DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, AKOKA-YABA, LAGOS

CEG 503 – SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY (2.0)

2017/2018 FIRST SEMESTER

ACADEMIC FELLOW/LECTURER
OLUFEMI ODUMOSU, B.Sc; M.Eng.Sc
olufemiodumosu@yahoo.com

COURSE NOTES LECTURE 5

GROUNDWATER
Introduction

Earth’s water is:

- 97% is saltwater.
- 3% is freshwater (2.1% = glaciers, 0.6% = groundwater, and 0.3% = lakes
and rivers).

Ground Water is water that lies beneath the earth’s surface, filling pore
spaces between the grains of sediment or within the voids of sedimentary
rock. Groundwater may also fill fractures in rock.

Water becomes groundwater when precipitation infiltrates the geosphere.

Ground water is a source of drinking water and it is usually purer than

freshwater in lakes and rivers.

Groundwater is fresh water (from rain or melting ice and snow) that soaks
into the soil and is stored in the tiny spaces (pores) between rocks and
particles of soil.

Groundwater accounts for nearly 95 percent of the nation’s fresh water

resources. It can stay underground for hundreds of thousands of years, or it

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can come to the surface and help to fill the rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, and
wetlands.

Groundwater can also come to the surface as a spring or be pumped from a

well. Both of these are common ways we get groundwater to drink. About
50 percent of our municipal, domestic, and agricultural water supply is
groundwater.

Where groundwater can move rapidly, such as through gravel and sandy
deposits, an aquifer can form. In an aquifer, there is enough groundwater
that it can be pumped to the surface and used for drinking water, irrigation,
industry, or other uses.

For water to move through underground rock, pores or fractures in the rock
must be connected. If rocks have good connections between pores or
fractures and water can move freely through them, we say that the rock is
permeable.

Permeability refers to how well a material transmits water. If the pores or

fractures are not connected, the rock material cannot produce water and is
therefore not considered an aquifer. The amount of water an aquifer can
hold depends on the volume of the underground rock materials and the size
and number of pores and fractures that can fill with water.

An aquifer may be a few feet to several thousand feet thick, and less than a
square mile or hundreds of thousands of square miles in area.

Aquifers get water from precipitation (rain and snow) that filters through
the unsaturated zone. Aquifers can also receive water from surface waters
like lakes and rivers. When the aquifer is full, and the water table meets the
surface of the ground, water stored in the aquifer can appear at the land
surface as a spring. Recharge areas are where aquifers take in water;
discharge areas are where groundwater flows to the land surface. Water
moves from higher-elevation areas of recharge to lower-elevation areas of
discharge through the saturated zone.

5.1 Occurrence of GroundWater

Aquifer- A layer of sediment or rock in the saturated zone through which

water can easily move (aquifers are both porous and permeable).

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Aquitard- A layer of rock which retards the flow of water (a non-aquifer).

Unconfined aquifer- An aquifer that is only partially filled with water (the
water table occurs somewhere within the aquifer).
The partially empty aquifer is quickly recharged (replenished) by the
infiltration of precipitation. The water table level may change from season
to season within the unconfined aquifer.

Confined aquifer- An aquifer that is completely filled with water and

separated from the surface by an overlying, impermeable layer. This aquifer
is slowly recharged via slow percolation of water thru the overlying
impermeable layer. There are no seasonal changes in the flow of water in
confined aquifers.

Well- A cylindrical hole drilled in the ground in order to reach an aquifer. In

most cases well water must be pumped to the surface. Wells may be
affected by seasonal fluctuations in the water table level.

In unconfined aquifers, the well water level will be equal to the water table
level.

In confined aquifers, the well water level will be above the top surface of
the aquifer because the water is under pressure. This type of well is called
an artesian well. Water will shoot out above the ground.

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Cone of depression- Around a well, drawdown of water produces a cone of
depression when water is being used faster than the aquifer can replenish it.

Spring- A place where the water table intersects the land surface.
Many streams are connected to the water table. There are two types of such
streams:

Gaining Stream- A stream that is receiving some water from the saturated
zone (ground water moves into the stream). This is common in humid
climates.

Losing stream- A stream that loses some of its water to the ground. This is
common in arid climates.

Disconnected stream- A stream that is not connected to the water table (the
saturated zone lies below and is disconnected from the stream). These
streams dry out fast.

5.2 Groundwater Flows

Some of the precipitation that falls onto the land infiltrates into the ground
to become Groundwater.

If the water infiltrates into the water table, the depth below of which the
soil is saturated, it can move both vertically and horizontally.

Water moving downward can also meet more dense and water-resistant
non-porous rock and soil, which causes it to flow in a more horizontal

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direction, generally going into an outlet towards streams, the ocean, or
deeper into the ground.

If Groundwater wants to be a member in good standing of the water cycle,

then it can't be totally static and stay where it is. As the diagram shows, the
direction and speed of groundwater movement is determined by the various
characteristics of aquifers and confining layers of subsurface rocks in which
water has a difficult time penetrating, into the ground.

Water moving below ground depends on the Permeability which is the ease
or difficulty for water movement and on the Porosity which is the amount of
open space in the materials of the subsurface rock.

If the rock has characteristics that allow water to move relatively freely
through it, then Groundwater can move significant distances in a number of
days.

The Groundwater can also sink into deep Aquifers where it takes thousands
of years to move back into the environment, or even go into deep
groundwater storage, where it might stay for much longer periods.

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5.3 The Movement of Ground Water

Ground water is not stagnant, but rather flows in response to differences

between porosity, permeability, elevation, and pressure (gradients).

Mathematically, the velocity of ground water flow can be described by

Darcy’s Law:

V = (K/n)(h/L)

where K = permeability
n = porosity
h/L = hydraulic gradient

The position of the water table roughly follows the topography of the
land. In hilly areas, the water table is more sloped.

The water table must have some slope for the water to move. The steeper
the slope of the water table, the faster the groundwater flows.

For fast ground water movement, we need a good slope and also sediment
of high permeability.

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In impermeable shale, ground water may flow only a few centimeters a
year.

In permeable gravel, ground water may flow hundreds to thousands of

meters per day.

5.4 Groundwater Storage

Groundwater is stored in the tiny open spaces between rock and sand, soil,
and gravel. How well loosely arranged rock (such as sand and gravel) holds
water depends on the size of the rock particles.

Layers of loosely arranged particles of uniform size (such as sand) tend to

hold more water than layers of rock with materials of different sizes.

This is because smaller rock materials settle in the spaces between larger
rock materials, decreasing the amount of open space that can hold water.

Porosity (how well rock material holds water) is also affected by the shape
of rock particles. Round particles will pack more tightly than particles with
sharp edges. Material with angular-shaped edges has more open space and
can hold more water.

Groundwater is found in two zones:

The unsaturated zone, immediately below the land surface, contains water
and air in the open spaces, or pores.
The saturated zone, a zone in which all the pores and rock fractures are
filled with water, underlies the unsaturated zone.
The top of the saturated zone is called the water table. The water table may
be just below or hundreds of feet below the land surface.

Large amounts of water are stored in the ground. The continuous

movement of water, though may be very slow, and is still part of the water
cycle.

Most of the water in the ground comes from Precipitation that infiltrates
downward from the land surface. The upper layer of the soil is the
unsaturated zone, where water is present in varying amounts that change
over time, but does not saturate the soil.

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Below this layer is the saturated zone, where all of the pores, cracks, and
spaces between rock particles are saturated with water.

The term Groundwater is used to describe this area. Another term for
groundwater is "Aquifer," although this term is usually used to describe
water-bearing formations capable of yielding enough water to supply
peoples' uses.

Aquifers are a huge storehouse of Earth's water and people all over the
world depend on the Groundwater in their daily lives.

The top of the surface where Groundwater occurs is called the Water Table.

In the diagram, you can see how the ground below the water table is
saturated with water (the saturated zone). Aquifers are replenished by the
seepage of precipitation that falls on the land, but there are many geologic,
meteorologic, topographic, and human factors that determine the extent
and rate to which aquifers are refilled with water.

Porosity refers to voids or openings within a rock.

Loose sediment generally has high porosity because it contains voids
between sediment grains. Loose sand may be 30-50% pore space.

Sedimentary rock typically has less porosity than loose sediment due to
compaction, cementation, and lithification. A sandstone may have 10-20%
pore space.

Igneous and metamorphic do not have pores, but they may have open
spaces due to fractures.

Permeability refers to the ability of a rock to transmit a fluid from pore to

pore.

In order for ground water to move thru a rock, the rock must have both
porosity and permeability. There must be some interconnection from pore
to pore so that water can move migrate.

A rock with high permeability is said to be permeable, whereas rocks with

low permeability are impermeable.

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Rocks can be porous, but impermeable (example: shale). Rocks have
different porosity and permeability characteristics, which means that water
does not move around the same way in all rocks. Thus, the characteristics of
groundwater recharge vary all over the world.

5.5 Unsaturated Zone

The unsaturated zone is the portion of the subsurface above the

groundwater table. The soil and rock in this zone contains air as well as
water in its pores.

In some places the unsaturated zone is absent, as is common where there

are lakes and marshes, and in some places it is hundreds of meters thick, as
is common in arid regions.

Unlike the aquifers of the saturated zone below, the unsaturated zone is not
a source of readily available water for human consumption. But it is of great
importance in providing water and nutrients that are vital to the biosphere,
and is intensively used for the cultivation of plants, construction of
buildings, and disposal of waste.

Hydrologically, the unsaturated zone is often the main factor controlling

water movement from the land surface to the aquifer. Thus it strongly
affects the rate of aquifer recharge, critical for the use and management of
groundwater.

It is often regarded as a filter that removes undesirable substances. To some

extent this is true, but a more general fact is that flow rates and chemical

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reactions in the unsaturated zone control whether, where, and how fast
contaminants enter groundwater supplies.

Understanding of unsaturated-zone processes is therefore crucial in

determining the amount and quality of groundwater that is available for
human use.

The unsaturated zone, often called the vadose zone, is the portion of the
subsurface above the water table. It contains, at least some of the time, air
as well as water in the pores. Its thickness can range from zero, as when a
lake or marsh is at the surface, to hundreds of meters, as is common in arid
regions.

The vadose zone, is also considered as the part of Earth between the land
surface and the top of the phreatic zone, the position at which the
groundwater (the water in the soil's pores) is at atmospheric pressure
("vadose" is from the Latin for "shallow"). Hence, the vadose zone extends
from the top of the ground surface to the water table.

Water in the vadose zone has a pressure head less than atmospheric
pressure, and is retained by a combination of adhesion (funiculary
groundwater), and capillary action (capillary groundwater).

If the vadose zone envelops soil, the water contained therein is termed soil
moisture. In fine grained soils, capillary action can cause the pores of the soil
to be fully saturated above the water table at a pressure less than
atmospheric. The vadose zone does not include the area that is still
saturated above the water table, often referred to as the capillary fringe.

Movement of water within the vadose zone is studied within soil physics
and hydrology, particularly hydrogeology, and is of importance to
agriculture, contaminant transport, and flood control.

The Richards equation is often used to mathematically describe the flow of

water, which is based partially on Darcy's law. Groundwater recharge, which
is an important process that refills aquifers, generally occurs through the
vadose zone from precipitation.

The vadose zone is also regarded as the undersaturated portion of the

subsurface that lies above the groundwater table. The soil and rock in the

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vadose zone are not fully saturated with water; that is, the pores within
them contain air as well as water. In some places the vadose zone is absent,
as is common where there are lakes and marshes, and in some places it is
hundreds of meters thick, as is common in arid regions.

Unlike the aquifers of the underlying water-saturated phreatic zone, the

vadose zone is not a source of readily available water for human
consumption. It is of great importance in providing water and nutrients that
are vital to the biosphere, however, and it is intensively used for the
cultivation of plants, construction of buildings, and disposal of waste.

The vadose zone is often the main factor controlling water movement from
the land surface to the aquifer. Thus it strongly affects the rate of aquifer
recharge and is critical for the use and management of groundwater.

Flow rates and chemical reactions in the vadose zone also control whether,
where, and how fast contaminants enter groundwater supplies.
Understanding of vadose-zone processes is therefore crucial in determining
the amount and quality of groundwater that is available for human use

5.5.1 Hydrological Processes in the Unsaturated Zone

First, there is storage—of water, plant nutrients, and other substances. The
unsaturated zone is not always considered a major storage component of
the hydrologic cycle because it holds only a minute fraction of the earth's
fresh water and this water is usually difficult to extract. But it is of great
importance for water and nutrients of the biosphere.

Second, the unsaturated zone is a zone of transmission of water and other

substances. This is how it has been seen from some hydrologic viewpoints,
as to a large degree it controls the transmission of water to aquifers, as well
as to the land surface, to water on the surface, and to the atmosphere.

It may be a controlling factor in the amount of water that replenishes an

aquifer, or it may yield information that permits this replenishment to be
quantified.

It is often regarded as a filter, removing undesirable substances before they

affect aquifers. This idea contains some truth, but some common
unsaturated-zone processes transport water to groundwater and surface
water bodies with high efficiency and little removal of contaminants.

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Third, the unsaturated zone is a zone of natural and human-induced activity.
Its constituents do not passively reside in place or steadily pass through.

There are transport processes of various kinds, thermodynamic interactions,

and chemical reactions involving both natural and artificial substances.
There is the biological activity of plant roots, rodents, worms, microbiota,
and other organisms.

As a zone of human activity, the unsaturated zone is critical to the

cultivation of plants, construction of buildings, and disposal of waste.

The flow rate of water is often directly of interest, for example in estimating
how fast water moves down to the water table, that is the aquifer recharge
rate.

It also is critical in the transport of contaminants, whether dissolved or in

the form of a nonaqueous liquid or solid. The usual first step in assessing the
rate of spreading of contaminants in the subsurface is to assess the flow
rate of water that moves the contaminant along with it.

5.5.2 Fundamentals of Unsaturated Flow

The most basic measure of the water in an unsaturated medium is water
content or wetness, defined as the volume of water per bulk volume of the
medium. Water is held in an unsaturated medium by forces whose effect is
expressed in terms of the energy state or pressure of the water.

Various types of pressure may be relevant in Unsaturated Hydrology, but

one called the matric pressure or matric potential (arising from the
interaction of water with the rigid matrix) is of unique interest, as it
substantially influences the chief transport processes.

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Matric pressure is the pressure of the water in a pore of the medium relative
to the pressure of the air. When a medium is unsaturated, the water
generally is at lower pressure than the air, so the matric pressure is negative.
Greater water content goes with greater matric pressure. Zero matric
pressure is associated with high (saturated or nearly saturated) water
content.

As matric pressure decreases the water content decreases, but in a way that
is nonlinear and hysteretic. The relation between matric pressure and water
content, called a retention curve, is a characteristic of a porous medium that
depends on the nature of its pores. This relation influences the movement
of water and other substances in unsaturated media and controls the work
that a plant has to do to extract water from the soil.

The Hydraulic Conductivity, a measure of how easily water moves through

the medium for a given driving force, is a second characteristic that is critical
to water movement. The hydraulic conductivity (commonly symbolized K)
has a highly sensitive and nonlinear dependence on the water content.

Usually we assume that the flow rate of water is equal to the hydraulic
conductivity times the driving force (typically gravity and pressure
differences). This relation is known as Darcy's Law.

Applied to unsaturated conditions, it is often called the Darcy-Buckingham

Law in recognition of Edgar Buckingham, who developed the concepts of
matric pressure and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity that are essential in
applying Darcy’s law to unsaturated media.

For quantification when the flow is steady, Darcy's law may suffice on its
own. The more general case of unsteady or transient flow in unsaturated
porous media is a highly dynamic phenomenon, and may be represented
quantitatively by a combination of Darcy's law and the continuity or
conservation law for water.

Richards' equation combines both of these laws in one formula. Use of

Darcy's law requires measured or estimated K over the appropriate range of
moisture states, and Richards’ equation requires knowledge of the water
retention curve in addition to K.

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Other forces may also drive flow under some conditions, as when
temperature or osmotic gradients are significant.

Much unsaturated-zone transport of importance, especially when water is

abundant, occurs through a small fraction of the medium along preferential
paths such as wormholes, fractures, fingers of enhanced wetness, and
contact regions between dissimilar portions of the medium.

This flow, for which there is not yet a widely accepted theory, occurs at
rates typically some orders of magnitude faster than flow through the
remainder of the medium.

5.5.3 Types of Preferential Flow

Three basic modes of preferential flow are:
(a) Macropore flow, through pores distinguished from other pores by
their larger size, greater continuity, or other attributes that can enhance
flow;
(b) Funneled (or deflected or focused) flow, caused by flow-impeding
features of the medium that concentrate flow in adjacent zones that are
highly wetted and therefore conductive; and
(c) Unstable flow, which concentrates flow in wet, conductive fingers.

Common macropores include wormholes, root holes, and fractures. When

macropores are filled with water, flow through them can be fast if there are
no significant restrictions along the path to a region where water can freely
accumulate. Diffuse flow through the remainder of the medium may be
called matrix flow. When completely empty, macropores may conduct
essentially no flow, and may also constitute a barrier to matrix flow.

Macropores that are partly filled with water provide a variety of possibilities
for the configuration and flow behavior of water, such as free-surface film
flow along macropore walls.

Funneled flow commonly occurs with contrasting layers or lenses, where

flow deflected in direction becomes spatially concentrated. The local
increase in matric pressure causes a corresponding increase in hydraulic
conductivity and flux, and usually a change in the predominant direction of
flow.

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Unstable variations in flow and water content, even within a uniform
portion of the medium, can increase flow rates considerably. A typical case
has a layer of fine material above the coarse material.

Downward percolating water builds up significantly at the interface, and

breaks through into the coarse medium at a few points. The material near
individual points of breakthrough becomes wetter and hence much more
conductive.

For some time thereafter, additional flow into the coarse material moves in
the few fingers that are already wet. Between fingers, the medium can be
relatively dry. In addition to textural contrasts, hydrophobicity (water
repellency) and air trapping may cause flow instability.

The preferential domain is here considered as the portion of the pore space
within which the water flux moves over macroscopic distances through
conduits of macroscopic length, conduit being defined as a linearly
extended volume through which water can flow faster than can be
explained in terms of diffuse flow.

In general such a conduit could be a macropore filled with water, or a

fraction of the pore volume that is water-filled, or a narrow path composed
of many microscopic pores of markedly higher water content than the
average water content outside that path.

5.6 Saturated Zone

The saturated zone encompasses the area below ground in which all
interconnected openings within the geologic medium are completely filled
with water. The zone can be separated into two subzones: the phreatic zone
and the capillary fringe.

The phreatic zone is the area in which the interstitial water will freely flow
from pores in the geologic material. Water in the pores of the phreatic zone
is at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure.

The phreatic zone, or zone of saturation, is the area in an aquifer, below the
water table, in which relatively all pores and fractures are saturated with
water. The phreatic zone defines the lower edge of the vadose zone.

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Lying above, and separated from the phreatic zone by the water table, is the
capillary fringe. Capillary action within the voids of the geologic medium
causes water to be drawn upward from the top of the phreatic zone or
captured as it percolates downward from the overlying unsaturated zone.

Unlike the phreatic zone, however, the capillary action causes the water in
the pores to have a pressure that is lower than atmospheric pressure. While
the pores of both subzones are saturated, the different pressures in each
cause the water to behave differently.

Water within the phreatic zone will readily flow out of the pores while the
negative pressures within the capillary fringe tightly hold the water in place.
It is water from the phreatic zone that is collected and pumped from wells
and flows into streams and springs.

Water within the phreatic portion of the saturated zone moves through the
interconnected pores of the geologic material in response to the influences
of gravity and pressure from overlying water.

Rates of groundwater movement within the saturated zone ranges from a

few feet per year to several feet per day depending upon local conditions.
Only in larger fractures or karst systems do velocities approach those seen in
surface flows.

The saturated zone extends downward from the capillary fringe to the
depth where rock densities increase to the point that migration of fluids is
impossible. In deep sedimentary basins, this may occur at depths of
approximately 50,000 feet. At these extreme depths, the voids are no
longer inter-connected or not present.

Localized saturated zones can occur within the unsaturated zone when
heterogeneities within the geologic medium cause differential downward
percolation of water. Specifically, layers or lenses of low permeability, such
as clay or shale, can retard the movement of water in the unsaturated zone
and cause it to pool above the layer. This forms a perched zone of
saturation.

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5.7 Effects of Withdrawal Rate on the level of the Water Table

Groundwater will last indefinitely provided that the withdrawal rate from
wells does not exceed the recharge rate. Unfortunately many aquifers are
being withdrawn at a faster rate than they recharge.

In an aquifer, the soil and rock is saturated with water. If the aquifer is
shallow enough and permeable enough to allow water to move through it
at a rapid-enough rate, then people can drill wells into it and withdraw
water.

The level of the water table can naturally change over time due to changes
in weather cycles and precipitation patterns, streamflow and geologic
changes, and even human-induced changes, such as the increase in
impervious surfaces, such as roads and paved areas, on the landscape.

The pumping of wells can have a great deal of influence on water levels
below ground, especially in the vicinity of the well, as this diagram shows.

Depending on geologic and hydrologic conditions of the aquifer, the impact

on the level of the water table can be short-lived or last for decades, and the
water level can fall a small amount or many hundreds of feet. Excessive
pumping can lower the water table so much that the wells no longer supply
water and therefore they become unproductive wells which can "go dry."

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5.8 Quality of Ground Water

The quality of ground water in some parts of the country, particularly

shallow ground water, is changing as a result of human activities.

Ground water is less susceptible to bacterial pollution than surface water

because the soil and rocks through which ground water flows screen out
most of the bacteria. Bacteria, however, occasionally find their way into
ground water, sometimes in dangerously high concentrations. But freedom
from bacterial pollution alone does not mean that the water is fit to drink.

There are many unseen dissolved mineral and organic constituents that are
present in ground water in various concentrations. Most are harmless or
even beneficial; though occurring infrequently, others are harmful, and a
few may be highly toxic.

Water is a solvent and dissolves minerals from the rocks with which it comes
in contact.

Ground water may contain dissolved minerals and gases that give it the
tangy taste enjoyed by many people. Without these minerals and gases, the
water would taste flat.

The most common dissolved mineral substances are sodium, calcium,

magnesium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, and sulfate. In water
chemistry, these substances are called common constituents.

Water typically is not considered desirable for drinking if the quantity of

dissolved minerals exceeds 1,000 mg/L (milligrams per liter).

Water with a few thousand mg/L of dissolved minerals is classed as slightly

saline, but it is sometimes used in areas where less-mineralized water is not
available. Water from some wells and springs contains very large
concentrations of dissolved minerals and cannot be tolerated by humans
and other animals or plants.

Some parts of the country are underlain at depth by highly saline ground
water that has only very limited uses. 14 Dissolved mineral constituents can
be hazardous to animals or plants in large concentrations; for example, too
much sodium in the water may be harmful to people who have heart

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trouble. Boron is a mineral that is good for plants in small amounts, but is
toxic to some plants in only slightly larger concentrations.

Water that contains a lot of calcium and magnesium is said to be hard. The
hardness of water is expressed in terms of the amount of calcium carbonate
— the principal constituent of limestone — or equivalent minerals that
would be formed if the water were evaporated.

Water is considered soft if it contains 0 to 60 mg/L of hardness, moderately

hard from 61 to 120 mg/L, hard between 121 and 180 mg/L, and very hard if
more than 180 mg/L. Very hard water is not desirable for many domestic
uses; it will leave a scaly deposit on the inside of pipes, boilers, and tanks.

Hard water can be softened at a fairly reasonable cost, but it is not always
desirable to remove all the minerals that make water hard.

Extremely soft water is likely to corrode metals, although it is preferred for

laundering, dishwashing, and bathing.

Ground water, especially if the water is acidic, in many places contains

excessive amounts of iron. Iron causes reddish stains on plumbing fixtures
and clothing. Like hardness, excessive iron content can be reduced by
treatment.

A test of the acidity of water is pH, which is a measure of the hydrogen-ion

concentration. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 indicates neutral
water; greater than 7, the water is basic; less than 7, it is acidic. A one unit
change in pH represents a 10-fold difference in hydrogen-ion concentration.
For example, water with a pH of 6 has 10 times more hydrogen-ions than
water with a pH of 7. Water that is basic can form scale; acidic water can
corrode.

Water for domestic use should have a pH between 5.5 and 9. In recent years,
the growth of industry, technology, population, and water use has increased
the stress upon both our land and water resources.

Locally, the quality of ground water has been degraded. Municipal and
industrial wastes and chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides not
properly contained have entered the soil, infiltrated some aquifers, and
degraded the ground-water quality.

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Other pollution problems include sewer leakage, faulty septic-tank
operation, and landfill leachates. In some coastal areas, intensive pumping
of fresh ground water has caused salt water to intrude into fresh-water
aquifers.

In recognition of the potential for pollution, biological and chemical analyses

are made routinely on municipal and industrial water supplies. Federal,
State, and local agencies are taking steps to increase water-quality
monitoring.

Analytical techniques have been refined so that early warning can be given,
and plans can be implemented to mitigate or prevent water-quality hazards.

5.9 Contamination of Ground Water

Groundwater can become contaminated in many ways. If surface water that

recharges an aquifer is polluted, the groundwater will also become
contaminated. Contaminated groundwater can then affect the quality of
surface water at discharge areas. Groundwater can also become
contaminated when liquid hazardous substances soak down through the
soil into groundwater.

Contaminants that can dissolve in groundwater will move along with the
water, potentially to wells used for drinking water. If there is a continuous
source of contamination entering moving groundwater, an area of
contaminated groundwater, called a plume, can form.

A combination of moving groundwater and a continuous source of

contamination can, therefore, pollute very large volumes and areas of
groundwater.

Many processes can affect how contamination spreads and what happens
to it in the groundwater, potentially making the contaminant more or less
harmful, or toxic. Some of the most important processes affecting
hazardous substances in groundwater are advection, sorption, and
biological degradation.

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Soil and rock have a natural ability to filter contaminants out of ground
water. The electrostatic charges of clay minerals attract and remove
contaminant particles from ground water.

However, large amounts of contaminants can be a huge problem if they

enter the ground water and they can be difficult and expensive to remove.

Contaminants include raw sewage, pesticides, fertilizers, and heavy

metals. Chemical storage facilities, landfills, mines, and factories contribute
contaminants.

Low density contaminants may float on water and occupy the top level of an
aquifer, whereas denser contaminants sink to the aquifer's
bottom. Contaminants may also dissolve in the water.

5.10 Groundwater and Global Water Distribution

As these charts show, even though the amount of water locked up in

groundwater is a small percentage of all of Earth's water, it represents a
large percentage of total freshwater on Earth. The pie chart shows that
about 1.7 percent of all of Earth's water is groundwater and about 30.1
percent of freshwater on Earth occurs as groundwater.

As the bar chart shows, about 5,614,000 cubic miles (mi3), or 23,400,000
cubic kilometers (km3), of groundwater exist on Earth. About 54 percent is
saline, with the remaining 2,526,000 mi3 (10,530,000 km3), about 46 percent,
being freshwater.

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5.11 Land Subsidence

A negative consequence of extraction of ground water too fast is land

subsidence. Without ground water filling pore space, the aquifer compacts
and the surface of the land drops (and the aquifer is ruined).
Some aquifers are being artificially recharged to prevent them from
compacting. Cities are pumping natural floodwaters and treated
wastewater back into the ground.

5.12 Ground Water and Caves

Groundwater with dissolved CO2 gas produces carbonic acid (H2CO3). This
acid may dissolve rocks like limestone and dolomite, producing caves.

Most caves form from ground water circulating below the water table
where the water dissolves bedrock. Caves that are subsequently elevated
above the water table (by a drop in the water table or by uplift of the land)
can begin to fill in again by calcite precipitation (dissolved Ca2+ and HCO31-
may precipitate as calcite).

Calcite deposits that form from water dripping from the ceilings of caves are
called stalactites. Calcite deposits that from from water dripping onto cave
floors are called stalagmites.

Underground caves may become visible as depressions on Earth's surface if

the roofs collapse and form depressions in the land surface. These
depressions are called sinkholes.

Sinkholes are common in areas underlain by limestone, but also form in

areas underlain by evaporates. Areas with many sink holes and cave systems
below the land surface are said to have karst topography.

5.13 Hot Groundwater

Hot springs are springs with a temperature warmer than human body
temperature. Hot springs form when:
1) Ground water circulates near a magma chamber.
2) Ground water circulates unusually deep within the earth.

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A Geyser is a hot spring that periodically erupts hot water and steam. The
pulsing is usually due to a “constriction” in the underground plumbing of
the Geyser.

When hot groundwater from a geyser reaches Earth's surface, it cools and
precipitates minerals around the opening. Thermophilic bacteria may live in
the deposits, staining them with colour.

Hot water and steam from the ground constitute a form of energy called
geothermal energy. This energy can be used to generate electricity or even
as a direct form of heating.

Geothermal energy does not result in the production of greenhouse gases.

However, geothermal fluids can emit poisonous gases and may contain
dissolved heavy metals that must be disposed of properly.

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