automation using a mobile phone. are done over an electronic network.

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SUMMARY
Energy bands in solids are used to classify them into metals, insulators, and
semiconductors
In a N-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are
the minority carriers.
In P-type semiconductor, holes are the majority charge carriers and electrons are the
minority charge carriers.
The thin region near the junction which is free from charge carriers (free electrons
and holes) is called depletion region.
When a PN junction diode is forward biased, the width of the depletion region
decreases and the diode conducts.
A PN junction diode in reverse biased condition functions as a open switch as it does
not conduct. The width of the depletion region increases in this case.
A forward biased PN junction diode functions as a rectifier. The process in which
alternating voltage or alternating current is converted into direct voltage or direct
current is known as rectification.
The half wave rectifier rectifies one half of the input signal and produces a pulsating
DC output.
Full wave rectifier rectifies both halves of the input signal.
Zener breakdown happens in a heavily doped PN junction diode when a strong
electric field is applied.
Avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped junctions which have wide depletion
layers. It is due to the breaking of covalent bonds by the thermally generated minority
charge carriers.
Zener diode is a heavily doped PN junction diode which works in the reverse biased
condition.
Light emitting diode is a forward biased semiconductor device that emits emits visible or
invisible light when energized. The recombination of minority charge carriers with the
majority charge carriers in the respective regions release energy in the form of photons.
A PN junction diode which converts an optical signal into electric signal is called a
photodiode.
When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it creates an electron-hole pair.
These electrons and holes are swept across the p-n junction by the electric field created
by reverse voltage before recombination takes place and in turn generates photo current.
A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell, works on the principle of photovoltaic
effect. Accordingly, the p-n junction of the solar cell generates emf when solar
radiation falls on it. .
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a semiconductor device and there are two types
in that: NPN and PNP.

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A BJT can be operated in three different configurations: Common base, common

emitter, common collector.
The forward current gain in common base configuration α gives the ratio of the collector
current to emitter current.
The forward current gain in common emitter configuration β gives the ratio of the
collector current to the base current
The BJT connected in common emitter configuration can be used as an amplifier. There
exists a phase reversal of 1800 between the input signal and the amplified output signal.
A transistor amplifier combined with a tank circuit and positive feedback acts as an
oscillator
The logic gates are logical circuits providing output only for a combination of inputs.
De Morgan’s First theorem states that the complement of the sum of two inputs is equal
to the product of its complements.
The second theorem states that the complement of the product of two inputs is equal to
the sum of its complements.
The basic elements required for the transmission and reception of a signal through
long distance communication using electromagnetic waves are transducer, amplifier,
carrier signal, modulator, power amplifier, medium of transmission, transmitting and
receiving antenna, demodulator, detector.
For long-distance transmission, the baseband signal is modulated with the carrier wave.
If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified with the instantaneous amplitude of
the baseband signal then it is called amplitude modulation.
The frequency of the carrier signal is modified with the instantaneous amplitude of the
baseband signal in frequency modulation.
The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband signal modifies the phase of the carrier
signal keeping the amplitude and frequency constant in phase modulation
If the EM waves transmitted by the transmitter glide over the surface of the earth to
reach the receiver, then the propagation of EM waves is called ground wave propagation.
The mode of propagation in which electromagnetic waves radiated from an antenna,
directed upwards at large angles gets reflected by the ionosphere back to earth is called
sky wave propagation.
The process of sending and receiving information signal through space is called space
wave communication.
The satellite communication is a mode of communication of signal between transmitter
and receiver via satellite.
Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information by sending pulses
of light through an optical fiber.
Radar basically stands for Radio Detection and Ranging System. It is one of the
important applications of communication systems for remote sensing.
Mobile Communication is used to communicate with others in different locations
without the use of any physical connection like wires or cables.

CONCEPT MAP
Electronics and Communication Systems
Electronics Communication systems
XII_Physics_Vol-2_UNIT-10_Part 2_EM.indd 245

Modulation
Energy band structure
AM FM PM
Conductor Semiconductor Insulators Elements of

Communication system
Propagation of
Semiconductor types Semiconductor devices Electromagnetic waves
Ground Space Sky

wave wave wave
Intrinsic Extrinsic Bi-junction Logic
semiconductor semiconductor Diodes transistor gates
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Important
AND Communication systems
n-type p-type
p-n junction Special Types Uses
purpose Satellite communication
didode diodes OR
NPN Switch
transiator
Zener diode Fiber optic communication
NOT
PNP Amplifer
LED transiator RADAR
NAND
Photo Oscillator Mobile communication

diode NOR
Unit 10 electronics and C ommunication

Solar Internet
245
cells
Ex-OR
04-03-2022 17:19:26
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E V AL U A T I O N
I. Multiple choice questions c) Photovoltaic action

1. The barrier potential of a silicon diode d) Carrier flow
is approximately,
a) 0.7 V b) 0.3V c) 2.0 V d) 2.2V
7. The light emitted in an LED is due to
2. If a small amount of antimony (Sb)
is added to germanium crystal, a) Recombination of charge carriers
(AIPMT 2011) b) Reflection of light due to lens action
a) it becomes a p-type semiconductor c) Amplification of light falling at the
b) the antimony becomes an acceptor junction
atom d) Large current capacity.
c)
there will be more free electrons
than hole in the semiconductor 8. The barrier potential of a p-n junction
d) its resistance is increased depends on i) type of semiconductor
3. In an unbiased p-n junction, the material ii) amount of doping
majority charge carriers (that is, holes) iii) temperature. Which one of the
in the p-region diffuse into n-region
following is correct? (NEET)
because of
a) (i) and (ii) only
a) the potential difference across the
p-n junction b) (ii) only
b) the higher hole concentration in c) (ii) and (iii) only
p-region than that in n-region d) (i) (ii) and (iii)
c)
the attraction of free electrons of
n-region 9. To obtain sustained oscillation in an
d) All of the above oscillator,
4. If a positive half –wave rectified voltage a) Feedback should be positive
is fed to a load resistor, for which part b) Feedback factor must be unity
of a cycle there will be current flow
through the load? c) Phase shift must be 0 or 2π
a) 00–900 b) 900–1800 d) All the above
c) 00–1800 d) 00–3600 10. If the input to the NOT gate is
5. The zener diode is primarily used as A = 1011, its output is
a) Rectifier b) Amplifier a) 0100 b) 1000
c) Oscillator d) Voltage regulator c) 1100 d) 0011
6. The principle based on which a solar
11. Which one of the following represents
cell operates is
forward bias diode? (NEET)
a) Diffusion b) Recombination

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a. c) Sky wave propagation

0V R –2 V d) Satellite communication
b. Answers
–4 V R –3 V
1. a 2. c 3. b 4. c 5. d
c. 6. c 7. a 8. d 9. d 10. a
–2 V R +2 V 11. a 12. c 13. a 14. b 15. c
d.
–3 V R +5 V II. Short Answer Questions
1. Define forbidden energy gap.
12. The given electrical network is
2. Why is temperature co-efficient of
equivalent to (NEET)
resistance negative for semiconductor?
3. What do you mean by doping?
A
B Y 4. Distinguish between intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductors.
a) AND gate b) OR gate 5. A diode is called as a unidirectional
c) NOR gate d) NOT gate device. Explain.
13. The output of the following circuit is 1 6. What do you mean by leakage current
when the input ABC is (NEET) in a diode?
A 7. Draw the input and output waveforms
B of a full wave rectifier.
Y
C
8. Distinguish between avalanche
breakdown and Zener breakdown.
a) 101 b) 100 9. Give the Barkhausen conditions for
c) 110 d) 010 sustained oscillations.
10. Explain the current flow in a NPN
14. The variation of frequency of carrier transistor.
wave with respect to the amplitude of
11. What are logic gates?
the modulating signal is called
a) Amplitude modulation 12. Explain the need for a feedback circuit
in a transistor oscillator.
b) Frequency modulation
13. Write a short note on diffusion current
c) Phase modulation
across p-n junction.
d) Pulse width modulation
14. What is meant by biasing? Mention its
15. The frequency range of 3 MHz to types.
30 MHz is used for 15. Why can’t we interchange the emitter
a) Ground wave propagation and collector even though they are made
b) Space wave propagation up of the same type of semiconductor
material?

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16. Why are NOR and NAND gates called 7. Explain the working principle of a solar
universal gates? cell. Mention its applications.
17. Define barrier potential. 8. Sketch the static characteristics of a
18. What is rectification? common emitter transistor and bring
out the essential features of input and
19. List the applications of light emitting output characteristics.
diode.
9. Transistor functions as a switch.
20. Give the principle of solar cells. Explain.
21. What is an integrated circuit? 10. Describe the function of a transistor
22. What is modulation? as an amplifier with the neat circuit
diagram. Sketch the input and output
23. Define bandwidth of transmission wave forms.
system.
11. Give circuit symbol, logical operation,
24. What do you mean by skip distance? truth table, and Boolean expression of
25. Give applications of RADAR. i) AND gate ii) OR gate iii) NOT gate
iv) NAND gate v) NOR gate and vi)
26. What is mobile communication?
EX-OR gate.
27. Explain centre frequency or resting 12. State and prove De Morgan’s first and
frequency in frequency modulation. second theorem.
28. What does RADAR stand for? 13. Explain the ampitude modulation with
29. Fiber optic communication is gaining necessary diagrams.
popularity among the various 14. Explain the basic elements of
transmission media -justify. communication system with the
necessary block diagram.
III. Long Answer Questions 15. Explain the ground wave propagation
1. Elucidate the formation of n-type and space wave propagation of
extrinsic semiconductors. electromagnetic waves through space.
2. Explain the formation of depletion 16. List out the advantages and limitations
region and barrier potential in PN of frequency modulation.
junction diode. 17. What is meant by satellite communi
3. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave cation? Give its applications.
rectifier and explain its working.
IV. Numerical Problems
4. Explain the construction and working
of a full wave rectifier. 1. The given circuit has two ideal diodes
connected as shown in figure below.
5. What is an LED? Give the principle of
Calculate the current flowing through
its operation with a diagram.
the resistance R1. [Ans: 2.5 A]
6. Write a note on photodiode.

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2Ω 4. In the circuit shown in the figure, the

R1 BJT has a current gain (β) of 50. For an
D1 D2
emitter – base voltage VEB = 600 mV,
10 V
R2 3Ω R3 2Ω calculate the emitter – collector voltage
VEC (in volts). [Ans: 2 V]
2. Four silicon diodes and a 10 Ω resistor 3V

are connected as shown in figure below.
Each diode has a resistance of 1Ω. Find
the current flows through the 10Ω
resistor. [Ans: 0.13 A]
C
60kΩ 500Ω
D1 D3
10 Ω
A B
D2 D4
D
5. Determine the current flowing through
+ – 3Ω and 4Ω resistors of the circuit given
E 3V F
below. Assume that diodes D1 and D2
are ideal diodes.
3. Assuming VCEsat = 0.2 V and β = 50, [Ans: 0 and 2A]
find the minimum base current (IB)
required to drive the transistor given in 3Ω
the figure to saturation. [Ans: 56 µA]
D1 D2
3V
IC
12V
2Ω 6Ω
1kΩ
IB 4Ω

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6. Prove the following Boolean 9. Write down Boolean equation for the
expressions using the laws and output Y of the given circuit and give
theorems of Boolean algebra. its truth table.
i) (A+B) (A+B) = A [Ans: Y = (AB)+(A+B)]
ii) A(A+B) = AB A
iii) (A+B) (A+C) = A+BC B
Y
7. Verify the given Boolean equation A
A + AB = A + B using truth table. B
8. In the given figure of a voltage

regulator, a Zener diode of breakdown
voltage 15V is employed. Determine
the current through the load
resistance, the total current and the
current through the diode. Use diode
approximation.
[Ans: 5mA; 20 mA; 15 mA]
RS = 500Ω IL
I
IZ
= 3kΩ
25 V
VZ
RL

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BOOK FOR REFERENCES
1. Charles Kittel , Introduction to Solid State Physics, John Wiley & Sons, 2012
2. Rita John, Solid State Physics, McGraw Hill Education, 2016
3. Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory , Pearson
Prentice Hall, 2011
4. Jacob Millman, Christos Halkias, Chetan Parikh, Millman’s Integrated Electronics,
McGraw Hill Education, 2017
5. B.L.Theraja, R.S. Sedha, Principles of Electronics Devices and Circuits (Analog and Digital),
S. Chand & Company, 2011
6. Albert Paul Malvino, Donald P. Leach, Goutam Saha, Digital principles and applications,
McGraw Hill Education, 2014
7. V.K.Metha, Rohit Metha, Principles of Electronics, S. Chand & Company, 2010.
8. B
.L.Theraja, R.S. Sedha, Principles of Electronics Devices and Circuits (Analog and Digital),
S. Chand & Company, 2011.
9. K
.D.Prasad, Antenna and Wave Propagation, Satya Prakashan, 2007.
10. U A Bakshi; A V Bakshi; K A Bakshi, Antenna and Wave Propagation, Technical
Publications, 2014.

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ICT CORNER
Electronics and Communication
In this activity you will be able to

(i) Construct , manipulate and simulate
the logic circuits. (ii) verify the truth tables Topic: Logic gates
of AND, OR, NOT, EX-OR, NAND and
NOR gates
STEPS:
•O pen the browser and type “circuitverse.org/simulator” in the address bar.
• Click ‘Gates’ tab from the circuit elements. Select the gate you want to verify and drag it in
to the stage.
• Nodes in the logic gates are connected through wires. Wires can be drawn by dragging
from the nodes with the help of mouse.
• S elect ‘input tool’ from input tab. Drag and keep it as two inputs.
• S elect ‘output tool’ or ‘digital LED’ from output tab. Drag and keep it as output.
• Verify the truth tables of AND, OR, NOT, EX-OR, NAND and NOR gates. You can verify
De Morgan’s first and second theorems.
Step1 Step2
Step3 Step4
Note:
Login with the help of your mail id if you want to save your project in online.
URL:
https://circuitverse.org/simulator

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UNIT
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
11 IN PHYSICS
‘There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom: An Invitation to Enter a New Field of Physics’
-Richard Feynman
253
253

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254 Unit 11 R ecent devel opments in physics

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Unit 11 R ecent devel opments in physics 255

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11.2.6 Applications of Nano technology
Optical Biomedical and

engineering and
communication drug delivery
Electronics Agriculture
and food
Metallurgy Cosmetics
and materials and paints
Defense and
security Biotechnology
Energy Textile
storage Applications
Nanotechnology
Applications of nanomaterial based products in differernt areas
Automotive industry Chemical industry Engineering

Lightweight construction Fillers for paint systems Wear protection for
Painting (fillers, base coat, Coating systems based tools and machines
clear coat) on nanocomposites (anti blocking coatings,
Catalysts Impregnation of papers scratch resistant
Tires (fillers) Switchable adhesives coatings on plastic
Sensors Magnetic fluids parts, etc.)
Coatings for wind- Lubricant-free bearings
screen and car bodies
Electronic industry Construction Medicine

Data memory Construction materials Drug delivery systems
Displays Thermal insulation Active agents
Laser diodes Flame retardants Contrast medium
Glass fibres Surface-functionalised Medical rapid tests
Optical switches building materials for Prostheses and
Filters (IR-blocking) wood, floors, stone, implants
Conductive, antistatic facades, tiles, roof tiles, etc. Antimicrobial agents
coatings Facade coatings and coatings
Groove mortar Agents in cancer therapy

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Textile/fabrics/ Energy Cosmetics

non-wovens
Surface-processed Fuel cells Sun protection

textiles Solar cells Lipsticks
Smart clothes Batteries Skin creams
Capacitors Tooth paste
Food and drinks Household Sports/ outdoor

Package materials Ceramic coatings for Ski wax
Storage life sensors irons Antifogging of
Additives Odors catalyst glasses/goggles
Clarification of fruit Cleaner for glass, Antifouling coatings
juices ceramic, floor, for ships/boats
windows Reinforced tennis
rackets and balls
11.2.7 Possible harmful effects of nanoparticles

The research on the harmful impact of application of nanotechnology is also equally
important and fast developing. The major concern here is that the nanoparticles have
the dimensions same as that of the biological molecules such as proteins. They may
easily get absorbed onto the surface of living organisms and they might enter the
tissues and fluids of the body.
The adsorbing nature depends on the surface of the nanoparticle. Indeed, it is possi-
ble to deliver a drug directly to a specific cell in the body by designing the surface of a
nanoparticle so that it adsorbs specifically onto the surface of the target cell.
The interaction with living systems is also affected by the dimensions of the nanopar-
ticles. For instance, nanoparticles of a few nanometers size may reach well inside
biomolecules, which is not possible for larger nanoparticles. Nanoparticles can also
cross cell membranes. It is also possible for the inhaled nanoparticles to reach the
blood, to reach other sites such as the liver, heart or blood cells.
Researchers are trying to understand the response of living organisms to the pres-
ence of nanoparticles of varying size, shape, chemical composition and surface
characteristics.

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DISEASES ASSOCIATED TO NANOPARTICLE EXPOSURE

(Not for examination)
Neurological diseases:
NANOPARTICLES Brain
Parkinson’s disease
INTERNALIZED Alzheimer’s disease
IN CELLS
Nanoparticle inhalation
Mitochondrion Asthma
Bronchitis
Nucleus
Lungs Emphysema
Cytoplasm Cancer
Heart
Membrane Arrythmia
Heart disease
Lipid vesicle
Death
Circulatory
system
Nanoparticles
ingestion
Gastro-Intestinal
System Diseases of
Crohn’s disease Other organs unknown
Colon cancer etiology in
kidneys, liver
Orthopedic implant
wear debris
Auto-immune diseases
Dermatitis Lymphatic Podoconiosis
Kaposi’s sarcoma
Urticaria system
Vasculitis
Auto-immune
diseases
Skin dermatitis

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11.3 Robotics
11.3.1 What is robotics?
Robotics is an integrated study of mechanical engineering, electronic engineering,
computer engineering, and science. Robot is a mechanical device designed with
electronic circuitry and programmed to perform a specific task. These automated
machines are highly significant in this robotic era. They can take up the role of
humans in certain dangerous environments that are hazardous to people like
defusing bombs, finding survivors in unstable ruins, and exploring mines and
shipwrecks.
Co-defender Services Co-inhabitant

Security
Logistics
Monitoring Intelligent
Inspection Co-Robot
Manufacture
Human-
& Automation
Robot
Macro
Interfaces
Intelligent
transportation Manufacture
&
Automation
Micro/Nano
Unmanned
vehicles Medical
Surgery
Rehabilitate
Co-explorer orthotics
prosthetics Co-worker
In 1954, George Devol invented the first digitally operated programmable robot
called Unimate. George Devol and Joseph Engelberger, the father of the modern
robotics industry formed the world’s first robot company in 1956. In 1961,
Unimate, was operated in a General Motors automobile factory for moving car
parts around in New Jersey.

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11.3.2 COMPONENTS OF ROBOTICS
The robotic system mainly consists of sensors, power supplies, control systems, manipula-
tors and necessary software.
Most robots are composed of

3 main parts:
Key components
1. The Controller ‐ also known as the
"brain" which is run by a computer Power conversion
program. It gives commands for the Sensors Actuators
moving parts to perform the job. unit
2. Mechanical parts - motors, pistons,
grippers, wheels, and gears that make Controller
the robot move, grab, turn, and lift.
3. Sensors - to tell the robot about its User
surroundings. It helps to determine Manipulator
the sizes and shapes of the objects interface linkage base
around, distance between the objects,
and directions as well.
11.3.3 TYPES OF ROBOTS

HUMAN ROBOT
Certain robots are made to resemble humans in
appearance and replicate the human activities
like walking, lifting, and sensing, etc.
1. Power conversion unit: Robots are powered by batteries, solar power, and hydraulics.
2. Actuators: Converts energy into movement. The majority of the actuators produce rotational or
linear motion.
3. Electric motors: They are used to actuate the parts of the robots like wheels, arms, fingers, legs,
sensors, camera, weapon systems etc. Different types of electric motors are used. The most often
used ones are AC motor, Brushed DC motor, Brushless DC motor, Geared DC motor, etc.
4. Pneumatic Air Muscles: They are devices that can contract and expand when air is pumped inside.
It can replicate the function of a human muscle. They contract almost 40% when the air is sucked
inside them.
5. Muscle wires: They are thin strands of wire made of shape memory alloys. They can contract by 5%
when electric current is passed through them.
6. Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors: Basically, we use it for industrial robots.
7. Sensors: Generally used in task environments as it provides information of real-time knowledge.
8. Robot locomotion: Provides the types of movements to a robot. The different types are
(a) Legged (b) Wheeled (c) Combination of Legged and Wheeled Locomotion
(d) Tracked slip/skid

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INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
Six main types of industrial robots Six-axis robots are ideal for
Cartesian 1 Arc Welding
* SCARA 2 Spot Welding
Cylindrical 3 Material Handling
Delta 4 Machine Tending

Polar 5
Other Applications
Vertically articulated 6
*Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial
Intelligence
The aim of artificial intelligence is to

bring in human like behaviour in robots. It works on
1. Face recognition
2. Providing response to player’s actions in computer games
3. Taking decisions based on previous actions
4. To regulate the traffic by analyzing the density of traffic on roads.
5. Translate words from one language to another

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11.3.4 Applications
Outer space: Exploring stars, planets etc., investigation of the mineralogy

of the rocks and soils on Mars, analysis of elements found in rocks and soils.
Mars Rovers of NASA Twin Mars Rovers Mars Pathfinder Mission
Litter robot Welding Cutting Assembling Vacuum Cleaners

V
Lawn mowing
Packing Transport Surgery Weaponry
Laboratory Underwater Hospitals Agriculture Pool cleaning
The size of the nano robots is reduced to microscopic level to

perform a task in very small spaces. However, it is only in the
developmental stage. The future prospects of it are much expected
Nanorobots
in the medical field: Nano-robots in blood stream to perform small
surgical procedures, to fight against bacteria, repairing individual
cell in the body. It can travel into the body and once after the job is
performed it can find its way out. Chinese scientists have created
the world’s first autonomous DNA robots to combat cancer
tumours.

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Materials used to make robots

For robots, aluminum and steel are the most common metals. Aluminum is a softer
metal and is therefore easier to work with, but steel is several times stronger. In any
case, because of the inherent strength of metal, robot bodies are made using sheet, bar,
rod, channel, and other shapes.
11.3.5 Advantages of Robotics
1. The robots are much cheaper than humans.

2. Robots never get tired like humans. It can work for 24 x 7. Hence absenteeism
in work place can be reduced.
3. Robots are more precise and error free in performing the task.
4. Stronger and faster than humans.
5. Robots can work in extreme environmental conditions: extreme hot or cold,
space or underwater. In dangerous situations like bomb detection and bomb
deactivation.
6. In warfare, robots can save human lives.
7. Robots are significantly used in handling materials in chemical industries
especially in nuclear plants which can lead to health hazards in humans.
11.3.6 Disadvantages of Robotics

1. Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience.
2. They lack empathy and hence create an emotionless workplace.
3. If ultimately robots would do all the work, and the humans will just sit
and monitor them, health hazards will increase rapidly.
4. Unemployment problem will increase.
5. Robots can perform defined tasks and cannot handle unexpected situations
6. The robots are well programmed to do a job and if a small thing goes
wrong it ends up in a big loss to the company.
7. If a robot malfunctions, it takes time to identify the problem, rectify it,
and even reprogram if necessary. This process requires significant time.
8. Humans cannot be replaced by robots in decision making.
9. Till the robot reaches the level of human intelligence, the humans in work place will
exit.

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11. 4 Physics in medical diagnosis and therapy
Medical science very much revolves around physics principles. Medical instru-
mentation has widened the life span due to the technology integrated diagnosis
and treatment of most of the diseases. This modernisation in all fields is possible
due to efficient application of fundamental physics.
11.4.1 The development in medical field has been proportional to

the evolution of physics as indicated below
Invention in physics Technique
Year Image
(Inventors) used in medicine
X-rays Radiology-Xray
1 1895
(Wilhelm Conrad-Röntgen) imaging
Theory of Radioactivity Radioisotope

2 1896 and
(Antonie Henri Becquerrel, imaging
1898
Pierre Curie and Marie Cuire) Nuclear Medicine
3 1934 Artifical Radioactivity Scintigraphy

(Joliot and Irene Curie)
4 1950 Echography & Sonography Ecography
X-ray computed Computed

5 1979 tomography (Cormack and Tomography (CT)
Hounsfield)
Nuclear Magnetic
6 1952 Magnetic Resonance
Resonance (NMR) (Felix
Imaging (MRI)
Bloch and Edward Purcell)

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Invention in physics Technique

Year (Inventors) Image
used in medicine
Artifical Radioactivity Positron Emission

7 1934
(Joliot and Irene Curie) Tomography
8 1940’s Optical fibre Endoscopy,

Biomedical sensors
9 1960 LASER Surgical instrument

and diagonsis tool
Nanomedicine
10 1959 Nanotechnology
Drug delivary
11 2005 Dual Source Computed Computed

Tomography (DSCT) Tomography (CT)
Nuclear medicine Fusion Imaging

12 1998 Techniques
(David Townsend, Ronald Nutt)
(PET-CT, PET-MR)

03-03-2022 15:27:46
11.4. 2 The recent advancement in medical technology includes
STEP STEP STEP STEP

01 02 03 04
2
8
4
6
brain sensors
Precision
medicine
Artificial
inhalers
LOREM IPSUM LOREM IPSUM LOREM IPSUM LOREM IPSUM
Wireless
organs
Smart
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Unit 11 R ecent devel opments in physics

Virtual reality
EROM DAER EROM DAER EROM DAER EROM DAER
3D printing
wearables
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surgery
Robotic
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10 20 30 40
7
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PETS PETS PETS PETS
XII_Physics_Vol-2_UNIT-11_EM.indd 270
270
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The innovation in medical diagnosis has taken leaps and bounds due to the integration
of technology and basic physics. A few of such advancements are discussed.
1. Virtual reality
Medical virtual reality is effectively used to

stop the brain from processing pain and
cure soreness in the hospitalized patients.
Virtual reality has enhanced surgeries by
the use of 3D models by surgeons to plan
operations. It helps in the treatment of
Autism, Memory loss, and Mental illness.
2 2. Precision medicine
Precision medicine is an emerging approach for disease treatment and
prevention that takes into account individual variability in genes,
environment, and lifestyle for each person. In this medical model it is possible
to customise healthcare, with medical decisions, treatments, practices, or
products which are tailored to the individual patient.
PATIENT A MUTATION A DRUG A
PATIENT B MUTATION B DRUG B

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3 3. Health wearables
A health wearable is a device used for tracking a wearer's vital signs or

health and fitness related data, location, etc. Medical wearables with
artificial intelligence and big data provide an added value to healthcare with
a focus on diagnosis, treatment, patient monitoring and prevention.
NOTE
Big Data: Extremely large
data sets that may be analysed
computationally to reveal
patterns, trends, and
associations, especially
relating to human behaviour
and interactions.
4 4. Artificial organs
An artificial organ is an engineered device or tissue that is

implanted or integrated into a human. It is possible to interface it
with living tissue or to replace a natural organ. It duplicates or
augments a specific function or functions of human organs so that
the patient may return to a normal life as soon as possible.

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5 5. 3D printing
Advanced 3D printer systems and materials assist physicians in a

range of operations in the medical field from audiology, dentistry,
orthopedics and other applications.
6 6. Wireless brain sensors
Wireless brain sensors monitor intracranial pressure and tempera-

ture and then are absorbed by the body. Hence there is no need for
surgery to remove these devices.

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7 7. Robotic surgery
Robotic surgery is a type of surgical procedure that is done using robotic

systems. Robotically-assisted surgery helps to overcome the limitations of
pre-existing minimally-invasive surgical procedures and to enhance the
capabilities of surgeons performing open surgery.
8 8. Smart inhalers
Inhalers are the main treatment option for asthma. Smart inhal-
ers are designed with health systems and patients in mind so that
they can offer maximum benefit. Smart inhalers use bluetooth
technology to detect inhaler use, remind patients when to take
their medication and gather data to help guide care.

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Other recent developments in physics
Particle Physics
Particle physics deals with the theory of fundamental particles of nature and it is one of
the active research areas in physics. Initially it was thought that atom is the fundamental
entity of matter. In 1930s, it was established that atoms are made up of electrons, protons
and neutrons.
Molecule Atom Nucleus Nucleon

Composed of two or Electrons revolving Composed of Protons and
more atoms around the atomic protons neutrons
nucleus and neutrons comprising the
located in the nucleus of an atom
(Example) Electron
center of an atom
Molecule of water Neutron
Oxygen atom
Neutron
Quark
O H
H
Proton Quark
Hydrogen atoms
Proton
Nucleus
In the 1960s, quarks were discovered and it was understood that proton and neutron are
made up of quarks. In the meantime, the particle physics research gained momentum and
has grown exponentially both in theoretical and experimental perspective. Later it was
found that the quarks interact through gluons. It is the field which received more number
of noble prizes. Recently in the year 2013, famous ‘Higgs particles’ also known as “God”
particles were discovered and for this, Peter Higgs and Englert received noble prize in
physics. It is the ‘Higgs particle’ which gives mass to many particles like protons, neutrons
etc.

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Cosmology
Cosmology is the branch that involves the origin and evolution of the universe.
It deals with formation of stars, galaxy etc. In the year 2015, the existence of
“gravitational waves” was discovered and noble prize was awarded for this discovery
in the year 2017.
Gravitational waves are the disturbances in the curvature of space-time and it travels
with speed of light. Any accelerated charge emits electromagnetic wave. Similarly any
accelerated mass emits gravitational waves but these waves are very weak even for
masses like earth. The strongest source of gravitational waves are black holes. The
discovery of gravitational waves made it possible to study the structure of black holes
since it is the strongest source of gravitational waves. In fact, the recent discoveries of
gravitational waves are emitted by two black holes when they merge to a single black
hole. In fact, Albert Einstein theoretically proposed the existence of ‘gravitational
waves’ in the year 1915. After 100 years, it is experimentally proved that his predictions
are correct.
Gravitational wave
Black holes are end stage of stars which are highly dense massive object. Its mass
ranges from 20 times mass of the sun to 1 million times mass of the sun. It has very
strong gravitational force such that no particle or even light can escape from it. The
existence of black holes is studied when the stars orbiting the black hole behave
differently from the other stars. Every galaxy has black hole at its center. Sagittarius A*
is the black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy.

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Black hole sagittarus A*

The famous physicist Stephen Hawking worked in the field of black holes.
Actual photograph of a super massive black hole M87*
Super computers and eight telescopes stationed on five continents (EVENT HORIZON
TELESCOPE) were used to develope a huge data to accomplish this. It has once again
confirmed the Einstein’s theory of general relativity.

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Quantum information theory

It is another fast developing research area which deals with improving the information storage
using quantum computers. The present computers store information in the form of ‘bits’ but
quantum computers store information in the form of ‘qubits’. ‘qubit’ refers to quantum bit and it is
the basic unit of quantum information. Classical bit implies either 0 or 1. But qubit not only
includes 0 or 1 and also linear superposition of 0 and 1. This technology reduces the calculating
time exponentially. This research field has very promising application in future.
Information Qubit
is physical
+ α +β
Head ('0')
Nature
or is quantum
=
Quantum
Tail ('0') information
processing
Many striking innovations and discoveries originate from scientific fictions.

Robots are also no exception to this. The word robotics was derived from the
word robot. It was introduced in the play ‘Rossum Universal Robots’ by the Zech
writer Karel Capek in 1920. The word robot comes from the Slavic word rabota,
which means labour or work. The play begins in a factory that makes artificial people
called robots. They looked like creatures that can be mistaken for humans (picture
shown). These characters were very similar to the modern ideas of androids.
(A scene from the play Rossum Universal Robots, showing three robots)

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SUMMARY
Salient physics principles (covered in the higher secondary physics) are the foundation
for technology break through.
Physics is the basic building block for Science, Engineering, Technology and
Medicine. Nano science is the science of objects with typical sizes of 1–100 nm.
Nano means one-billionth of a metre that is 10–9 m.
Nanotechnology is a technology involving the design, production, characterization,
and applications of nano structural materials.
If the particle of a solid is of size less than 100 nm, it is said to be a ‘nano solid’.
When the particle size exceeds 100 nm, it forms a ‘bulk solid’.
Nano form of the material shows strikingly different properties when compared to
its bulk counterpart.
Quantum confinement effects and surface effects are the two important phenomena
that govern nano properties.
Nanoscience and technology is the interdisciplinary area covering its applications in
various fields.
Nano scale structures existed in nature long before scientists began studying them in
laboratories.
There are two ways of preparing the nanomaterials, top down and bottom up
approaches.
Nanotechnology applications cover various fields.
The major concern with nano application is that the nanoparticles have the dimensions
same as that of the biological molecules such as proteins.
Nano particles can easily get absorbed onto the surface of living organisms and they
might enter the tissues and fluids of the body.
The adsorbing nature depends on the surface of the nanoparticle.
It is possible to deliver a drug directly to a specific cell in the body by designing the
surface of a nanoparticle.
Nanoparticles of a few nanometers size may reach well inside biomolecules, which is
not possible for larger nanoparticles.
Nanoparticles can also cross cell membranes.
The inhaled nanoparticles reach the blood and that may also reach other sites such as
the liver, heart or blood cells.
Robotics is an integrated study of mechanical engineering, electronic engineering,
computer engineering, and science.
Robot is a mechanical device designed with electronic circuitry and programmed to
perform a specific task.
The robotic system mainly consists of sensors, power supplies, control systems,
manipulators and necessary software.

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The key components of a robot are Power conversion unit, Actuators, Electric motors,
Pneumatic Air Muscles, Muscle wires, Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors, Sensors,
and Robot locomotion.
Six main types of industrial robots are Cartesian, SCARA, Cylindrical, Delta, Polar
and Vertically articulated robot.
Six-axis robots are ideal for Arc Welding, Spot Welding, Material Handling, Machine
Tending.
Five major fields of robotics: Human-robot interface, Mobility, Manipulation,
Programming and Sensors.
The aim of artificial intelligence is to bring in human like behavior in robots.
Artificial intelligence works on face recognition, providing response to players’
actions in computer games, taking decisions based on previous actions, regulating
the traffic by analyzing the density of traffic on roads and translate words from one
language to another.
Materials used to make robots: aluminum and steel are the most common metals.
Aluminum is a softer metal and is therefore easier to work with.
Steel is several times stronger.
Due to the inherent strength of metal, robot bodies can be made using sheet, bar,
rod, channel, and other shapes.
Robots have many advantages in various applications but also have several
disadvantages.
In outer space robots are used for exploring stars, planets etc., investigation of the
mineralogy of the rocks and soils on Mars, analysis of elements found in rocks and soils.
Household robots are used as vacuum cleaners, floor cleaners, gutter cleaners, lawn
mowing, pool cleaning, and to open and close doors.
Industrial Robots are used for welding, cutting, robotic water jet cutting, robotic laser
cutting, lifting, sorting, bending, manufacturing, assembling, packing, transport,
handling hazardous materials like nuclear waste, weaponry, laboratory research,
mass production of consumer and industrial goods.
Nano-robots are being developed to be in the blood stream to perform small surgical
procedures, to fight against bacteria, repairing individual cell in the body.
The development in medical field has been proportional to the evolution of physics.
The recent medical technology includes virtual reality, precision medicine, health wearables,
artificial organs, 3D printing, wireless brain sensors, robotic surgery, smart inhalers.
Particle physics deals with fundamental particles of nature. Protons and neutrons are
made of quarks.
Cosmology is the branch that involves the origin and evolution of the universe.
Accelerated mass emits gravitational waves which are very weak.
Black holes are the strongest source of gravitational waves.

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CONCEPT MAP
Recent developments in Physics
A few areas as examples
Science Technology Medicine
Nanoscience Particle
& Cosmology Robotics Medical diagnosis
physics and therapy
Nanotechnology
Black holes Gravitational waves

Inventions in
physics & Recent medical
Nanoscience, Nanotechnology, Developments in technology
Nanoparticles Medical science
Interdisciplinary-
nanotechnology Components
Nano in nature
Types
Early beginning &

development
Applications
Nano in laboratories
Materials used to
Applications of make Robots
nanotechnology
Harmful effects of Advantages & Disadvantages

nanoparticles

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E V AL U A T I O N
I Multiple Choice Questions 6. The materials used in Robotics are

1. The particle size of ZnO material is a) Aluminium and silver
30 nm. Based on the dimension it is b) Silver and gold
classified as c) Copper and gold
a) Bulk material d) Steel and aluminum
b) Nanomaterial 7. The alloys used for muscle wires in
c) Soft material Robots are
d) Magnetic material a) Shape memory alloys
2. Which one of the following is the b) Gold copper alloys
natural nanomaterial. c) Gold silver alloys
a) Peacock feather d) Two dimensional alloys
b) Peacock beak 8. The technology used for stopping the
c) Grain of sand brain from processing pain is
d) Skin of the Whale a) Precision medicine
3. The blue print for making ultra durable b) Wireless brain sensor
synthetic material is mimicked from c) Virtual reality
a) Lotus leaf d) Radiology
b) Morpho butterfly 9. The particle which gives mass to
c) Parrot fish protons and neutrons are
d) Peacock feather a) Higgs particle
4. The method of making nanomaterial b) Einstein particle
by assembling the atoms is called c) Nanoparticle
a) Top down approach d) Bulk particle
b) Bottom up approach 10. The gravitational waves were theoretically
c) Cross down approach proposed by
d) Diagonal approach a) Conrad Rontgen
5. “Ski wax” is an application of nano b) Marie Curie
product in the field of c) Albert Einstein
a) Medicine d) Edward Purcell
b) Textile
c) Sports Answers
d) Automotive industry 1) b 2) a 3) c 4) b 5) c
6) d 7) a 8) c 9) a 10) c

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II Short answers III Long Answers

1. Distinguish between Nanoscience and 1. Discuss the applications of
Nanotechnology. Nanomaterials in various fields.
2. What is the difference between Nano 2. What are the possible harmful effects
materials and Bulk materials? of usage of Nanoparticles? Why?
3. Give any two examples for “Nano” in 3. Discuss the functions of key
nature. components in Robots?
4. Mention any two advantages and 4. Elaborate any two types of Robots with
disadvantages of Robotics. relevant examples.
5. Why steel is preferred in making 5. Comment on the recent advancement
Robots? in medical diagnosis and therapy.
6. What are black holes?
7. What are sub atomic particles?
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
1. Pradeep, T. Nano Essential Understanding Nano Science and Nanotechnology, McGraw

Hill Education, India 2007.
2. Rita John, Solid State Physics, McGraw Hill Education, India 2016
3. Asim K Das, Mahua Das, An Introduction to Nano Science and Nano technology, CBS
Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd, India 2017.
4. Jerrold T. Bushberg, J.Anthony Seibert, The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging, Wolters
Kluwer, Lippin Cott Willams & Wilkins 2012
5. Brian R Martin, Particle Physics, Kindle edition, 2011
6. B S Murty, P Shankar, Baldev Raj, B B Rath, James Murday, Textbook of Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology, Springer, Universities Press, 2013

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ICT CORNER
Recent developments in physics
In this activity you will be able to (i) observe the changes in the
nuclear spins of the hydrogen nuclei of your water molecules due Topic: MRI scan
to the external magnetic field (ii)find out the resonance frequency
that promote a resultant photon.
STEPS:
• Go to ‘https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/mri’ page and download simplified MRI java
file. Or go to Google → Phet → simulation → Physics → simplified MRI and download the java file.
• Open simplified MRI java file. Select simplified MRI tab.
• Observe the nuclear spins of the hydrogen nuclei present in the water molecules in brain (blue is the
hydrogen nuclei). Are they aligned in same direction? What happens when you change the external
magnetic field? Are they aligned in the same direction under external field? Discuss the reason.
• Now adjust the frequency bar. For a particular frequency, hydrogen nuclei emit radio waves from left
to right and find out the frequency when the nuclei start broadcasting radio waves. This is resonance
frequency.
• Add a tumour. Adjust the resonance frequency slightly to produce the strongest signal from the
tumour. Record the tumour resonance frequency. Is there a shift?
• With the help of shift in resonance frequency, tumour inside the brain can be calculated.
Step1 Step2
Step3 Step4
Note:
Install Java application if it is not in your browser.
URL:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/mri

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GLOSSARY
கலைச்சொற்கள்
1. Acceptance angle - ஏற்புக்கோணம்

2. Acceptor energy level - ஏற்பு அணு ஆற்றல் மட்டம்
3. Activity - செயல்பாடு
4. Amplitude modulation - வீச்சுப் பண்பேற்றம்
5. Analyser - பகுப்பான்
6. Anti fouling coating - கறைபடியா மேற்பூச்சு
7. Anti particle - எதிர்த்துகள்
8. Apparent depth - த�ோற்ற ஆழம்
9. Astigmatism - ஒரு தளப்பார்வை
10. Attenuation - வலுவிழப்பு
11. Automotive industry - வாகனத் த�ொழில்
12. Auto-immune disease - ந�ோய் எதிர்ப்பு சக்திக்கு எதிரான ந�ோய்
13. Band gap energy - பட்டை இடைவெளி ஆற்றல்
14. Barrier potential - அரண் மின்னழுத்தம்
15. Baseband signal - அடிக்கற்றை சைகை
16. Biasing - சார்பளித்தல்
17. Binding energy - பிணைப்பாற்றல்
18. Bipolar junction transistor - இருமுனைச் சந்தி டிரான்சிஸ்டர்
19. Boolean Algebra - பூலியன் இயற்கணிதம்
20. Brain tumor - மூளைக்கட்டி
21. Bright fringe - ப�ொலிவுப்பட்டை
22. Broadcasting station - ஒலிபரப்பும் நிலையம்
23. Carrier concentration - ஊர்தி செறிவு
24. Carrier signal - ஊர்தி சைகை
25. Central bright fringe - மையப்பொலிவுப்பட்டை
26. Characteristic x-rays - சிறப்பு x கதிர்கள்
27. Chemical Vapour - வேதிவினை நீராவி படிவு (அ)
Deposition (CVD) வேதி ஆவி படிகமாக்கல்
28. Classical electrodynamics - செவ்வியல் மின்னியக்கவியல்
29. Collector-base junction - ஏற்பான் - அடிவாய் சந்தி
30. Computed Tomography - கணினி வரைவி
31. Concave lens - குழிலென்ஸ்
32. Concave mirror - குழி அடி
33. Continuous x-rays - த�ொடர் x கதிர்கள்
34. Convex lens - குவிலென்ஸ்
35. Convex mirror - குவி அடி
36. Critical angle - மாறுநிலைக்கோணம்
37. Cut-off region - முறிவுப் பகுதி
38. Dark fringe - கரும்பட்டை
39. Decay mode - சிதைவுப் பாணி
40. Depletion region - இயக்கமில்லா பகுதி
41. Diffraction - விளிம்புவிளைவு
42. Diffusion current - விரவல் மின்னோட்டம்
43. Digital and analog signal - இலக்கமுறை மற்றும் த�ொடர் சைகை
44. Discrete - பிரிநிலை
45. Dispersion - நிறப்பிரிகை
285
285
XII_Physics_Vol-2_Glossary.indd 285 03-03-2022 15:30:25

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46. Distance of closest approach - அணுகும் மீச்சிறு த�ொலைவு

47. Donor energy level - க�ொடை அணு ஆற்றல் மட்டம்
48. Doping - மாசூட்டல்
49. Drift current - இழுப்பு மின்னோட்டம்
50. Droplet - திவலை
51. Duality - இருமைப்பண்பு
52. Dynamic resistance - மாறு மின்தடை
53. Electron-hole recombination - எலக்ட்ரான் – துளை மறு இணைவு
54. Electron current - எலக்ட்ரான் மின்னோட்டம்
55. Electron emission - எலக்ட்ரான் உமிழ்வு
56. Electrostatic lens - நிலை மின்புல லென்ஸ்
57. Emitter-base junction - உமிழ்ப்பான் - அடிவாய் சந்தி
58. Emitter current - உமிழ்ப்பான் மின்னோட்டம்
59. Energy band diagram - ஆற்றல் பட்டை வரைபடம்
60. Endoscopy - அக உள்நோக்கி
61. Excitation energy - கிளர்வு ஆற்றல்
62. Extrinsic - புறவியலான
63. Feedback circuit - பின்னூட்டச் சுற்று
64. Fiber optic communication - ஒளி இழைத் தகவல் த�ொடர்பு
65. Field emission - புல உமிழ்வு
66. Focal length - குவியத்தொலைவு
67. Forward current gain - முன்னோக்கு மின்னோட்டப்பெருக்கம்
68. Frequency modulation - அதிர்வெண் பண்பேற்றம்
69. Fringe width - பட்டை அகலம்
70. Fuel cell - எரிப�ொருள் மின்கலன்
71. Glass slab - கண்ணாடிப்பட்டகம்
72. Global Positioning System - உலகளாவிய நிலை அறிவும் அமைப்பு
73. Ground State / excited state - தரை நிலை / கிளர்ச்சி நிலை
74. Ground wave propagation - தரை அலை பரவல்
75. Hole current - துளை மின்னோட்டம்
76. Hypermetropia - தூரப்பார்வை
77. Impact parameter - ம�ோதல் காரணி
78. Impurity atoms - மாசு அணுக்கள்
79. Interference - குறுக்கீட்டு விளைவு
80. Intrinsic - உள்ளார்ந்த
81. Knee voltage - பயன்தொடக்க மின்னழுத்தம்
82. Light emitting diode - ஒளி உமிழ் டைய�ோடு
83. Line of sight communication - நேர்க்கோட்டுப்பார்வை தகவல் த�ொடர்பு
84. Load current - பளு மின்னோட்டம்
85. Load resistance - பளு மின்தடை
86. Logic gates - தர்க்க வாயில்கள் (லாஜிக் கேட்டுகள்)
87. Looming - நிழல் த�ோற்றம்
88. Magnetic lens - காந்தப் புலலென்ஸ்
89. Magnification - உருப்பெருக்கம்
90. Majority charge carriers - பெரும்பான்மை மின்னூட்ட ஊர்திகள்
91. Marginal rays - ஓரக்கதிர்கள்
92. Matter waves - பருப்பொருள் அலைகள்
93. Maximum secondary voltage - பெரும துணை மின்னழுத்தம்
94. Minority charge carriers - சிறுபான்மை மின்னூட்ட ஊர்திகள்
95. Mirage - கானல் நீர்
96. Mobile communication - செல் பேசி தகவல் த�ொடர்பு
97. Moderator - தணிப்பான்
98. Myopia - கிட்டப்பார்வை
99. Near point focusing - அண்மைக் குவி நிலை
100. Negative space charge region - எதிர்மின்திரள் பகுதி
101. Normal focusing - இயல்பு குவி நிலை
102. Nuclear fission - அணுக்கரு பிளவு
103. Nuclear fusion - அணுக்கரு இணைவு
104. Optical fiber - ஒளிஇழை
286 GLOSSARY

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105. Optoelectronic devices - ஒளியியல் மின்னணு சாதனங்கள்

106. Paraxial rays - அண்மை அச்சுக்கதிர்கள்
107. Peak inverse voltage - பெரும புரட்டு மின்னழுத்தம்
108. Phase - கட்டம்
109. Phase modulation - கட்டப் பண்பேற்றம்
110. Photo conductive cell - ஒளிமின் கடத்து மின்கலம்
111. Photoelectric emission - ஒளிமின் உமிழ்வு
112. Photoelectrons - ஒளி எலக்ட்ரான்கள்
113. Photo emissive cell - ஒளிமின் உமிழ்வு மின்கலம்
114. Photosensitive material - ஒளி உணர் ப�ொருள்
115. Photosensitive materials - ஒளி நுண் உணர்வு ப�ொருட்கள்
116. Photo voltaic cell - ஒளி வ�ோல்டா மின்கலம்
117. Polariser - தளவிளைவாக்கி
118. Polarization - தளவிளைவு
119. Positive and negative logic - நேர் மற்றும் எதிர் தர்க்கம்
120. Positive space charge region - நேர் மின்திரள் பகுதி
121. Potential barrier - மின்னழுத்த அரண்
122. Power of lens - லென்சின் திறன்
123. Presbyopia - வெள்ளெழுத்து
124. Prism - முப்பட்டகம்
125. Prosthetics - செயற்கைமூட்டு
126. Pulsating output - துடிப்பு வெளியீடு
127. Quantization - குவாண்டமாக்கல்
128. Radioactive recombination - கதிர்வீச்சு மறுஇணைவு
129. Radio isotope imaging - கதிர்வீச்சு ஜச�ோட�ோப்பு பிம்பம்
130. Radiology - கதிரியக்கச் சிகிச்சை
131. Radiology X-ray imaging - கதிரியக்க ஊடுகதிர் பிம்பம்
132. Rectification - திருத்துதல்
133. Rectifier efficiency - திருத்தியின் பயனுறுதிறன்
134. Reflection - ஒளி எதிர�ொளிப்பு
135. Refraction - ஒளிவிலகல்
136. Refractive Index - ஒளிவிலகல் எண்
137. Repeater - மறு ஒலிபரப்பி
138. Resolution - பிரித்தறிதல்
139. Resolving Power - பிரிதிறன்
Solved examples
140. Reverse saturation current - பின்னோக்கு செறிவு மின்னோட்டம்
141. Robot - இயந்திர மனிதன்
142. Robotic surgery - இயந்திரமனித அறுவைசிகிச்சை
143. Scanning Tunneling - துளைக்கும் வரிக்கண்ணோட்ட
Microscope (STM) நுண்ணோக்கி
144. Scattering - ஒளிச்சிதறல்
145. Secondary emission - இரண்டாம் நிலை உமிழ்வு
146. Sensor - உணர்வி
147. Skip distance - தாவுத் த�ொலைவு
148. Skip zone - தாவு மண்டலம்
149. Sky wave propagation - வான் அலை பரவல்
150. Space wave propagation - வெளி அலை பரவல்
151. Specific Charge - மின்னூட்ட எண்
152. Stopping potential - நிறுத்து மின்னழுத்தம்
153. Surface barrier - பரப்பு அரண்
154. Thermionic emission - வெப்பஅயனி உமிழ்வு
155. Threshold frequency - பயன்தொடக்க அதிர்வெண்
156. Total Internal reflection - முழு அக எதிர�ொளிப்பு
157. Transmitting antenna - பரப்பும் விண்ணலைக்கம்பி
158. Wavefront - அலைமுகப்பு
159. Wireless brain sensor - கம்பியில்லா மூளை உணர்வி Competitive
160. Work function - வெளியேற்று ஆற்றல்
Exam corner
GLOSSARY 287

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State Council of Educational Research and Training, Chennai-6

Higher Secondary Second Year Physics volume 2
List of Subject Experts in Textbook Writing
Domain Expert & Mentor Dr. S. S. Naina Mohammed SCERT Subject Coordinator
Prof. Dr. Rita John Assistant Professor, Mrs. P.Nantha
Professor and Head PG and Research Department of Physics, Senior Lecturer
Department of Theoretical physics, Government Arts College SCERT, Chennai – 06.
University of madras, Chennai. Udumalpet, Tiruppur District.
ICT Coordinator
Reviewers Dr. P. Elangovan Mr.G.Bergin
Dr. V. N. Mani Assistant Professor,
PG Assistant (Physics)
Principal Scientist F, Head (C-MET) PG and Research Department of Physics,
GBHSS, Sayalkudi,
Department of Electronics & Pachaiyappa’s College,
Ramanathapuram District.
Information Technology, Hyderabad, Chennai.
Government of India. EMIS Technology Team
Dr. B. Benita Merlin
R.M. Satheesh
Prof. P. Ravindran Assistant Professor, State Coordinator Technical,
Department of Physics, Alpha Arts and Science College, TN EMIS, Samagra Shiksha.
School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Chennai
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Mr.E.Elangovan TN EMIS, Samagra Shikaha
Dr. Rajeev shesha Joshi Head Master,
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Government Hr Sec School
Technical Project Consultant,
School of Physical Sciences, Ramanayakanpettai, TN EMIS, Samagra Shiksha
Central University of Karnataka. Vellore District.
Content Writers Art and Design Team
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Prof. Dr. Rita John PGT, Government ADW.Hr.Sec.School Layout
Professor and Head Kalangani V. Sridhar, B. Yogesh, C. Prasanth
Department of Theoretical physics, Namakkal District. Asker Ali
University of madras, Chennai.
In-house QC
Mr.V.Balamurugan Jerald Wilson
Dr. P. Balamurugan PG Assistant in Physics,
Rajesh Thangappan
Assistant Professor, Government Hr.Sec.School,
PG and Research Department of Physics, Kadambattur, Illustration
Government Arts College for Men Tiruvallur District K. Sasi Kumar
Nandanam, Chennai.
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Assistant Professor, S.R.M. Hr. Sec. School, Cover Design
PG and Research Department of Physics, Ambattur, Kathir Arumugam
The New College, Tiruvallur District
Royapettah, Chennai. Co-ordination
Ramesh Munisamy
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This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
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PG and Research Department of Physics, Printed by offset at:
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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

XII_Physics_Vol-2_Front page_EM.indd 1 03-03-2022 15:28:13

Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2019

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

XII_Physics_Vol-2_Front page_EM.indd 2 03-03-2022 15:28:14

UNIT TITLE PAGE No. MONTH

6 Ray Optics 01 September

7 Wave Optics 53 September/

8 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 108 October

9 Atomic and Nuclear physics 141 November

10 Electronics and Communication 195 November

11 Recent Developments in Physics 253 December

XII_Physics_Vol-2_Front page_EM.indd 3 03-03-2022 15:28:14

HOW TO USE THE BOOK

Learning Objectives: • Overview of the unit

• Additional facts related to the topics covered to facilitate

• To ensure understanding, problems/illustrations are given at every stage

• Visual representation of concepts with illustrations

Summary • Recap of salient points of the lesson

Concept Map • Schematic outline of salient learning of the unit

• Evaluate students’ understanding and get them acquainted with the

Books for Reference • List of relevant books for further reading

• Solutions to exercise problems are accessible here. In addition, a few solved

Glossary • Scientific terms frequently used with their Tamil equivalents

XII_Physics_Vol-2_Front page_EM.indd 4 03-03-2022 15:28:14

Physics Olympiad Exam Education Career

CSIR NET - National Eligibility Test for JRF and Lectureship

Inter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA),Pune www.iucaa.in

1. Minimum Post Graduate degree, equivalent to M.Sc. in Basic

http://www.dst.gov.in/ scientific-programmes/ scientific-engi-

KIRAN (Knowledge Involvement in Research Advancement through Nurturing) Scheme of DST

In this unit, the students are exposed to,

6.1 medium (or) an obstacle. A ray of light gives

XII_Physics_Vol-2_UNIT-6_EM.indd 1 03-03-2022 15:15:48

of incidence of light. According to laws of

2 Unit 6 ray op tics

XII_Physics_Vol-2_UNIT-6_EM.indd 2 03-03-2022 15:15:48

∠R1OR2 = ∠N'OR2 – ∠N'OR1 = (i+θ) – (i–θ)

Unit 6 ray op tics 3

XII_Physics_Vol-2_UNIT-6_EM.indd 3 03-03-2022 15:15:49

reflection ∠BON  360 

4 Unit 6 ray op tics

XII_Physics_Vol-2_UNIT-6_EM.indd 4 03-03-2022 15:15:52

XII_Physics_Vol-2_UNIT-6_EM.indd 5 03-03-2022 15:15:52

6.2.2  elation between

XII_Physics_Vol-2_UNIT-6_EM.indd 6 03-03-2022 15:15:53

PF is focal length f and PC is the radius

6.2.3 Image formation in

(a) Concave mirror The image formed by spherical mirror

(b) Convex Mirror

Figure 6.9 Relation between f and R A A

If MP is the perpendicular from M to the

XII_Physics_Vol-2_UNIT-6_EM.indd 7 03-03-2022 15:15:56

XII_Physics_Vol-2_UNIT-6_EM.indd 8 03-03-2022 15:15:57

6 Ray Optics 01 September

7 Wave Optics 53 September/

8 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 108 October

9 Atomic and Nuclear physics 141 November

10 Electronics and Communication 195 November

11 Recent Developments in Physics 253 December

• Additional facts related to the topics covered to facilitate

• To ensure understanding, problems/illustrations are given at every stage

• Evaluate students’ understanding and get them acquainted with the

• Solutions to exercise problems are accessible here. In addition, a few solved

Physics Olympiad Exam Education Career

CSIR NET - National Eligibility Test for JRF and Lectureship

http://www.dst.gov.in/ scientific-programmes/ scientific-engi-

6.2.2 elation between

d1 d d3 n1 sin ic = n2 ∵ sin 90 = 1

6.4.7.6 Acceptance angle in optical fibre n1 sin ic = n2 sin 90o (6.38)

NA = n3 sin ia = n12 − n22 (6.46) or n1 £ 2