CHAPTER 1

THE PARADIGM OF THE OLD.

 The Paradigm of the Old will cover ideas from the ancient times. The Sophist, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, and
the Stoics.

Sophist - In ancient Greece, the Sophist were known to be teachers of rhetoric, music, arithmetic and physical training.
The Sophist placed highlight on human’s interaction with society.

Protagoras - one of the supporters of sophistic thought strongly believed that “Man is the measure of all things”. This
quotation of his, can be understood into two ways:

 First is the analysis that “Man” is translated into humankind. That when we look into the world, standards,
and values are dictated by us humans. Gold is more valuable than bread because we see shimmering stones
more important than life giving bread. We see wealth as an ideal to chase rather than being contented with
what we have.
 The second way to analysis the quote is to translate “Man” into “I”. I am the measure of all things; this
quotation embodies the selfish and self- centred desire to be the meter stick of what is good. Beauty is in
the eyes of the beholder, I am the standard, what is good for me may not be good for you.

Thrasymachus- another Sophist, has his own take on humanity. For Thrasymachus, in society justice is nothing but the
advantage of the strong, “Might is right”. Society always favours the people with power and influence, and even if we
say that we are all equals but at the end of the day interactions are still influenced by the person position and might.

Sophist - placed highlight on human’s interaction with society.

Plato- on the other hand shifted to, what really is a Human?

Plato believed that Humankind is composed of a body and a soul but humans are souls imprisoned in a body. For Plato,
the body and soul are not equals, the body is imperfect and the soul is at perfect and when the perfect soul is
imprisoned in the imperfect body we become slaves to the body’s wants.

 Plato also speculates that even if we have a body and a soul the best image of a human is a charioteer with a
black horse and the white horse. T
 CHARIOTEER is our reason, it is our ability to think and to rationalize our action.
 BLACK HORSE symbolises our appetite and craving, and the white horse symbolises passions. Our body craves
and is driven by passions.
 Plato believes that the reason should guide them, without reason, we will be driven to situations that would
endanger ourselves. The body’s needs are blind and irrational, and reason should enlighten them and guide
them to the right direction. But for the charioteer to be successful, it also needs to gain harmony with the
horses. We cannot survive with only reason; we need to feed ourselves and be passionate of what we pursue.
That is why Plato believes that reason is the guiding light but without the energy of the horses, the chariot
can never reach its destination.

Aristotle - a student of Plato disagreed to the idea of a perfect soul and an imperfect body. For Aristotle the body and
soul are equals and has function to our humanity.

 Aristotle sees that in the world everything has a body, a plant has a structure, animals have limbs, and humans
have arm. The body functions as our extension in this world and not everything with a body has a soul. But what
makes plants, animals, and humans different are the functions the soul has.

THREE TYPES OF SOULS

 the vegetative soul which can be found in plants have the function of growth, nutrition, and reproduction.
Vegetative soul as the lowest
 the sentient soul which can be found in animals have the function of movement, external sense which are the
five senses and internal senses which are memory, imagination, and common sense. Sentient soul (dog) is the
second
 Rational soul which has the function of reason. Rational soul is the highest.

For Aristotle, as long as a body have a soul, it will always have life and maintain its functions.

Epicurus - throws the idea of body and soul out of the window. For Epicurus what we need to focus is Now, and in the
Now what we have is a body.

 A body that feels pain and pleasure and with this basic concept, Epicurus believed that in whatever we do, we
pursue pleasure because it is good and avoid pain because it is bad.
 Epicurus does not end his philosophy in an idea of hedonism, instead what he wanted to highlight is the idea of
moderation. Not all pleasurable thing makes us happy and not all the painful experience end up bad.
 Epicurus believed that we can fulfil happiness with moderation. I eat because I want to be full, but eating
something cheap and something expensive meets both goals. Studying or working are difficult things, it is tiring
 but it is truly bad. Too much pursuit of pleasure and too much fear of pain will have its effects on us. Our love
for fun and games, and fear for responsibilities will put us to the wrong situation.
 Moderation is the key for Epicurus, because beyond the struggles we experience and joy we treasure are
stories that are yet to unfold.

Stoics - they strongly believe that we do not control anything in this world.

 The Stoics view of the world is like a river that flow freely. It has its purpose and reason to how it flows and
where it goes.
 Stoics believed that whatever unfolds in our life, we can not fully control it. If we are going to be late, needless
of our efforts, even if we try to wake up early, if the motion of the world is for us to be late, we are going to be
late. What happens will happen. That is why, what we can control is what we feel and how we see things.
 The Stoics wants to teach us that things will occur and it will occur but what we feel about such experience
depends on us. Are we going to cry over what happens or are we going to smile and continue the journey? In
the eyes of the stoics, we can only control ourselves and not the world.

Summary

 Sophist view of human’s in society

 Plato’s Allegory of the Charioteer – black horse ( cravings) white horse (passion)
 Aristotle’s view on souls
 Epicurean Moderation
 Stoics view of life.

THE MODERN SPARK

 cover ideas by Philosophers in the Modern Era. In this lesson we will be talking about philosophers like Francis
Bacon, Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Martin Heidegger.

Francis Bacon- believe that we humans are full of prejudices.

 But in his philosophy, prejudices are seen through different spectrums. This is THE IDOLS OF THE MIND.

HUMANS FOUR IDOLS OF THE MIND

 IDOLS OF THE CAVE – The idols of the cave serve as our personal biases. It is our preferences, our like, our
dislikes, our favourite colour, and our favourite food.
 IDOLS OF THE TRIBE – The idols of the tribe are biases from our tribe, community, or family. What are things you
like because of your upbringing. Do you like your food salty because it how your parents cook at home? Or you
prefer your adobo dry because that is how it was done in my home.
 IDOLS OF THE MARKETPLACE – The idol of the marketplace is biases we acquired through language and
interaction. What is the meaning of the word for you? Is “pangit” an insult or are nickname? Some biases we
have are brought by such interactions, and change of meaning because of said interactions.
 IDOLS OF THE THEATRE- This idol is the biases from systems of though, from education, religions, dogmas and
principles. Things are important because of the knowledge we have acquired or because of the faith that we
believe into.

I understand this better because I have learned it or this belief is precious because that is what I am part of. Values
changes and the importance are altered because of such prejudices. Someone, something, or some idea is precious not
because it is important but we see and think it is important. Bacon is reminding us not to be narrow minded simply
because of our biases.

Kierkegaard’s - he shifted the conversations on to the stages of life we humans go through.

 AESTHETIC STAGE- it is the stage where what is important for us is what is good, but during this stage what is
good, is what is pleasurable to us. Kierkegaard sees the aesthetic stage as our self-centred stage and the stage
we “I” am the priority.
“Selfish stage”
 ETHICAL STAGE (social relation)- this is the stage where we start to feel responsible towards others. From the
prioritization of the “I” toward the importance of the “We”. The ethical stage is where we start to reciprocate
the feeling of concern not just for us but for others.
 RELIGIOUS STAGE - In this stage we transcend the idea of the “I” and the idea of the “We”. Kierkegaard sees the
religious stage as the selfless stage. We do not prioritize ourselves but instead we are willing to put ourselves on
the line for the sake of others. I am an instrument to your success and happiness.

Nietzsche - shifted the conversation to types of human. For Nietzsche, a person can either be a sheep, a camel, a lion or
a child.
  SHEEP- can be described as a follower. They love conformity, comfort, routines, and safety and their identity is
merely a reflection from others.
 CAMEL- on the other hand shares a lot of similarities with the sheep. Like the sheep, the camel is also a follower
of the conformities of society, however the camel does not like comfort, instead it pushes itself to the limits and
its best of abilities to achieve it. But all achievements the camel chase for are all with in what it follows and all its
conformities.
 LION - is the destroyer of the conformities that it followed and the cage It was once comfortable in. The lion is
reactive and a strong commentator of the cage. It challenges the conformities it followed but the problem is the
lion does not hold on any principles in life. If the sheep and camel simply follow the conformities being offered
to them, and the lion reacts and hate to such conformities but is unable to have any principles.

The destroyer or challenge the conformity

 CHILD- is the ideal types in the eyes Nietzsche. A person that is not blinded by conformities and is capable of
building and owning its own principles in life. The child is the manifestation of independence, its ultimate goal is
to make itself accountable to the principles that it makes, it follows, and it believes in. The child will not conform
and will be willing to change his principles if it really is not helpful.

Heidegger - sees that we human go through so many things in life. When we are born in this world, we are thrown-into-
the-world because we are unable to choose where we are born, or who we are when we are born. We are incapable of
choosing your living condition or circumstance, and because of this, we do not feel “at home” in the world. Because we
are being-in-the-world and are geared towards death, we sometimes feel an uncanny, and uncertainty in what we do
and where we are going.

ANGST OR EXISTENTIAL ANXIETY – unease feeling. When angst sinks in in our lives, we either sink ourselves into the
everydayness of our life or we entertain and explores such uneasiness.

EVERYDAYNESS - as our action which leads into being consumed by our everyday routines, activities, and the busyness
of everyday life, and if we do this every day, we become more ambiguous of who we are and we lost grip of our identity.

If we start exploring the uneasiness that we feel, we slowly entertain and understand why are we feeling this, why am I
sad? Such questions help us understand who we truly are.

Dasman - that a person consumed by the ambiguity of life.

Dasein - a person who discovers the authenticity of who they are.

We are all equals, we feel angst, we are thrown-in-the- world, and we are beings-in-the-world. But what differentiates
us from each other is how do we journey is such feelings.

Summary

 Bacon highlighted the idea of prejudices

 Bacon’s Idols of the Mind
 Kierkegaard’s Stages of Life
 Nietzsche’s types of humans
 Heidegger’s Dasein and Dasman
 Stages of life was Kierkegaard’s bread and butter

THE MILLENNIAL TURN - cover ideas by Albert Camus, Viktor Frankl, and Erich Fromm.

Camus - sees our life not as something beautiful but instead believes that our life is absurd. He thinks that our life is
meaningless and pointless. We wake up every day, do every routine, and for what goal?

Two solution to the problem of absurdity

 SUICIDE - killing one’s self means the absurdity of life also ends.
 RELIGION- at the end of this current life, the is a beautiful afterlife for us.

The two solutions are not actual solutions, rather they are an escape to the absurdity of life. The real solution that
Camus suggest is the road Sisyphus took.

Sisyphus - is a person that Camus calls as an absurd hero. A man cursed to roll a boulder to the top of a mountain and
yet is happy with his circumstance. This is the goal we have to attain in life. Yes, life is absurd but it can still be a
meaningful life. We have to accept that life is absurd and we can enjoy it, like Sisyphus who rolls the boulder, a routine
he needs to repeat everyday and is able to see value and be happy. Life is absurd but we can be happy in the absurdity
of our life, all we need to do is accept it, and value what we have now.

Frankl

 does not see life as absurd rather for him life is full of suffering. Our life is a life where are just journeying
through and is full of pain and suffering. But to escaping this feeling of pain is through finding meaning in our
life.
  Frankl believed that needless of our circumstances we are capable of finding meaning in life and our motivation
to live arises from our will to find meaning in life. Our journeys are different and we have the freedom to search
for meaning in what we do, and what we experience in life.

MEANING IN LIFE THROUGH THREE DIFFERENT METHODS

 first is through doing a deed in life. Seeing people help the one’s in need or seeing a child share food to others,
reminds us that the world is not that bad after all.
 Second is through experiencing something or encountering someone. Seeing a beautiful sunset, comforts us that
in the midst of our bad day, the world can offer us something beautiful.
 Third is through our own attitude in the search for meaning. If the world takes away everything that we have,
what is left is ourselves and our freedom to pursue things and this is the last way to search for meaning. I myself
is a tool to find meaning in life. If I am left alone, I still can survive with my meaning in life.

Fromm - a conversation his started was on love. Love is an art because if it is, then it requires knowledge and effort.

Fromm is not saying the we do not but effort in love, but he sees that we human have a peculiar attitude towards
relationship.

 The first problem he has observed is, the attitude of being loved, rather than that of loving, of one’s capacity to
love. We human are fixated on the attitude on “are we loveable”, am I cute enough or likeable enough for
others. But because of this mind set we forget what is more essential and that is are we capable of loving them.
Can I love you?
 The second problem Fromm observe is the attitude of, people think that to love is simple, what is difficult to find
is the right object to love, the right person to love. We do not need to learn anything because to love is easy. But
the problem here is, even if we find the right person to love, our ideal partner in life, our forever, are you really
capable of loving them. You may have the perfect half, but your heart is incapable of loving because you have
forgotten to develop your ability to love.
 The third error that we commit with love, is the confusion between the initial feeling of “falling” in love, and the
permanent state of being in love. We enjoy the kilig moments of falling in love but when we reach the serious
parts of being in love, we start to hate the responsibilities, the conflict we have to fix, or the issues we need to
resolve. We love the sweet part but we dread the bitter parts of it.

Because of this misconception, we sometimes fail to understand that love is an art we can master, that it needs
knowledge and effort. Just like art, to make a masterpiece, we need to understand it properly and put in the necessary
effort. Nothing is earned without putting in the needed prerequisites. Nothing can be treasured with out working hard
and putting your mind into it. With all of these, the next topics we are going to discuss would be

Summary

 Camus and Frankl focused on the idea of life.

 Love is art
 Camus absurdity of life
 Frankl’s Life is Suffering
 Fromm’s Art of Love

THE DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF THE EASTERN AND WESTERN SOCIETIES

When we hear about eastern and western societies, often times, what first comes to mind is the differences in Culture,
Religion and the way of life, and how these differences creates clouded judgements in understanding others and
ourselves. Understanding our philosophical influences would help us to also understand our own leaning in how we look
at things and live according to it.

Main Schools of Thought

The tenets of eastern philosophy are Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, and Taoism. These are considered as a
philosophy rather than religion as they provide principles in understanding oneself and how we live in it.

The main schools of thought for western philosophies are Christianity, Rationalism, Scientific Revolution, and Logical
Thinking. Specific discussion on how these schools of thought influences our understanding of the world, the self and
culture will be discussed in the succeeding slides.

Eastern philosophy - adheres to cosmological unity, which is an understanding that life is a journey towards eternal
realities that are beyond the realities that surround us. Eastern thought always believed that we are purely a member to
the tapestry of the world that we live in and not to command nor control the world but to live in harmony with it. We
live with the world and not as an isolated entity.

Western philosophy - adheres to a linear view of the universe and life, where everything has its beginning and end. Life
starts with our existence and will end when we die. The western idea has always seen the world as an organism where
we could learn and master. Science is seen as laws and principles that we try to maximize and to familiarize ourselves
with for a better human life. The human being is neen to be on a constant journey and rather than a mere member of it.
Thus, it is more focused on individual events rather than the role of the person in the said journey.

Precepts about the Self (Eastern)

The Eastern paradigm looks at the inner world dependence, which in self-liberation from the false "Me and finding the
true "Me." The true "Me" in eastern philosophy is believed to be a state of 'no-self, where neither self-worth nor self-
importance has any real meaning where one is searching inside oneself by becoming a part of the universe. This
perspective also believes that all events in the universe are interconnected, and the future is determined by a person's
deeds today. Hence, human beings are an integral part of the universe and the society where collectivism and the duty
towards all others are very important. Furthermore, the inner world of a human being and his or her ability to control
and develop it are of the highest value and that we undergo constant self-development

Precepts about the Self (Western)

The Western paradigm, on the other hand, looks at the Outer world dependence, which is self-dedication to the goal
that is the life vision, success, and happiness. The "Me" for western philosophies in the here and now. The true "Me" in
every human being is a part of the Divine that needs to become apparent. True "Me" is given and does not have to be
cognizable. This is the feeling of oneself as an element of the Divine, and that life is a service to God, money, business,
etc. The western's mains values are success and achievement, which have an external nature such as money, faith,
popularity, and rarely the development of one's inner strength. Furthermore, it looks at human beings in an
individualistic nature and is an independent part of the universe and the society where individualism and materialistic
nature are stronger.

Matters of Culture

 The eastern paradigm - is focused more on the collective responsibility of each individual in adherence to the
collective norms agreed upon by the society and, in return, becomes the basis for collective interest. The latter is
reflective of the easterners living principle that highlights virtue above all (eg. The Golden Rule and Non-violent
Communication). The easterners are also focused on spirituality and control over emotions through meditation.
 Western paradigm - that posits individual self-interest and values competition towards individual growth that
highlights the westerners living principle that relies on ethics (e.g.. being career-driven and the principle of self-
cultivation). The westerners are always in the journey of searching outside thyself through research and analysis
giving importance on the idea that our future is unknown and that it was predetermined by God and is not much
influenced by your deeds.

SLIDE 1

Hello everyone and welcome back to your exciting UTS class. One of the immense processes of understanding the self is
by examining one’s culture. I am Rex Bersabal Makinano and I will be your instructor for this topic: The Self as Embedded
in Culture. I am so delighted to share with you the role of culture in shaping one’s identity.

When we speak of culture, we mean the values, beliefs, norms, behavior, and the material objects that constitute a
people’s way of life. To simply put, it is the total way of life of a particular group of people. Culture helps shape one’s
perception and his/ her relationship with others. Our identity is our beliefs about our self and others, which is influenced
by our culture. As such, the meaning of self varies from culture to culture.

So, what are then the cultural forces and influences that shape one’s self? These are language, Symbols, values, beliefs,
and norms that are taken from mores and folkways. First is Language. Language is a system of symbols that allow
members of society to communicate with one another. It is the major means of cultural transmission, the

Process by which one generation passes culture to the next. Language is a powerful concept for it has the ability to
completely shape one’s personal identity. The usage of words and phrases significantly impacts individuals thoughts and
character. It is the key to communication, conversation, collaboration, and co-creation among individuals.

Then we have Symbols. Like all creatures, human beings sense the surrounding world, but unlike others, we also create a
reality of meaning. That is, humans transform elements of the world into symbols, anything that carries a particular
meaning recognized by people who share culture. Symbols help communicate ideas and information.

Examples of these are a whistle, a flashing red light, and a fist raised in the air. We use symbols to make sense of our
lives.

The formation of values and beliefs also shape one’s self. Values are culturally defined standards of desirability,
goodness, and beauty that serve as broad guidelines for social living.

Some examples of Values are competence, service, and uprightness, honesty, integrity, and respect.

Beliefs, on the other hand, are specific statements that people hold to be true.

An example of belief is that family is of fundamental importance and also a belief in maintaining a healthy and well-
balanced life.
In other words, values are abstract standards of goodness, while beliefs are particular matters that individuals consider
to be true or false. Cultural values and beliefs not only affect how we perceive our surroundings, they also form the core
of our personalities.

Then finally we have social norms with its sources- mores and folkways. Norms are rules and expectations by which a
society guides the behavior of its members. Some norms are proscriptive, mandating what we should not do, and
prescriptive, which state what we should do.

One source of norms are the mores. Mores refer to a society’s standards of proper moral conduct. They tell us what is
right or wrong, appropriate or inappropriate.

SLIDE 14

The other source of norms are the folkways. Folkways refer to a society’s customs for routine, casual interactions,
Folkways have less moral significance than mores and include notions about proper dress, appropriate greetings, and
common courtesy.

SLIDE 15

In short, while mores distinguish between right and wrong, folkways draw a line between right and rude. Because they
are less important than mores, societies afford individuals greater personal discretion in observing folkways and punish
infractions leniently.

SLIDE 16. Say for instance in the case of quarreling and fighting, folkways say that it is so rude for a couple to fight or
quarrel in public, while mores says that the husband should not beat, slap, or batter his wife.

SLIDE 17

Lastly, mores tell us that wearing a bikini in the church would not be expected and is socially not accepted.

So, these are the major cultural forces and influences in which the self is partly shaped. Thank you for listening and
always remember, individuals differ in so many ways ranging from language, symbols, values, beliefs, and norms. All of
these aspects of diversity work together to form our sense of self.