Rubber

Elastomer

• A polymer that can be deformed under

stress and regain its original shape when
stress is removed

• First people to use rubber: Olmecs & Aztecs

 General Types of Rubber
• Natural Rubber
– a sticky elastic solid compound of a polymer
of Isoprene (hydrocarbon C5H8) occurring as
milky latex in the sap of various plants.
• Synthetic Rubber
– an elastic plastic made from petroleum based
materials such as butadiene and other
materials such as polychloroprene resulting
from polymerization of molecules into long
chains.
Process of Raw Rubber Production
• For Natural Rubber
– Tapping – collecting the sap from the rubber
tree (Hevea Brasiliensis)
– Mixing with acid to coagulate (Formic Acid)
– Drying
• For Synthetic Rubber
– Reacting the basic component butadiene with
other chemicals through catalysis
– Pelletizing
– Pressing into bales
 Further Processing of Rubber
• Compounding
– adds chemicals to customize rubber for intended use.
– Most common additive is carbon black, it increases tensile
strength
– China Clay- hydrous aluminium silicate Al2Si2O5(OH)4, less strong
but white.
• Mixing
– mixing thoroughly the rubber and its additives by heating slightly

Compounding and Mixing done in 2 stages:

First other additives
Second the vulcanizing additives.
If done together, premature vulcanizing makes rubber difficult to mix
centigrade in an autoclave
 Further Processing of Rubber
• Shaping
– forming the rubber into shape (4 categories)
• Vulcanization
– the treatment that accomplishes cross-linked elastomer
molecules. The rubber mixed with vulcanizing additives is heated
to about 140o centigrade in an autoclave
Categories of Shaping Rubber
• Extrusion
– pressing the rubber by a screw extruders against
a die
• Calendaring
– rolling the rubber through a series of rollers
• Coating
– impregnating fabrics with rubber
• Molding Process
– pressing the rubber into a mold to shape
Vulcanization occurs together with the molding process.

Vulcanization is done separately from the shaping process.

 Mixing (Mastication)

Two machines shown in above can also be used for mastication of natural rubber.

https://mechanicalengineering.blog/shaping-processes/
 Roller dies process rubber
extrusion followed by rolling.
Extruded Rubber Products
Coating of fabric with rubber
using a calendering process
Rubber Injection Molding
Some Common Synthetic Rubbers
Names Composition Uses
SBR Styrene Styrene & Butadiene Tires, Shoe heels and
Butadiene Rubber soles, gaskets, even
chewing gum
NBR Nitrile Rubber Acrononitrite Non-latex gloves for
&Butadiene healthcare industry,
automotive
transmission belts,
hoses, O-rings,
gaskets, oil seals,
synthetic leather, V-
belts, printers’ rollers
Butyl Rubber Copolymer of Interior of the tire
Isobutylene &
Isoprene
Some Common Synthetic Rubbers
Names Composition Uses
Chloroprene Rubber Polychloroprene & Molded goods, cables,
Butadiene transmission belts,
conveyor belts
Silicone Rubber Polysiloxane Food &
pharmaceutical
industries, medical
devices, sealants,
home repair
Polyurethane Reaction of Foam, sealants,
diisocyanate with varnish, epoxies
polyol
 Goayule Parthenium argentatum
• Plant which is a new source of natural rubber.
• Ideal for surgical use because it is hypo-allergenic
The guayule, Parthenium argentatum
• The guayule, Parthenium argentatum, a native of
America, has been utilized sine 1910 as a minor source
of rubber.
• This low semi-shrubby plant grows in the arid regions of
Mexico and the southern United States. The early
Amerindians who obtained the caoutchouc by chewing
the plants knew it.
• Unlike the other sources of rubber, there is no latex
present in the guayule plant. There are small granules
of caoutchouc scattered all through the tissues. These
are extracted mechanically or by means of solvents.

http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/botany/rubber.htm
The guayule, Parthenium argentatum
• The entire plant is pulled up and chopped up or ground
with water.
• The particles of caoutehouc float to the surface and are
removed.
• They are then dried and pressed into slabs.
• If solvents remove the resinous materials the product is
as good as the best Hevea rubber.
• Guayule rubber is especially good for mixing with
synthetic rubber substitutes.

http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/botany/rubber.htm
The guayule, Parthenium argentatum
• Guayule has been adapted to plantation culture and it
was extensively investigated as part of the Emergency
Rubber Program during World War II.
• The yield has been increased; the life cycle shortened,
and improved cultural, harvesting, and processing
machinery developed.
• Production costs are still high so that it does not
compete with Hevea rubber except in emergencies.
• The importance of guayule for the future lies in the fact
that it constitutes a living stockpile of rubber on land
which otherwise would be idle (Hill 1952).
http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/botany/rubber.htm
 Vulcanization of Rubber
• Vulcanization is a range of processes for
hardening rubbers. The term originally
referred exclusively to the treatment of
natural rubber with sulfur, which remains
the most common practice. It has also
grown to include the hardening of other
rubbers via various means.
 The vulcanization process involves three stages:
1. Induction, flow time, or scorch
In the induction stage, the flow time is defined as the
point where the crosslinking reaction starts at a
temperature range between 180 °F (82 °C) and 230 °F
(110 °C).
2. Crosslinking or cure
the permanent crosslinks are formed, which ultimately
depends on the amount of vulcanizing agent, activity,
reaction time, temperature, and nature of the rubber. The
rate of cure is also defined at this stage as the parameter
that determines the time a compound is cured.
 The vulcanization process involves three stages:
3. Optimum state of cure or overcure
In the last stage, all properties in the rubber compound are
formed as the curing process continues to the point where it
reaches its elastic behavior. At the optimum state,
vulcanized rubber can return to its original length after up to
ten cycles of deformation under tension and compression.
• If the cure process continues beyond the optimum state, it is
called overcure.
• If the overcure occurs in synthetic rubber, this can continue
to harden, and the modulus of elasticity can increase while
tensile strength and elongation decrease.
• If the overcure occurs in natural rubber, stiffening or
softening can take place, where the rubber physical and
adhesion properties are reduced.
 Vulcanization Additives
• The earliest and most common vulcanizing curing agent
used is sulfur.
• Approximately 1 to 3 parts of sulfur per 100 parts or
rubber elastomer are generally used for most rubber
products.
• Sulfur is considered a slow agent and its reaction rate
can be accelerated by using activators, which are
composed of a metal oxide and a fatty acid.
 Vulcanization Additives
• When vulcanization uses activators, the process is said
to act more rapidly than using the crosslinking by sulfur
alone.
• However, the production process is still considered slow
for most purposes, so accelerators are added.
• Vulcanization accelerators affect the flow time and cure
rate, which are properties that relate to the speed the
accelerator would take to transform into its active salt
form.
• The most common accelerator is a combination of zinc
oxide and fatty acid, also known as zinc fatty acid.
 Vulcanization Additives
• In addition to accelerators, retarders or pre-vulcanization
inhibitors can be added to the system to avoid premature
vulcanization.
• Retarders act on increasing the induction time and
affecting the cure rate, which also prevents zinc salt
formation.
• Acids are generally used as retarders.
Types and examples of vulcanization additives
Additive type Examples of most used additives
Vulcanizing Sulfur
agents Tellurium
Selenium
Metallic Oxides
Activators Zinc oxide and Stearic acid
Accelerators Guanidines
Thiazoles
Thiurams
Sulfenamides
Dithiocarbamates
Dithiophosphates
Xanthates
Thioureas
Retarders Benzoic acid
Salicylic acid
Anhydrite
Is Vulcanized Rubber Environmentally Friendly?

• Vulcanized rubber is tougher and less likely to

decompose than natural rubber, but there is
evidence that vulcanized rubber will biodegrade in
hot composting bins.
• The benefit of vulcanization is that rubber
products can easily be refurbished or repurposed
because it’s so durable.
• Old rubber tires can be retreaded or reused as
asphalt, landscaping mulch, turf infill, or livestock
mats. It can also be added to compounds.