15.10.

2023

Orbital Mechanics

Dr. Demet Cilden-Guler

Lecture 3: Two-Body Problem (continue)

Department of Astronautical Engineering

Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Istanbul Technical University

Last Week

• Basic parameters
• Classical orbital elements
• Motion of two bodies due to gravitational
attraction
• Orbit shapes
• Conservation of angular momentum and energy
• Circular orbit case

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ESA’s Solar System Explorers (17 July 2023)

https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2019/02/ESA_s_fleet_of_Solar_System_explorers
D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 3

Current and Future NASA Planetary Science

Division Missions (Sept. 28, 2023)

Credit: NASA/Tricia Talbert

D. Cilden-Guler
https://science.nasa.gov/planetary-science/ Orbital Mechanics 4

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JAXA’s Active Missions (2023)

https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/missions/spacecraft/current/

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 5

Chang'e 5 lands on moon

https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465719/index.html

https://www.isro.gov.in/spacesciexp.html

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Near-Earth Object Observations Program (NEO)

• Find, track, and characterize NEOs that are 140 meters and larger in size
• –larger than a small football stadium–
• They pose a risk to Earth
• No known asteroid in that size will hit Earth for the next 100 years
Public webpage: https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/

NASA’s Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART)

• After 10 months flying
• First planetary defense technology demonstration
• Impacted its asteroid target Dimorphos on Monday, Sept. 26,
2022
• First attempt to move an asteroid
• They will measure how much the impact changed the asteroid’s
motion in space using telescopes on Earth
• A ride-along CubeSat named LICIACube, built by the Italian
Space Agency, separated from DART before impact to observe
Credits: NASA/Johns Hopkins APL the collision

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Asteroid, comet and meteor

• An asteroid is a small, rocky object and when seen in a telescope,
it appears as a point of light.
• Most found in a ring between the orbit of Mars and Jupiter
called the asteroid belt.
• A comet orbits the Sun, but unlike an asteroid, it's composed of
ice and dust.
• If gets close to the Sun, its ice and dust content start to
vaporize.
• In a telescope, appears fuzzy and/or has a tail.
• A meteoroid is a small piece of asteroid or a comet, often created
from a collision.
• When a meteoroid gets close to the Earth and enters the Earth's
atmosphere, it's called a meteor.
• Entering the Earth's atmosphere at a very high speed and
burning up with a streak of light called a shooting star.
• If a meteor survives the burn and lands on the ground, it's called
a meteorite. Artist's graphic of the asteroid belt, part of Dawn's
Mission Art series.
https://www.nasa.gov/feature/episode-16-we-asked-a-nasa-scientist-what-s-the-difference-between-asteroids-comets-and Credit: NASA/McREL

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NASA’s Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART)

Didymos Reconnaissance and Asteroid Camera for Optical navigation (DRACO) imager

• The spacecraft’s
impact altered
Dimorphos’ orbit
around Didymos
• by 32 minutes
(shortening the 11
hour and 55-
minute orbit to 11
hours and 23
minutes)

Credits: NASA/Johns Hopkins APL

https://www.nasa.gov/feature/dart-s-final-images-prior-to-impact

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Last taken images before the impact

Rosetta's last image of Comet
67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, taken shortly
before impact, at an estimated altitude of 20
meters above the surface
Rosetta arrived at the comet on 6 August
2014 after a ten year journey through space,
and deployed lander Philae to its surface on
12 November 2014
Credits: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for Image captured by the
OSIRIS Team Italian Space Agency’s
MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/U LICIACube a few minutes
PM/DASP/IDA after the intentional
collision of NASA’s Double
Asteroid Redirection Test
(DART) mission with its
target asteroid,
Credits: NASA/Johns Hopkins APL Dimorphos, captured on
Sept. 26, 2022.
Credits: ASI/NASA
The last complete image of asteroid moonlet Dimorphos,
taken by the DRACO imager on NASA’s DART mission
from about 12 kilometers from the asteroid and 2
seconds before impact.
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What to Learn

• Conservation of angular momentum and energy

• Elliptical and parabolic orbit cases
• Escape velocity associated with parabolic paths

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Angular Momentum and Orbit Formulas

1 1
d𝐴 = × base × altitude = ×𝑣 d𝑡×𝑟sin 𝜙
Orbit Equation
2 2 ℎ& 1
1 1 𝑟=
= 𝑟(𝑣sin 𝜙)d𝑡 = 𝑟𝑣! d𝑡 𝜇 1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃
2 2
"# %
= (areal velocity: constant) Constant parameters?
"$ &

Fig. 7 Differential area dA swept out by the relative Fig. 8 The true anomaly θ is the angle between the eccentricity
position vector r during time interval dt. vector e and the position vector r.

German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630): Kepler's second law: Orbital

D. Cilden-Guler equal areas are swept out in equal times.
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BAC-CAB Rule: 𝐀× 𝐁×𝐂 = 𝐁 𝐀×𝐂 − 𝐂 𝐀×𝐁

Orbit Equation
" "$ "𝐫 "𝐫 "𝐫
𝐫 ⋅ 𝐫 = 𝑟 !, 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐫 = 2𝑟 =𝐫⋅ + ⋅𝐫 = 2𝐫 ⋅ , 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐫˙ = 𝑟𝑟˙
"# "# "# "# "#
"∥𝐫∥
𝐫˙ = 𝐯 and 𝑟 =∥ 𝐫 ∥ ⇒ 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐯 =∥ 𝐫 ∥ "#
Take the cross product of both sides of 𝐫̈ = − 𝜇/𝑟 ' 𝐫 with the specific angular momentum h:
𝜇
𝐫×𝐡 ¨
𝐫×𝐡 =−
𝑟'
" ˙ the left component can be written as 𝐫×𝐡 " ˙
Since "# (𝐫×𝐡)
˙ ¨
= 𝐫×𝐡 ˙ 𝐡,
+ 𝐫× ¨ ˙
= "# (𝐫×𝐡) ˙ 𝐡
− 𝐫×
˙ = 𝟎), so this reduces 𝐫×𝐡 "
As the angular momentum is constant (𝐡 ¨ = (𝐫×𝐡)
˙
"#
( ( ( ( 𝐫$̇*˙𝐫$ " 𝐫 ˙ $̇
$𝐫*𝐫 𝐫$̇*$𝐓˙ ( " 𝐫
𝐫×𝐡 = [𝐫×(𝐫×𝐫)]
˙ = [𝐫(𝐫 ⋅ 𝐫)
˙ − 𝐫(𝐫
˙ ⋅ 𝐫)] = 𝐫(𝑟𝑟) ˙ ! =
˙ − 𝐫𝑟 , = =− ⇒ 𝐫×𝐡 =−
$! $! $! $! $" "# $ $" $" $! "# $
BAC-CAB Rule
d 𝐫
˙
𝐫×𝐡 −𝜇 =𝟎
d𝑡 𝑟
C: Laplace Vector
First integral of the equation of motion 𝐫¨ = − 𝜇/𝑟 ' 𝐫
𝐫⋅𝐡
Taking the dot product with h: (𝐫×𝐡)
˙ ⋅𝐡−𝜇 =𝐂⋅𝐡
$
˙
Since 𝐫×𝐡 is perpendicular to both 𝐫˙ and 𝐡, it follows that (𝐫×𝐡)
˙ ⋅ 𝐡 = 0.
Since 𝐡 = 𝐫×𝐫˙ is perpendicular to both 𝐫 and 𝐫,˙ it is true that 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐡 = 0, 𝐂 ⋅ 𝐡 = 0 (i.e., 𝐂 is perpendicular to 𝐡, which is normal to
the orbital plane). The Laplace vector must lie in the orbital plane.
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𝐀 ⋅ (𝐁×𝐂) = (𝐀×𝐁) ⋅ 𝐂

Orbit Equation
𝐫 𝐫 ˙
𝐫×𝐡
The Laplace vector must lie in the orbital plane. Rearranging 𝐫×𝐡
˙ − 𝜇 = 𝐂: + 𝐞 = where 𝐞 = 𝐂/𝜇.
$ $ /
The dimensionless vector 𝐞 is called the eccentricity vector.
The line defined by the vector 𝐞 is commonly called the apse line.
𝐫⋅𝐫 𝐫⋅(𝐫×𝐡)
˙
Take the dot product of both sides with r: + 𝐫⋅e= , ˙
𝐫 ⋅ (𝐫×𝐡) ˙ ⋅ 𝐡 = 𝐡 ⋅ 𝐡 = ℎ! , 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐫 = 𝑟 !
= (𝐫×𝐫)
$ /
2" 2"
𝑟+𝐫⋅e= , 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐞 = 𝑟𝑒cos 𝜃, 𝑟 + 𝑟𝑒cos 𝜃 =
/ /
where 𝑒 is the eccentricity (the magnitude of the eccentricity vector e), and 𝜃 is the true anomaly (the angle between the
fixed vector 𝐞 and the variable position vector 𝐫). Final form of orbit equation:

ℎ& 1
𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃

• Integration of the equation of relative motion 𝐫̈ = − 𝜇/𝑟 ' 𝐫 leads to six constants of integration. Those
constants are the three components of the angular momentum h and the three components of the
eccentricity vector e. However, h is perpendicular to e (𝐡 ⋅ 𝐞 = 0 condition meaning five independent
constants of integration).
• The sixth constant of motion will arise from the time.
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ℎ: 1
Elliptical Orbits (0 < e < 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
%" * %" * %" *
𝑟( = ,𝑟 = , 2𝑎 = 𝑟( + 𝑟- , 𝑎 =
) *+, - ) *., ) *.,"
1 − 𝑒&
𝑟=𝑎
1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃
𝐶𝐹 = 𝑎 − 𝐹𝑃 = 𝑎 − 𝑟/
𝑟( = 𝑎(1 − 𝑒)
1 − 𝑒&
𝑟0 = 𝑎
1 + 𝑒cos 𝛽
1 − 𝑒&
𝑎𝑒 = 𝑟0cos 180∘ − 𝛽 = −𝑟0cos 𝛽 = − 𝑎 cos 𝛽
1 + 𝑒cos 𝛽
𝑒 = −cos 𝛽
𝑟0 = 𝑎, 𝑏 & = 𝑟0& − (𝑎𝑒)& = 𝑎& − 𝑎&𝑒 &, 𝑏 = 𝑎 1 − 𝑒 &
1 − 𝑒& 𝑒 + cos 𝜃
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑟cos 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑎 cos 𝜃 = 𝑎
1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃 1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃
1 − 𝑒& 1 − 𝑒&
Fig. 8 Elliptical orbit. m1 is at the focus F. F′ is the 𝑦 = 𝑟sin 𝜃 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃
unoccupied empty focus. 1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃 1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃
2 ,+345 6 7 *.,"
= , = sin𝜃
- *+,345 6 8 *+,3456
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ℎ: 1
Elliptical Orbits (0 < e < 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
𝑥& 𝑦& 1
+ = (𝑒 + cos𝜃)& + 1 − 𝑒 & sin&𝜃
𝑎& 𝑏 & (1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
1
= 𝑒 & + 2𝑒cos𝜃 + cos &𝜃 + sin&𝜃 − 𝑒 &sin&𝜃
(1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
1
= 𝑒 & + 2𝑒cos𝜃 + 1 − 𝑒 &sin&𝜃
(1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
1
= 𝑒 & 1 − sin&𝜃 + 2𝑒cos𝜃 + 1
(1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
1
= 𝑒 &cos &𝜃 + 2𝑒cos𝜃 + 1
(1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
1
= (1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
(1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
𝑥& 𝑦&
+ =1
𝑎& 𝑏 &
Cartesian coordinate formula for an ellipse centered at
Fig. 9 Cartesian coordinate description of the orbit.
the origin, with 𝑥 intercepts at ±𝑎 and 𝑦 intercepts at ±𝑏.
If 𝑎 = 𝑏, this is a circle (an ellipse with zero eccentricity)

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ℎ: 1
Elliptical Orbits (0 < e < 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
* )"
𝜀=− 1 − 𝑒 & [Vis-Viva in terms of orbital constants]
& %"
ℎ& = 𝜇𝑎 1 − 𝑒 &
) 9" ) )
The specific energy of an elliptical orbit is negative: 𝜀 = − &- OR & − : = − &-
Independent of the eccentricity and depends only on the semimajor axis of the
ellipse.
The area of an ellipse: 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏
To find the period 𝑇 of the elliptical orbit, Kepler's second law, d𝐴/d𝑡 = ℎ/2:
%
Δ𝐴 = Δ𝑡, for one complete revolution, Δ𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏 and Δ𝑡 = 𝑇.
&
& '
&;-8 &; & &; %" * &; %
𝜋𝑎𝑏 = (ℎ/2)𝑇, or 𝑇 = %
= 1 − 𝑒 & = % )*.,"
%
𝑎 1 − 𝑒 & = )"
*.,"
2𝜋 '/&
Since all five ellipses have the same major axis, 𝑇= 𝑎
their periods and energies are identical. 𝜇
Like energy, the period of an elliptical orbit is independent of the eccentricity.
:# *., :$ .:#
= ,𝑒=
:$ *+, :$ +:#

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Example

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ℎ: 1
Parabolic Trajectories (e = 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
ℎ& 1
𝑟=
𝜇 1 + co s 𝜃
9" )
The energy of the trajectory is zero, − =0
& :

2𝜇
𝑣=
𝑟

If the body 𝑚& is launched on a parabolic trajectory, it will

coast to infinity, arriving there with zero velocity relative to
𝑚*. It will not return. Parabolic paths are therefore called
escape trajectories.
&)
𝑣=53 = , 𝑣=53 = 2𝑣>
:
Fig. 10 Parabolic trajectory around the focus F.
The flight path angle is always one-half of the true anomaly,
5?@ 6 6
tan 𝛾 = , 𝛾=
*+345 6 &

A spacecraft launched from the earth with a velocity 𝑣!"# (relative to the earth) will not coast to infinity (i.e., leave the solar system) because it will eventually succumb to
D. Cilden-Guler
the gravitational Orbital Mechanics
influence of the sun and, in fact, end up in the same orbit as the earth. 19

19

ℎ: 1
Parabolic Trajectories (e = 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃

Escape velocity
2𝜇
𝜈TUV = = 2𝜈V
𝑟
Second cosmic velocity
(escape velocity on Earth’s surface) :
1.11798404×10W m/s

Fig. 11 Parabola with focus at the origin of the Cartesian coordinate system.

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Example

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ℎ: 1
Hyperbolic Trajectories (e > 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃

Denominator goes to zero when cos 𝜃 = −1/𝑒. We

denote this value of true anomaly as,
𝜃A = cos .*(−1/𝑒)
Since the radial distance approaches infinity as the
true anomaly approaches 𝜃A (known as the true
anomaly of the asymptote)
," .*
sin 𝜃A = , 𝛽 = cos .*(1/𝑒)
,

The angle 𝛿 between the asymptotes is called the turn

angle: 𝛿 = 2sin.*(1/𝑒)
%" * %" *
𝑟( = = 𝑎(𝑒 − 1), 𝑟- = = −𝑎 𝑒 + 1
) *+, ) *.,

𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑒 & − 1, Δ = 𝑎 𝑒 & − 1

Fig. 12 Hyperbolic trajectory.

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ℎ: 1
Hyperbolic Trajectories (e > 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
&
𝑥& 𝑦& 𝑒 + co s 𝜃 & 𝑒 & − 1si n 𝜃
− = −
𝑎& 𝑏 & 1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃 1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃
𝑒 & + 2𝑒co s 𝜃 + cos & 𝜃 − 𝑒 & − 1 1 − cos & 𝜃
=
Y1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃)&
1 + 2𝑒co s 𝜃 + 𝑒 & cos & 𝜃 Y1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃)&
= =
Y1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃)& Y1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃)&
𝑥 & 𝑦 &
− =1
𝑎& 𝑏 &"
) 9 ) )
𝜀 = > 0, − =
&- & : &-
)
The hyperbolic excess speed: 𝑣A =
-
9" ) "
9%
− = = 2𝜇/𝑟, 𝑣 & = 𝑣=53
, 𝑣=53 & + 𝑣&
A
& : &
𝜇 𝜇 &
𝑣A = 𝑒sin 𝜃A = 𝑒 −1
ℎ ℎ
Fig. 13 Plot in a Cartesian coordinate system with origin O
midway between the two foci.
& (a measure of the energy required for an interplanetary mission, a measure of the maximum energy a launch
The square of 𝑣$ is denoted 𝐶%, and is known as the characteristic energy, 𝐶% = 𝑣$
vehicle can impart
D. Cilden-Guler )launch vehicle
to a spacecraft of a given mass). To match a launch vehicle with a mission, 𝐶%Orbital > 𝐶%)
Mechanics . 23
mission

23

ℎ: 1
Hyperbolic Trajectories (e > 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃

Fig. 14 Orbits of various eccentricities, having a common focus F and periapsis P.

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Summary: No Time Involved!

All Orbits Ellipses (𝟎 ≤ 𝐞 < 𝟏) Hyperbolas (𝐞 > 𝟏)
• ℎ = 𝑟𝑣! +^ %+_ "[ $ "[ $
•𝑎= = •𝑎=
"[ $ - # $.& [ # & [ .$
•𝑟= ,[ # # ,[ # #
# $%&'()* • -
− + = − -/ • − =
# - + -/
• 𝑣+ = 𝑒sin𝜃 -0 $
" •𝑇 = 𝑎1/- • 𝜃3 = cos .$
−&
,\ #
• tan𝛾 = +_ .+^ $
,]
•𝑒=
+_ %+^
• 𝛿 = 2sin.$ &
•𝑣= 𝑣+- + 𝑣!-
Parabolas (𝐞 = 𝟏) • ∆= 𝑎 𝑒 - − 1
,[ #
• -
−+ =0
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Objects with only gravitational force acting on each other

Central force approach: The mass of one object is negligible

comparing the other object’s mass such as Earth and a satellite.
2-body problem: The masses of two objects are comparable to each
other. The mathematical formulation can be transformed into the
central force approach.
Restricted 3-body problem: The mass of the third body is
negligible comparing the other two objects. No full analytical
solution. Some information can be extracted from the equations of
motion.
n-body problem (n > 2): Unless there is a symmetry in the problem
no analytical solution is available.
For all the cases listed above, there are always numerical solutions.
However, numerical solutions have other kind of intrinsic problems.
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Perifocal Frame (Natural Frame)

𝐡
𝐰̇ =
ℎ

𝐫 = 𝑥b
𝐩 + 𝑦b𝐪
𝑥 = 𝑟cos 𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑟sin 𝜃
ℎ& 1
𝐫= (cos 𝜃b
𝐩 + sin 𝜃b
𝐪)
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃
)
𝐯 = 𝐫˙ = 𝑥˙ 𝐩ˆ + 𝑦˙ 𝐪ˆ 𝐯 = [−sin𝜃𝐩ˆ + (𝑒 + cos𝜃)𝐪]
ˆ
%

Fig. 15 Perifocal frame Fig. 16 Position and velocity relative to the perifocal frame.

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