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Generalist’s vs Specialists intra-professional Hierarchies: Growing

Intricacies and Complexities in Indian Civil Services

Dr.Shrimanth.B.Holkar*& Dr.MaruthikumarR**

Abstract

The present paper is divided in to four sections introducing the 'generalist' means an amateur
administrator who had education in linguistics or classics and is a highly intelligent man with
certain personal qualities of character and a 'specialist' is an expert who has devoted time and
studies to a special branch of learning and has acquired specialized experience in tackling
problems of particular subjects or areas. He is excluded from posting in areas where his
specialized knowledge or training does not find direct application. In the second section will be
concentrated the profession of administration in India since from the British administration to the
present administrative system in India, as in Britain, is by and large generalist dominated in
which policy-making and top administrative posts are occupied by generalist administrators
belonging to Indian Administrative Service (IAS)& State administrators in states. The third
section will focusses on growing intricacies and complexities in Indian administration between
generalists and specialist who are professionals in Indian Hierarchical system. Finally the fourth
section will bring out the professional role of generalists and specialists in administration and
suggest the some reforms towards the professional development of civil servants and with the
eluding part, an attempt will be made to assess the relevance of these professionals within their
profession in three spheres of the Indian administrative system.

Key Words: Generalists & Specialists, Administration, Profession, Intricacies, Complexities

*Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Govt.First Grade Degree College

RAICHUR-584102, KARNATAKA.

**Faculty, Dept of Political Science, Govt. First Grade Degree College, RAICHUR-584102,
KARNATAKA.

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Introduction
In 1964, one the world's leading theorists of public administration, Robert Presthus

(1917-2001), published the results of his investigation into problems in British European

Airways (BEA), British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) and the United Kingdom

Ministry of Aviation. The problems were that BEA and BOAC were required by the Ministry of

Aviation to purchase unsuitable equipment causing, among other problems, a deficit of $250

million for BOAC. Another major issue was the failure of the Ministry of Aviation to prevent

excessive profits for a private missile company producing the guidance system for the

Bloodhound missile. Presthus quoted one aerospace manager who stated that "...the whole

Ministry is necessarily incompetent, because I fail to see how they can keep up with scientific

and technical advances without being involved in them." (Presthus, 1964: 215).The conclusion

was, therefore, not that the role of the specialist had been downgraded, but rather that the

specialist had not been fully valued.

In the four decades since Presthus wrote, the specialist-generalist debate has more or less

accepted that the role of the specialist must be paramount. However, the debate has not entirely

gone away. What has happened is that as new domains have developed, and the need for new

types of generalist has become apparent. The concept was well expressed by Leahy when she

wrote of the need to work in these new areas. "The new generalism is one way to circumvent

arbitrary assumptions and closed bodies of knowledge not by eliminating distinctions but by

crossing over the boundaries and even connecting seemingly separate categories and people."

(Leahy, 2001: 39).The generalist who works in this type of new area can be called a

"specializing generalist", and is very much in contrast with the earlier type of generalist.A

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bureaucratic [government] tradition is a set of inherited beliefs about the institutions and history

of government (Bevir and Rhodes, 2003; Davis 1998, p. 158). Bevir and Rhodes (2003) also

argued, elite actors‟ beliefs about their governmental traditions shape public sector reform;

traditions are embedded in the social contexts in which individuals exercise their reason and

acting.

Amitabh Thakur (2013) who is an IAS Officer from UP cadre said in a journal that it is

well-known that the Imperial Civil Service, which was also popularly known as Indian Civil

Service (ICS) or British India Civil Service was the precursor of the IAS. It was the élite higher

civil service of the British Empire in South Asia during their rule in the period between 1858-

1947. Historians often rate the ICS, together with the railway system, the legal system and the

army, as among the most important legacies of the British rule in India. But what also needs to

be understood and accepted is that with the passage of time, these services seem to be fast losing

their relevance, importance and prestige. Innumerable cases of corruption, ineptitude,

malpractices, inefficiency, callousness, partisan behaviour, and political servility have come

forth making it now a much reduced force than it used to be in the British period. Other than this,

a new problem also seems to be emerging with the passage of time. While the 19th and early

20th Century were the age of Generalists, where a person could be considered an expert in so

many subjects, today is the age of the Specialists. In such circumstances, an IAS officer, who is a

pure Generalist, seems to be fast losing his relevance and importance.

Today while an IPS officer knows about policing, a Forest officer knows about

environment and forest, a Railway officer knows about Indian Railways, an officer of Indian

Foreign Service knows about Diplomacy, a Power Engineer knows about electricity, a Nuclear

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Engineer knows about Nuclear sciences, an Educationist knows about Education, a Doctor

knows about Medicine and Health, a Jurist and a lawyer know about law, a Transport officer

knows about Transport system and so on, an IAS officer does not have a sound/thorough

knowledge about any of these areas. As far as his training is concerned, he is mostly taught

revenue law along with the basics of management and Public Administration. After this cursory

knowledge about so many different departments, this IAS officer is made in-charge of almost

every Department and Ministry in India- both at the Central and the State level. Thus, we have

the Education Secretary, the Health Secretary, the Power Secretary, the Transport Secretary, the

Home/Police Secretary, the Finance Secretary, the Forest Secretary, the Industry Secretary and

so on and so forth. While on one hand, we see this trend in governance, in today‟s times, as

against the previous days, super-specialization seems to rule the roost and the need is to have

specialists and super-specialists in each Department. If in such situations, the Head of a

Technical Department is not a specialist but a Generalist, who is the jack of all trades and master

of none, there is always a great possibility of his coming in the way of better functioning. He

would certainly find it very difficult to understand the nitty-gritty and niceties of the Department

and Ministry.

Hence, this person who was appointed as the Secretary of the Ministry and Department

only yesterday will be presumed to know everything about the Department that the other

Departmental Officers (the Specialists) would be working at for years. This new Secretary, with

hardly any experience in that field, would start dictating the terms and may change, overrule or

amend the decision coming from beneath from a person who had been doing his job as a

specialist for years. This certainly seems to be dangerous for the current day administrative

system and the time has possibly come when a fresh and newer look seems to be needed in this
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respect. It also needs to be understood that much has changed in this world since 1800 and 1900

and a service that was useful in those days in the pre-independence British days, might have lost

its relevance in the present days. Other than this aspect of specialist vs generalist, there is

another aspect of the IAS. It is their role as a Coordinator. Thus, we find the Sub-Divisional

Magistrate, District Magistrate/Collector and Divisional Commissioner at the Sub-Divisional,

District and Divisional level who act as the coordinator for various Departments. These officers,

other than being Revenue officials, are also the coordinators of various Departments and act as

the common bridge for coordinated and concerted functioning of District Administration. There

is also the Chief Secretary at the State level and the Cabinet Secretary at the National level who

primarily play exactly the same role of coordination on behalf of the various Departments and

Ministries of their respective Government and with other Governments. It cannot be denied that

there is a need for a coordinator at each level of administration and if the IAS officers are

undertaking this role, there is nothing wrong with it. Since the IAS officers are generalists by

nature and profession, they also seem to suit this role of coordination. But even as coordinator,

there is one serious problem that is coming in the way. It is a fact that an IAS officer is given this

extremely important role at a very early stage of his service. Thus, we find someone posted as

SDM after 2 years of service, directing, dictating and coordinating officers from 40-45

Departments, who are very senior and experienced to him. Similarly, we find a DM after 4-6

years of experience in the IAS, working as the coordinator for the Chief Medical Officer of 50

years age, Executive Engineer 40-45 years age, Basic Education Officer 40 years of age and so

on, who have been working in their Departments as specialists for decades.

Thus, while most of the other officers, except the District SP and the District Forest

Officer, belonging to the IPS and the IFS, are quite experienced with 10-20 years of experience,
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here is an officer with hardly 4-6 years‟ experience, who is guiding, directing, instructing and

coordinating their works. It can be easily understood that such kind of guidance of the specialists

by a generalist with hardly any experience has all the possibilities of being harmful and counter-

productive. Thus it seems that these roles of a coordinator at Sub-Divisional and District level,

which are extremely important in the present system of Governance, need to be seen in a newer

light as per the present day situations where the officer concerned occupies these extremely vital

and important posts after much more experience and exposure

The administrative reform initiatives often contradict these above points. While the samaj

tradition is based on the hierarchic interpersonal relationship, family and kinship loyalty and

represents stability (Jamil, 2007), the administrative reform agenda consists of changes based on

decentralisation, delineation of governance role (World Bank, 1996) leading to a creative,

responsive, stakeholder-oriented and transparent public administration (UNDP, 2007). The

reformers believe that flexibility and ingenuity are necessary to adjust and adapt to changes in

the environment. On the other hand samaj tradition prefers for maintaining status quo (Jamil,

2007). Bangladeshi samaj is characterised by complex kin, bangsho (family unit) and caste

structures which underpin a pervasive system of patron-clientelism (Wood, 2000). Bangladeshi

society is still patrimonial in the sense that rules are applied with partiality and some citizens get

preferential treatment (Brinkerhoff and Goldsmith, 2002). In case of Bangladesh there seems to

be in place a destructive patrimonialism as state-approach redistribution tends to result in

factions with a class context. Destructive patrimonialism is against the all-round concept of

development. As in a human body, development of one limb does not automatically lead to the

development of other limbs, so in a country, development of one district does not lead to

automatic development of other districts. It can only be called a healthy body when all the limbs
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are developed and are proportionate to each other. Same is the case with a country. Development

of one group of people at the cost of other groups results in inequality. In Bangladesh, a variation

of destructive patrimonialism called “pork barrel” is in fashion. This slang expression refers to

publicly funded projects promoted by local MPs to bring money and jobs to their own

constituents and districts, as a political favour to local politicians or citizens (Brinkerhoff and

Goldsmith, 2002). In case of Bangladesh, examples include monopolising state distributed

resources like irrigation pumps or Food for Works contracts, distribution of VGF (Vulnerable

Group Feeding) Cards or construction of bridges in the geographically targeted areas (Khan,

1989). In a patrimonial society the reaping of benefits by the elites is widespread. Hartman and

Boyce (1990, 256) showed how a deep tube well project co-financed by the World Bank and the

Swedish and Canadian governments for irrigation in northern Bangladesh ended up with the rich

people. So, there is an inherent tension between the two leading to the maximum failure of the

reform programmes. The pre-modern values contradict the modern values. Organisations are

often personalised by the top bureaucrats. Rules are often bent the way a leader wants – or rules

are framed according to the way the vested interest group wants. The patrimonial society of

Bangladesh is characterised by power maintenance where the structure is patriarchal and the

operational mode is discretionary. On the contrary, the modernisation reform programmes aim to

change the patriarchal structure to team-based and operational mode to organic. Literature

reveals that the Bangladeshi society is influenced by the Samajikbidhi (social order norms).

When a person joins the bureaucracy he tries to reproduce the samajikbidhi in the bureaucracy as

he is moulded by the culture of the samaj. Cultural theories suggest that culture serves as a social

order (Haugland, 1991). Thus, culture is the software of the mind (Hofstede, 1991). Abedin

(1973) commented that the authoritarian and paternal social values of the subcontinent partly

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account for the authoritarian and the paternal behaviour of thebureaucracy. But the reformers‟

aim is the total overhaul of the patrimonial system based on transparency and accountability to

ensure a results-oriented public sector. Thus, the major conflict between the samaj and the

administrative reform measures is noted by Jamil (2007, 13): “In a bureaucracy influenced by the

samajtradition, creativity....innovation are not expected to be appreciated. New ideas and new

ways of doing things may threaten the stability system. These are foreign values. One does not

strive to achieve results rather one follows the established norms”.

Generalists and Specialists

Generalist: A generalist may be defined as a public servant who does not have a specialised

background and is easily transferable to any department or branch of Government.

A generalist has also been defined as a civil servant who belongs to the managerial class

and who is well up in rules, regulations and procedure of administration. He generally performs

POSDCORB functions, namely, planning, organising, supervising, directing, coordinating,

reporting and budgeting. Specialist: By „specialist‟ is generally meant a person who has special

knowledge or skill in a specific field, e.g., agriculture, medicine, engineering, education, etc. The

specialist can be easily distinguished on the basis of his education and training.Expert or

specialist is a relative term. For example, the generalist medical practitioner is an expert in

relation to the patient, but is only a generalist in relation to a surgeon, dentist or opthalmologist.

In other words, there are degrees of expertise.

There is equally a problem between the working engineer in the field and his counterpart

in the laboratory or the university. The Indian Administrative Reforms Commission has chosen

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to call such specialised services as „functional services‟. „Functional services‟ include not only

„services‟ which are charged with a technical function for which pre-entry vocational education

is required (e.g., the various Engineering Services), but also those which specialise after entry in

a particular area of administration for which no pre-entry vocational qualification is prescribed

(such as, Accounts, Income-Tax). The Commission distinguished the „functional services‟ from

„a general purpose‟ service. For example, members of IAS start their service in the districts, but

soon get dispersed to various posts which cover different functional areas. The IIPA Conference

on Personal Administration attempted a detailed definition of the term „generalist officer‟ and

„specialist or technical officer‟.

A generalist officer is one who has received a liberalcollege education (in whatever

subject) and after receiving initial training in the field is appointed to a middle level supervisory

post for which an educational qualification in technical or professional subjects engineering,

medicine, etc. has not been prescribed as compulsory. In due course, he is appointed to higher

administrative positions irrespective of his previous experience and training. A specialist or

technical officer is appointed to a middle level supervisory post for which a technical or

professional educational qualification has been prescribed as compulsory. He is excluded from

areas where his specialised knowledge or training may not find direct application.

Position in India: The public services in India are characterised by the superior position

of the genera-list. By and large, the „policy formulation‟ and the „consideration‟ levels in the

Central and State Secre-tariats are manned by the members of the generalist services. Although

the technical services constitute about fifty per cent of the total strength of Class I officers, they

are generally excluded from holding Secretariat appointments. A good portion of the posts (of

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Deputy Secretary and above) in the Central Secretariat are held by civil servants in the IAS. In

general, positions in the field are filled by the specialists. But there are many instances of the

IAS officer working as Director of Education, or Director of Health, or Director of Agriculture,

or even Chief Conservator of Forests in various State Governments. At the district level, there is

the generalist Collector leading a team of technical district officers who are heads of technical

departments at the district level. The Panchayati Raj administration, too, has not escaped

thisphenomenon. Thus, the Chief Executive Officer of the ZilaParishad is an IAS officer, who is

the head of a team of technical officers.

Reasons for the superiority of Generalists:

The belief that the high calibre of recruits to the Indian Administrative Services and the

wide and varied experience gained as a result of their postings to a diverse variety of jobs, equip

these services with qualities needed for the performance of the senior management level

jobs.“Another justification for the predominance in the higher administrative position of services

primarily recruited for the general administration, is the facility which this system seems to

provide for contact with the grass-roots of administration. IIPA Conference). Administration in

India has traditionally been based on the principle of area administration and the Britishers

continued this tradition. In independent India the village, the block, the tehsil, the district, the

division continues to remain the units around which the administration at that level revolves. The

case for the generalists is that there should be a manager at all levels to perform the managerial

functions of planning, directing, coordinating, etc., and that only an experienced administrator

can fulfil this role with success.The generalists emphasise the need for a Secretariat at the

headquarters, predominantly manned by generalists, to act as an intermediary and link between

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the specialists in the field and the amateur Minister at the top. The generalist Secretary is

considered to be in a much better position to tender correct and proper advice to his Minister

because he usually has complete understanding of the total effect of various factors on a

particular policy decision. Generalists charge the specialists of being parochial and narrow-

minded. Specialists, according to this view, are prone to display bias and a restricted view of

matters. After all, the specialist is one who knows more and more of less and less and they quote

the authority of Paul Appleby, according to whom, “the price of specialisation of every kind is

parochialism.”

Criticism

In the conditions prevailing in India before Independence, there were few attractive

openings for the talented, outside the higher administrative services, and so the best products of

the universities tried to get into what was then known as the „heaven-born service‟. The situation

has changed materially since 1947. With the emergence of the Welfare State with emphasis on

development administration, the demand for specialised and technical talent has been rapidly

rising and the best talent is now being attracted to these technical positions including industry,

commerce, banking, insurance, and other business. It is no longer true that IAS is the only

repository of talent and merit. There has occurred a big change in the functions of the

Government, which have not only multiplied in number but have also become very complicated

and technical. The needs of contemporary society and the aspirations of the public demand that

civil servants today have to be equipped to tackle the political, scientific, social, economic and

technical problems of our time. They have to keep up with the rapid growth of new know-ledge

and acquire new techniques to apply to it. In short, the civil service is no place for the amateur. It

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must be staffed by men and women who are professionals. Questions have been asked as to

what constitutes the „district experience‟ and why should the experience in land revenue

administration, magistracy and general administration alone be regarded as field experience. The

experience at the operation „doing‟ level can as well as be acquired in other departments like

agriculture, industry, health or police.It took ordinarily eight to ten years before ICS officers

could rise to the position of the Collector and District Magistrate, and in general, an officer

worked for about fifteen years in the district before being sent to the Secretariat. However, in

independent India, in many cases, it takes only three to five years for an IAS officer to be

appointed a Collector and he is sent to the Secretariat soon after. In other words, the so called

district experience is rather limited in the case of IAS officers now. It is being increasingly

realised that „district experience‟ is really not called for in the type of activities now carried on

by the Central Government, and that the work of

Ministries/ Departments calls for continuity of specialisation rather than periodic renewal

of field experience in districts. Thus, in 1939 a Finance and Commerce Pool was constituted as

„an expert cadre of officers with special knowledge, experience and outlook‟ for dealing with the

specialised needs of departments dealing with economic matters. The creation of the Central

Secretariat Service soon after independence to man a certain proportion of superior posts in the

Secretariat was another step in the direction of weakening the Tenure System (introduced by

Lord Curzon) as well as the setting up later of special cadres like the Industrial Management

Pool to fill superior positions in the management of public undertakings. The Central

Administrative Pool was also set up as reserve for manning senior administrative posts of and

above the rank of Deputy Secretary.Even though the tenure system still exists on paper, there are

many officers in the Central Secretariat who have not, for one reason or the other, gone back to
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their original posts in the States. The foremost grievance of the specialist service is the

discrimination in pay and allowances as between the IAS and their services, and the greater and

quicker chances of promotion for the IAS. A large majority of top posts both in the Union

Government and the State Governments are manned by the members of the IAS.

Steps taken by the Government of India to resolve the problems:

Creation of new specialist All-India and Central Services. Article 312(1) of the

Constitution authorises the Union Parliament to provide for one or more All-India services

common to the Union and the States, if the Council of States declares by a resolution supported

by not less than two-thirds of the members present and voting that it is necessary or expedient in

the national interest to do so. On the eve of independence, there existed only two All-India

services the Indian Civil Service and the Indian Police Service. Of these, theIPS was retained and

the old ICS was replaced by the new IAS. Several new services have been added to the list,

namely the Indian Economic Service, the Indian Forest Service, the Indian Statistical Service,

Indian Economic Service etc. All these services aim at giving better status and emoluments to

Specialists. In the States, provision has been made in many cases to give better grades to

technical services.

Appointment of Specialists to positions of Administrative Responsibility:

The trend isvisible in most departments. Thus we have Assistant, Deputy and Joint

Advisers in the Ministry of Education working side by side with the generalist

Under/Deputy/JointSecretary. The Planning Commission is almost exclusively manned by

specialists and professionals.One way of achieving the same objective is by combining the role

of the Secretary to and the head of the executive agency in one integrated office. “A composite

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office will permit more specialisation in the division of work than would be possible in separate

offices, ensuring that every aspect of the work to be done is handled by persons chosen for their

competence in that aspect, reducing the dependence on „generalists‟, whether they are generalists

in the sense that their educational background and experience have no direct relevance to the

jobs given to them, or in the sense that they are utilised to perform other jobs, though their

qualifications at the time of their recruitment were relevant to the generality of the technical or

specialist jobs which they were expected to do” (Madhya Pradesh Administrative Reforms

Commission).Another way of achieving the same objective is the method of giving the specialist

head of department ex officio status of Joint/Additional/full Secretary to Government, e.g., the

Railway Board members while remaining heads of the operating departments are also ex officio

Secretaries in the Railway Ministry.Various other solutions to the problem have been offered

from time to time. Thus, Central Administrative Reforms Commission (1966 to 1970) has in its

report on personnel administration recommended functionalisation of all services including the

IAS. It also recommended that senior management posts in functional areas should be filled by

the members of functional services.

References:

1. Abedin, N. (1973) Local administration and politics in modernising societies: Bangladesh

and Pakistan, Dhaka, National Institute of Public Administration.
2. A ita h Thakur I this Age of “pe ialists , IA“ offi ers re ai Ge eralists a d
do a “hoddy Jo , Vol. . Issue , The Weeke d Leader, Che ai.
3. Bevir, M & Rhodes, R. A. W. (2003) Interpreting British Governance, London, Routledge.
4. Bri kerhoff, D. W. a d Golds ith, A. A. Clie telis , patri o ialis a d
de o rati go er a e: a o er ie a d fra e ork for assess e t a d progra i g,
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5. Davis, G. (1998) Australian administrative tradition, in: J.M. Shafritz ed. International
Encyclopaedia of public policy and administration, Boulder, CO, Westview Press.
6. Hartman, B. and Boyce, J.K. (1990) A Quite Violence: View from a Bangladesh Village,
Dhaka University Press Limited.
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7. Hofstede, G. (1991) Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind - Intercultural

Cooperation and its Importance for survival, London, Mcgraw-hill.
8. Haugland, S. (1992) The Cultural Dimension of International Buyer-seller Relationships,
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11. Leahy, A. (2001) "Who's On first?:Generalism, Multi-Tasking, and Playing Ball." Journal
of the Midwest Modern Language Association, 34(3): 38-53.
12. Presthus, R. (1964). "Decline of the Generalist Myth." Public Administration Review,
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13. UNDP (2007) Building a 21st Century Public Administration in Bangladesh, [online]
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%20 Program_2007.pdf [Accessed 23 February 2013]
14. Willia W. Bosto k 8 Beyond the Realms of the Specialists: The Challenge of the
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15. Wood, G.D. (2000) Prisoners and Escapees: Improving the Institutional Responsibility
Square in Bangladesh, Public Administration and Development, Volume 20, Issue 3, pp.
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16. World Bank (1996) Government That Works: Reforming the Public Sector, Bangladesh,
World Bank, Dhaka

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