REMOTE SENS. ENVIRON.
29:121-134 (1989)
Airborne Imaging Spectrometer Data
of the Ruby Mountains, Montana:
Mineral Discrimination Using Relative
Absorption Band-Depth Images
James K. Crowley, David W. Brickey, * and Lawrence C. Rowan
U.S. Geological Survey
A i r b o r n e imaging spectrometer data collected in
the near-infrared (1.2-2.4 t~m) wavelength range
were used to study the spectral expression of meta-
morphic minerals and rocks in the Ruby Moun-
tains of southwestern Montana. The data were
analyzed by using a new data enhancement proce-
d u r e - t h e construction of relative absorption
band-depth (RBD) images. RBD images, like band-
ratio images, are designed to detect diagnostic
mineral absorption features, while minimizing re-
flectance variations related to topographic slope
and albedo differences. To produce an RBD image,
several data channels near an absorption band
shoulder are summed and then divided by the sum
o f several channels located near the band mini-
mum. RBD images are both highly specific and
sensitive to the presence of particular mineral ab-
sorption features. Further, the technique does not
distort or subdue spectral features as sometimes
occurs when using other data normalization meth-
ods. By using RBD images, a number of rock and
soil units were distinguished in the Ruby Moun-
tains including weathered quartz-feldspar peg-
matites, marbles of several compositions, and soils
developed over poorly exposed mica schists. The
*Currently with EG&G Energy Measurements, Las
Vegas.
Address correspondence to James K. Crowley, U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, MS 927, Reston, VA 22092.
Received 30 lanuary 1989; revised 2 1une 1989.
© U.S. Geological Survey
RBD technique is especially well suited for detect-
ing weak near-infrared spectral features produced
by soils, which may permit improved mapping of
subtle lithologic and structural details in semiarid
terrains. The observation of soils rich in talc, an
important industrial commodity in the study area,
also indicates that RBD images may be useful for
mineral exploration.
INTRODUCTION
Imaging spectrometers are remote sensing instru-
ments that provide detailed radiometric data for
every picture element comprising a digital image
(Goetz et al., 1985). With this type of spectral
information, many rocks and minerals, as well as
some plant species, have been remotely identified
and mapped (Vane and Goetz, 1988). The results
reported in this paper were obtained with data
from the first Airborne Imaging Spectrometer
(AIS-1), a near-infrared (1.2-2.4 /~m) instrument
developed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and
flown on a National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration C-130 Hercules aircraft from 1983 to
1986. The work represents part of ongoing studies
at the U.S. Geological Survey to evaluate the use
of imaging spectrometer data in geologic mapping,
121
122 Crowley,Brickey, and Rowan
LEGEND FLIGHT LINE NO.
Tertiary
Volcanic rocks
Precambrian
:'-¢~" ' ~ ,V-~.~
Granite gneiss ~.~- ,!
~ Marble
Pegmatite
Hornblende gneiss,
amphibolite
Miles
o 1
I MountainsAIS-1 flight lines(adapted from Heinrich, 1960).
o
Kilometers
mineral resource assessment, and other Earth sci-
ence applications.
Most geologic studies using imaging spectrom-
eter data have focused on well-exposed arid areas
of the western United States (Kruse, 1988;
Hutsinpillar, 1988) or on heavily vegetated targets
where the spectral characteristics of the vegetation
were of primary interest (Peterson et al., 1988;
Rock et al., 1988). Relatively little attention has
been paid to semiarid sites that are transitional in
character between arid, sparsely vegetated and
humid, hilly vegetated, climatic regimes. In this
report we examine AIS-1 data collected over a
semiarid site in the Ruby Mountains of southwest-
ern Montana (Fig. 1). This site was selected for
two reasons: 1) to study the spectral expression of
the area's diverse amphibolite-grade metamorphic
rocks, and 2) to test image processing and analysis
techniques for dealing with moderately heavy
rangeland vegetation cover and limited rock expo-
sures. Many different lithologies are present in the
Ruby Mountains area including marbles of several
compositions, granite gneiss, as well as other vari-
eties of gneiss and schist, ultramafic rocks, volcanic
flows, diabase dikes, quartz-feldspar pegmatites,
and alluvium (Heinrich, 1960). Soil and minor rock
exposures in the Ruby Mountains typically com-
prise 20-60% of the surface, the balance being
covered with vegetation. An image processing
strategy was developed that permitted subtle soil
2
" . ' ° ' ° " ".
* ° ' ° ° ° °°
° ° ' ° * ° ° °°
°°'°*°° **
+°'o°÷° °°
*°'.'°° "°
"°'*" °
*'°°°" °°
°!.°°°°°
÷~°'°* °.
9"
iiii::~..~.
°°
÷°.°
Montana
Figure 1. Geologic maps for areas covered by the Ruby
Latitude/longitude for line centers: 1) 45°11'30 '',
112°25'00"; 2) 45°06'30 ", 112027'00 ''.
and rock absorption bands to be discerned while
avoiding several calibration and data quality prob-
lems that other researchers have encountered with
AIS-1 datasets.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Ruby Mountains, located approximately 12
km east of the town of Dillon in southwestern
Montana, derive their name from the abundant
garnets (locally called rubies) that occur in some
residual soils of the area (Heinrich, 1960). The
mountains are a northeast-southwest trending
range composed of three major units of Precam-
brian metamorphic rocks. The oldest unit, desig-
nated by Heinrich (1960) as pre-Cherry Creek
Group rocks, consists mainly of coarse-grained
gneiss that includes biotite-garnet gneiss, granite
gneiss with variable amounts of garnet, hornblende
gneiss, and amphibolite. The second major unit is
the Cherry Creek Group, a diverse assemblage of
petrologic types, including dolomitic, calcitic, and
scapolitic marble, calcsilieate (especially tremolite
and diopside) schist, muscovite, biotite, chlorite,
and siUirnanite schist, hornblende gneiss, biotite
gneiss, quartzite, and hypersthene-magnetite
schist (Heinrich, 1960). The third major unit is the
Dillon Granite gneiss of Heinrich (1953), a tabular
plutonic mass of quartz, microcline, plagioclase,
 Mineral Discrimination with Imaging Spectrometer Data 123
and minor biotite, that lies between the pre-Cherry
Creek rocks to the southeast and the Cherry Creek
Group to the northwest. The Dillon Granite Gneiss
has a maximum exposed width of about 8 km and
also has injected both of the older pre-Cherry
Creek and Cherry Creek units with numerous sills
and stringers (Heinrich, 1960). Individual layers
within the Precambrian rock units trend northeast.
Dips are generally to the northwest, although there
are exceptions as described by Heinrich (1960).
Crosscutting the three major metamorphic units
are irregular, generally small, intrusive bodies of
peridotite. Pegmatites, quartz veins, and diabase
dikes also are widely distributed, with the larger
veins and dikes attaining lengths of several kilome-
ters. Small remnants of Tertiary volcanic flows
overlie the Precambrian rocks in some areas.
There are numerous economic and subeco-
nomic mineral occurrences in the Ruby Moun-
tains. Small nickel (annabergite) deposits are asso-
ciated with the ultramafic rocks; talc deposits,
graphite deposits, a corundum deposit, and a siz-
able deposit of banded iron ore occur in the Cherry
Creek Group. Only deposits of talc and graphite
have been actively mined, and talc continues to be
an important commodity for the region. Talc de-
posits occur in the Cherry Creek marble units as
replacement bodies that range from pods and vein-
lets a few centimeters across to irregular bodies
extending over several tens of meters (Heinrich,
1960).
DATA COI,I,ECTION AND ANALYSIS
Four flight lines of AIS-1 data were acquired on 25
July 1985, along approximately 100 km of ground-
track. Each AIS-1 flight line is 32 pixels wide, and
each pixel covers an ll.4-m 2 area, providing an
image swath width of about 0.36 km. The spectral
sampling interval of the AIS-1 data is 9.3 nm
throughout the 1.2-2.4 gm wavelength range. Ad-
ditional details of the AIS-1 instrument design and
performance characteristics may be found in Goetz
et al. (1985) and Vane and Goetz (1988).
After an initial examination of the data to
determine the exact flight line locations, two areas
that were known from fieldwork to contain an
especially good assortment of lithologic types were
selected for detailed study. The two study areas,
together covering about 10 km of groundtrack, are
outlined on geologic maps in Fig. 1. Soil and rock
samples were obtained from the study areas over
the course of three field seasons (1984-1986).
Near-infrared spectra of these samples were
recorded in the laboratory by using a Beckman
Instruments Model UV 5240 spectrophotometer
equipped with an integrating sphere attachment
(Crowley et al., 1986). Selected samples were ana-
lyzed by X-ray powder diffraction to determine the
sample mineralogy.
The AIS-1 data were processed in several
stages. Prior to our receipt of the data, a labora-
tory-derived radiometric correction had been ap-
plied to the raw data to remove channel to channel
signal offsets related to variations in detector ele-
ment sensitivity. Initially, these radiometricaUy-
corrected data were vertically destriped and then
normalized for topographic and albedo effects us-
ing an equal-energy procedure (Goetz et al., 1985;
Kruse, 1988). Next, a 3 ×3 pixel box filter was
applied to reduce high frequency noise in the
spatial dimension. The wavelengths of the AIS-1
channels were determined using an alignment pro-
cedure involving known atmospheric CO 2 features
positioned near 2.1/zm (Krohn, 1986).
Efforts to calibrate the data to absolute re-
flectance by means of field spectral measurements
(Roberts et al., 1985) met with little success, chiefy
because the variable vegetation cover made it dif-
ficult to find large spectrally uniform ground cali-
bration targets. In addition, this particular AIS-1
dataset, like many others, was affected by second-
order light contamination from the spectrometer
gratings, i.e., energy leakage occurred from shorter
wavelengths into the signal measured by the de-
tectors positioned longward of 1.60 gm (Conel
et al., 1988; Huntington et al., 1986). Even if
suitable ground calibration targets had been avail-
able in the study area, the second-order light con-
tamination from the gratings would still have in-
troduced severe reflectance artifacts in the
"calibrated" reflectance spectra. The second-order
light problem also precluded the use of linear
mixing models for calibration purposes (Smith et
al., 1987) and required us to consider alternative
image analysis procedures,
Instead of trying to calibrate AIS data by using
the measured reflectance of ground targets, several
researchers have developed data normalization
techniques that yield "relative reflectance spectra."
For example, Kruse (1988) normalized AIS data by
124 Crowley, Brickey, and Rowan

dividing the spectrum of each image pixel by the TRUE A B S O R P T I O N

average spectrum of the entire flight line. A similar BAND DEPTH
concept was followed by Hutsinpillar (1988), who
employed the "log-residual" normalization method a d
uJ b c
developed by Green and Craig (1985). Both Kruse o
(1988) and Hutsinpillar (1988) pointed out that z
data normalization by using a single, internally
derived, reference spectrum can result in spectral o
tIJ
_J
curves that are distorted from those observed in Lt.
true reflectance spectra. In fact, weak mineral tIJ
rr
absorption features can be masked or eliminated
entirely (Clark and King, 1987). This presents an
especially difficult problem in semiarid regions,
where spectral signahtres of rocks and soils are
diluted by vegetation cover and the amount of
vegetation in any given pixel may be quite differ-
ent from the average amount for the entire dataset. RELATIVE ABSORPTION
To avoid this problem, we developed a new BAND DEPTH
method for displaying mineral absorption features
in the Ruby Mountains AIS-1 data. The method
uses images of relative absorption band depth gen- a b
" ~ RBD-- a+b+c+d
erated directly from the radiometrically-corrected,
box-filtered data. Relative band-depth (RBD) im-
uJ
O
z
<
-,,,
ages, like band-ratio images, are designed to detect r~
the presence of diagnostic mineral absorption lea- <
o-
hares, while minimizing reflectance variations re-
lated to topographic slope and albedo differences
(Rowan et al., 1974). Like ratio images, RBD
images only provide a semiquantitative measure of
absorption intensity--assuming no ground target-
based calibration is possible. Unlike broadband
ratio images (e.g., those made with Landsat Multi- Figure 2. Relative absorption band-depth concept. Digital
spectral Scanner and Thematic Mapper data), RBD numbers (DNs) a,b .... of channels flanking an absorption
band are summed (on a per pixel basis) and then divided by
images use spectral channels that closely define a the sum of DNs from channels centered near the band mini-
single absorption feature, causing the images to be mum. The upper diagram shows a hypothetical mineral re-
extremely specific for detecting minerals that ex- flectance spectrum and the channels needed to define the
hibit the feature. In essence, RBD images provide band depth of its absorption feature. The lower diagram
depicts uncalibrated AIS data, where the overall shape of the
a local continuum correction (see Clark and Roush, radiometric curve is dominated by atmospheric absorption
1984), removing any small channel to channel and the solar radiance function. Calculating the relative ab-
radiometric offsets, as well as the variable atmo- sorption band-depth provides a local continuum correction
and permits mineral absorption features to be discerned with-
spheric absorption and solar irradiance compo- out applying other normalization procedures.
nents for each pixel in a dataset. To produce an
RBD image, several data channels from both ab-
sorption band shoulders are summed and then other) technique for analyzing imaging spectrome-
divided by the sum of several channels from the ter datasets, because the signal from the ground
absorption band minimum (Fig. 2). In the present will occupy too small a portion of the system
study, as many as seven spectral data channels dynamic range. However, small radiometric offsets
were combined in each RBD image, resulting in a will not adversely affect RBD results.
roughly 2.5 × improvement in signal to noise. As a In deciding which RBD images to generate,
practical matter, extreme channel to channel ra- we focused on the 2.1-2.4 /~m wavelength range
diometric offsets will thwart the RBD (and any (e.g., 34 of the 128 available data channels), where
 Mineral Discrimination with Imaging Spectrometer Data 125

many minerals including carbonates, clays, amphi- Table 1. Airborne Imaging SpectrometerChannels Used to
boles, and micas, produce diagnostic spectral ab- Construct Relative Absorption Band-Depth (RBD) Images
sorption bands. Carbonate minerals exhibit a major RBD Image Channel Wavelength (gm)
absorption feature between 2.31 and 2.35 ttm, the 2.20 2.133, 2.142, 2.151 shoulder 1
precise band position depending on the mineral 2.198, 2.207, 2.217 minimum
2.31 2.254, 2.272 shoulder 1
composition. Minerals that contain aluminum and
2.375, 2.384 shoulder 2
hydroxyl typically show a strong feature near 2.20 2.300, 2.310, 2.319 minimum
gm. Minerals rich in magnesium and hydroxyl 2.33 2.254, 2.272 shoulder 1
typically produce a strong but relatively narrow 2.375, 2.384 shoulder 2
2.328, 2.338 mlnlmum
absorption band near 2.31 gm and show a subordi- 2.34 2.254, 2.272 shoulder 1
nate band near 2.38 #m. A complete discussion of 2.375, 2.384 shoulder 2
near-infrared (NIR) mineral absorption band loca- 2.338, 2.347 minimum
2.355 2.282, 2.291, 2.300 shoulder 1
tions and assignments may be found in Hunt and 2.375, 2.384 shoulder 2
Salisbury (1970; 1976). 2.347, 2.356 minimum
Initial work with RBD images showed that the 2.38 2.338 shoulder 1
2.403 shoulder 2
choice of channels used to define an absorption 2.375, 2.384 minimum
band was important to the success of the method
(Brickey et al., 1987). The best results were ob-
tained when the shoulder channels (Fig. 2) were
chosen relatively close to the band center. Such an below], which exhibit a displacement of the cal-
approach may not give the maximum spectral citic carbonate band from the usual position near
contrast but does yield greater image specificity 2.33 #m to slightly longer wavelengths in some
and ease of interpretation. Because of an abrupt line 2 samples. The 2.355 and 2.38 gm RBD
decrease in the raw digital-number values occur- images were examined for both flight lines; how-
ring near 2.24 gm in the AIS-1 data (an effect of ever, the area covered by flight line 1 did not show
the second-order light contamination), the data any 2.355 g m absorption, and the flight line 2 area
were not suitable for constructing RBD images did not exhibit any 2.38 gm absorption. Therefore,
with band centers positioned between 2.23 and these two RBD images were not used in the subse-
2.29 gm. This problem interfered with the detec- quent principal components analysis, discussed be-
tion of certain minerals, such as chlorite-group low.
minerals, which have diagnostic absorption fea- RBD images in the 2.1-2.4 gm wavelength
tures near 2.25 gm (Hunt and Salisbury, 1970). range often are negatively correlated, inasmuch as
Also, in the case of the 2.20 gm RBD image, the reflectance peaks for one mineral may correspond
channels from one band shoulder were not useable to troughs in another. In addition, the absorption
because of the second-order light contamination. band defined in a single RBD image may be
Therefore, instead of a true RBD image, a 2.20 gm produced by more than one mineral--a form of
band-ratio image was produced by using only the positive correlation. Finally, a single area on the
short wave.length shoulder channels in the RBD ground surface may produce a mix of absorptions
numerator. Like the other RBD images, this image occurring at several discrete wavelengths--again
showed a high degree of specificity and presented leading to positive correlations between RBD im-
no special interpretation problems. Table 1 lists ages. Given these kinds of correlations, a principal
the AIS-1 channels used to construct each RBD components (PC) transformation can provide an
image examined in the current study. Note that efficient m e a n s for extracting and compressing
the 2.34 g m RBD image was used instead of the spectral information and for suppressing noise from
2.33 ~m image to map calcitic marble on flight a set of images (Sabins, 1987). Without data com-
line 2. Although both the 2.33 and 2.34 gm RBD pression, numerous color composite images would
images showed generally similar spatial distribu- be necessary to display all of the RBD image
tions of absorbing minerals on line 2, the 2.34 gm spectral variation. (The number of color composite
image indicated slightly more intense absorption. images would equal the number of RBD images
This is consistent with laboratory spectra obtained minus 2.) Accordingly, a principal components
for field samples [Figs. 4a) and 4b), discussed transformation was performed for each flight line
126 Crowley, Brickey, and Rowan

Table 2. Minerals Detected by Relative Absorption Band- WAVENUMBER (IO001CM)

Depth (RBD) Images, Ruby Mountains, Montana 40 5

[
20
H'P''' I . . . . I ' I
Band Minimum
RBD Image (#m) Minerals Detected
6RANITE
Flight Line I GNEISS
1 2.20 muscovite, iUite/smectite,
vermiculite, kaolinite
2 2.31 dolomite, talc, tremolite, z
I.--
Mg-mica
3 2.33 calcite, antigorite tJ.l
J
4 2.38 talc, tremolite LL 6REEN ~
Flight Line 2
1 2.20 muscovite, i l l i t e / s m e c t i t e
vermiculite, kaolinite
2 2.31 dolomite, talc, tremolite,
Mg-mica
Z, I . . . . I . . . . w . . . .
l/ I ~ , ,
\ ,

0.5 i.O 1.S 2.0 2.S

3 2.34 calcite + muscovite
4 2.355 scapolite WAVELENGTH (#M)
Figure 3. Vegetation index concept. A ratio value is calcu-
lated that depicts the spectral slope between 1.26 and 1.58
using sets of four RBD images as the input data /zm. The 1.26/1.58/~m ratio is primarilya measureof vegeta-
(see Tables 2 and 3). Three of the resulting princi- tion moisture content, with increasing moisture producing
stronger water absorption beyond 1.26/~m, resulting in a
pal components images were then composited to higher ratio. The ratio does not distinguishbetween differing
produce a color image for each flight line. vegetation moisture contentsand differingvegetationamounts.
To estimate the amount of vegetation cover in Rocks and soils in the Ruby Mountainsarea generallyhave a
ratio value < 1.0.
different portions of the study area, a vegetation
density index was calculated for each pixel by
taking the ratio of three channels centered at 1.26 bare soils and rocks collected in the Ruby Moun-
# m to three channels centered at 1.58 #m. Plants tains area generally gave ratio values near one
exhibit a broad reflectance maximum in the 0.8-1.3 (Fig. 3). The soils in this particular study area are
/xm wavelength range but show decreased re- rather uniform in albedo (see Fig. 5, discussed
flectance towards longer wavelengths because of below). Thus, soil brightness variations should not
leaf water absorption (Knipling, 1970). In the ratio contribute significantly to the vegetation ratio vari-
construction used here, vegetation exhibits a ratio ations, a potential problem identified by Elvidge
value substantially greater than 1, whereas the and Lyon (1985). The choice of channels for con-
structing a vegetation density index was rather
Table 3. Eigenvector Matrices Used to Construct Principal limited in this dataset, which does not include
Component (PC) Images spectral coverage of the commonly used chloro-
Flight Line i phyU absorption feature near 0.68 #m. The chan-
Green Red Blue nels used in the vegetation ratio construction were
RBD Images PC-1 PC-2 PC-3 PC-4 constrained by the need to avoid major atmo-
2.20 # m 0.50 0.60 0.41 - 0.48 spheric water vapor absorption bands and to mini-
2.31 p m - 0.35 0.56 - 0.70 - 0.26 mize second-order light contamination, which is
2.33 p m - 0.14 0.57 0.24 0.77 significant at wavelengths longer than 1.6 #m.
2.38/~m 0.78 - 0.03 - 0.53 0.32
P e r c e n t explained: 42 37 12 9
Multiple channels were used to improve signal to
noise.
Flight Line 2
Red Green Blue
RBD Images PC-1 PC-2 PC-3 PC-4
RESULTS
2.20/~m 0.58 - 0.25 - 0.77 - 0.02
2.31/xm 0.22 0.85 - 0.12 0.47
2.34 g i n 0.57 0.28 0.35 - 0.69 As stated previously, soils and rocks commonly
2.355 p m 0.54 - 0.38 0.51 0.55 exhibit absorption features near 2.20, 2.31-2.35,
P e r c e n t explained: 53 25 14 8 and 2.38/~m, related either to c a t i o n - O - H vibra-
 Mineral Discrimination with Imaging Spectrometer Data 127

..... ''I'''''''''
tions (e.g., M g - O H or M - O H ) or to vibrations of ' ....... ' 1 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 1 ........ '1''

the carbonate anion group. Such absorption fea- .(D) SCAPOL ITE
tures were evident in the Ruby Mountains, as MARBLE [
illustrated b y laboratory reflectance spectra for
representative samples from the area [Figs. 4a),
4b), and 5]. X-ray powder diffraction analyses show 2 . 2 ~ 2. 355
the local softs to consist mainly of quartz, feldspar, Ld
0
illite/smectite, chlorite, or vermiculite, and in some Z
<
places, talc or tremolite. Different proportions of
these minerals cause different absorption features (_3
Ld
to be expressed (Fig. 5). Based on a general knowl- _J
LL
Ill
rv
Figure 4a). Near-infrared diffuse reflectance spectra recorded
in the laboratory for representative rock samples collected
along flight line 1. The weathered quartz-feldspar pegmatite t
2.34
exhibits a 2.20-/~m band because of clay mineral A1-OH
absorption. The carbonate marbles exhibit carbonate absorp-
tion bands centered at 2.31 and 2.33/~m for dolomitic and ....... ,,I,,,,,,,,,1,,,,~,,,I,,,, ..... I,~,,,,,,
calcitic compositions, respectively. Tremolite marble exhibits
Mg-OH bands at 2.31 and 2.38/~m. Spectra are displaced 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
vertically for viewing purposes and the individual spectra
have reflectances at 2.5/~m of 51, 50, 33, and 21% (top to WAVELENGTH (//M)
bottom). The small vertical bar indicates a 5% reflectance Figure 4b). Near-infrared dithse reflectance spectra recorded
interval. Letter labels refer to areas shown on Fig. 7. in the laboratory for representative rock samples collected
along flight line 2. The scapolite marble sample exhibits bands
at 2.20 and 2.355/~m due to the presence of hydroxyl and
(K) PEGMATITE carbonate in the scapolite structure. The micaceous calcite
marble displays a band near 2.34 /~m due to carbonate
+ K-mica, and a mica A1-OH band near 2.20 /~m. The
spectra are displaced vertically for viewing purposes and have
(c) TREMOLITE ~z reflectances at 2.5/~m of 21 and 35% (top curve and bottom
curve, respectively). The small vertical bar indicates a 5%
reflectance interval. Letter labels refer to areas shown on
Fig. 7.
(B) DOLOMITIC
MARBLE
_
LU edge of mineral NIR absorption features and on
C~
Z 38 the known occurrence of the minerals whose spec-
<
l-- tra are shown in Figs. 4 and 5, RBD images were
(A) CALCITIC \ V / x~
constructed to map mineral distributions over the
ILl
_J two study areas.
IJ_ Figures 6a) and 6b) show RBD images pro-
W
13£ duced for flight lines 1 and 2, respectively; Table 2
lists the band centers and the various minerals that
the images are intended to discriminate. Note that
the individual RBD images have a neutral gray
tone over most of the image area and brighter
digital number (DN) values for those areas that
have more intense mineral absorption. Each image
is highly sensitive to the particular absorption fea-
ture that it is designed to detect. For example, in
~,,,,,lil,,,,,,,,,l,,,,,,,,,l,,,,,,,,,l,,,,,,,,,
Fig. 6a), the 2.31 and 2.33/~m images show dif-
2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
ferent patterns of absorption despite their wave-
WAVELENGTH (//M) length separation of only 20 nm [area A, Fig. 6a)].
128 Crowley, Brickey, and Rowan
......... I ......... I ...... '''I'''''''''I''''
(G) TALC-RICH
SOIL
W (H) CLAY-RICH ~k~/ ~--~,.~
0 SOIL " 2 . 3
Z in the channels used to define the closely-spaced
i-- ~ ,2.20
W
_J (I) QUARTZ-RICH
LL
W SOIL
OL
r
,,,,,,,,,|,,,,,,,,,I,,,,,,,,,I,,,,,,,,,I,,,,,,,,,
2.0
2.4 2.2 2.3
WAVELENGTH (,zzM)
Figure 5. Near-inkared diffuse reflectance spectra recorded
in the laboratory for selected soil samples from flight line 1.
Virtually all of the area's soils fall into three categories: G) Soil
that contains substantial talc or tremolite, in addition to the
days indicated under type H. Type G soft produces 2.31 and
2.38/~m absorption teatures. H) Soil with substantial clay
mineral content (chiefly iUite/smectite mixed with chlorite or
vermiculite). These soils typically exhibit weak, asymmetrical
2.20/~m features related to A1-OH absorption. I) Soil rich in
quartz and feldspar but poor in clay minerals. Such soils have
nearly featureless spectra. Spectra are displaced verticaUy for
viewing purposes and the individual spectra have reflectances
at 2.5/~m of 34, 36, and 21% (top to bottom). The small
vertical bar indicates a 5% reflectance interval. Letter labels
refer to areas shown on Fig. 7.
Also note that the 2.31 and 2.355 /~m images in
Fig. 6b) provide an example of strong negative
correlation for the minerals dolomite and scapolite.
Dolomite's spectrum rises from an absorption min-
imum &t 2.31 #m to a maximum near 2.35 /tm,
whereas scapolite's spectrum shows the reverse
relationship [Figs. 4a) and 4b)]. Thus, some high
DN areas (white) in the 2.31/xm image correspond
to extreme lows (black) in the 2.355 /am image
[area M, Fig. 6b)].
Further examination of the RBD images [Figs.
6a) and 6b)] shows that many areas exhibit more
than one absorption feature. A typical combination
involves 2.20/~m absorption, related to clay miner-
als and white micas, coupled with 2.31 or 2.33 #m
absorption associated with carbonate marbles [for
. . . . . example, see areas below and left of arrow A, Fig.
6a)]. The 2.20 and 2.31 /lm RBD channels are
[ widely separated in wavelength and involve min-
eral absorption features that do not overlap. On
the other hand, the 2.31 and 2.33/~m RBD images
show some areas of correlation (bright pixels pre-
1 ~ sent in both images), probably related to overlap
calcite and dolomite absorption features. This illus-
trates a potential problem in the interpretation of
the RBD images, namely that strong areas of ab-
sorption observed in one RBD image may have
weaker, associated absorptions in other RBD im-
ages that are nearby in wavelength. The severity of
this problem was difficult to evaluate in the Ruby
Mountains due to the heterogeneous nature of the
lithologic units. However, the principal compo-
nents image enhancement technique, described
2.4 2. s below, does tend to suppress band-to-band correla-
.... tion, and the resulting PC images were in excellent
accordance with field observations.
Figures 7a) and 7b) are color images formed
by compositing the first, second, and third princi-
pal component images generated by using the four
RBD images (Fig. 6) as input to the PC transfor-
mations. The two flight lines involved different
RBD input images and were treated separately in
the PC transformations, causing the color schemes
of the resulting color composite images to be dif-
ferent. Table 3 gives the red-green-blue color
assignments and lists the loading factors used to
apportion the RBD spectral response among the
individual PC images. (Example--the first PC for
flight line 1 has strong positive loadings from the
2.20 and the 2.38/~m RBD images.) Table 4 lists
the surface materials that correspond to various
image colors.
In Fig. 7, four different marble compositions
are distinguished including calcite, dolomite, talc-
tremolite, and scapolite varieties, shown in areas
A, B, C, and D, respectively. Also detected were
soil units exhibiting strong 2.20 #m (Al-OH) ab-
sorption (areas E and F, Fig. 7). These soils are
associated with poorly exposed mica schists that
ar.e not shown as separate units on the geologic
map (Fig. 1). Previously unmapped talc-rich soils
were also detected at one location (area G, Fig. 7;
spectrum G, Fig. 5). However, talc and tremolite
have nearly identical spectral curves in the 1.2-2.4
/~m wavelength range, and the two minerals are
 Mineral Discrimination with Imaging Spectrometer Data 129

Figure 6. Relative absorption band-depth images for flight

lines 1 [a)] and 2 [b)]. Labels show the absorption band centers
(also see Table 2). The area marked A on the 2.33 #m image
is calcitic marble. Compare the absorption pattern to that
shown in the adjacent 2.31 #m image, which shows dolomitic
marble in the same vicinity. This illustrates the specificity of
S RBD images for detecting particular mineral absorption lea -
tures--even features separated by only 20 nm in wavelength.
Arrow M marks an area of low absorption on the 2.355 ftm
image that corresponds to extremely high absorption on the
2.31 #m image. This is an example of strong negative
correhtion between the minerals dolomite and scapolite on
RBD images. See the text for additional discussion.
130 Crowleff, Brickey, and Rowan

K~

Figure 7. Principal component images of Ruby Mountains

AIS-1 flight lines 1 [a)] and 2 [b)]. Refer to Tables 3 and 4 for
information on color assignments. A) Calcite marble; B)
dolomite marble; C) tremolite marble; D) scapolite marble; E)
micaceous soil exhibiting strong 2.20/~m absorption, devel-
oped over a mica ~hist unit; 17) soft unit exhibiting strong
2.20/~m absorption despite moderate vegetation cover; G)
talc-rich soil exhibiting 2.31 and 2.38 pm absorption; H)
clay-rich soil with moderate 2.20 pm absorption; I) soil with
lower clay content showing weak 2.20 pm absorption; J) soil
unit exhibiting 2.20 pm absorption through heavy vegetation
cover; K) weathered quartz-feldspar pogmatite showing 2.20
/~m clay mineral absorption; L) micaeeous carbonate unit with
combined 2.31, 2.34, and 2.20/~m absorption; M) weU-ex-
posed dolomite marble used as the low-vegetation endmember
in Fig. 8; N) completely vegetated area used as the other
endmember in Fig. 8.
 Mineral Discrimination with Imaging Spectrometer Data 131

Table 4. Mineralogie Interpretation of Principal Component (PC) Image Colors

PC Primary Absorption Area in Surface
Image Color ColorComponents Features PC Image Materials
Flight Line I [Fig. 7A)]
Magenta red, blue 2.33 (s)a A calcite marble,
2.20 (w) clay-rich soil
Lt. cyan-blue blue, red 2.20 (s) E,K muscovite in soil,
clay-rich soil,
weathered feldspar
pegmatite
Orange red, green 2.31 (s) B dolomite marble,
2.20 (m) clay-rich soil,
2.33 (w) calcareous soil
YeUow-green green, red 2.38 (s) C, G talc or tremolite
2.20 (m) marble and
2.31 (w) associated soil
Dk. blue-green blue, green Absence of I, H vegetation or nearly
features featureless soil

Flight Line 2 [Fig. 7B)]

Red red 2.20 (s) F, J muscovite in soil,
2.355 (w) scapolite
Green green 2.31 (s) M dolomite marble
Yellow green, red 2.31 (s) L dolomite marble,
2.34 (s) calcite marble w /
2.20 (m) muscovite
Magenta red, blue 2.355 (s) D scapolite marble,
2.34 (m) calcite marble w /
2.20 (w) muscovite
Dk. blue blue Absence of N vegetation or
features featureless soil
a(s) = strong, (m) = moderate, (w) ~ weak.

not distinguishable from each other in the AIS-1
data. [Compare area G, talc soil, and C, tremolite
marble, Fig. 7a).]
Vegetation index (e.g., ratio) values were stud-
ied in conjunction with the RBD images. An effort
was made to determine whether differences in
RBD image absorption intensity were the result of
mineralogical variations or vegetation density vari-
ations. Both situations were encountered. For ex-
ample, the RBD images showed areas H and I in
Fig. 7a) to have different 2.20 /zm absorption
intensities. These areas were determined from the
vegetation index values to have uniform vegetation
cover that was noted in the field to consist of
sparse dry grass and sagebrush. Laboratory spec-
tral analysis of soil samples from the two areas
verified a difference in the strength of the clay
absorption features located near 2.20/~m (Fig. 5,
spectra H and I). The second situation, e.g., dif-
fering amounts of vegetation cover over similar
mineralogical units, is illustrated in Fig. 7b), areas
F and J, where strongly absorbing 2.20 /~m soil
units have different degrees of vegetation cover.
Area J is noteworthy because its relatively high
vegetation ratio value of 1.71 indicates a substan-
tial amount of vegetation cover. Using vegetation
ratio values, an attempt was made to quantify the
amount of vegetation cover present in this part
and in other parts of the study area. Figure 8
shows vegetation ratio values and estimated vege-
tation cover percentages for a number of field
sites. The points in the figure are plotted on a line
determined by the highest and lowest ratio values,
coupled with field observations on the amount of
vegetation present at those two sites. These field
estimates of the end-point vegetation density are
approximate, and an error range of + 10% is indi-
cated by the shaded area around the center line.
From the diagram, area J is seen to have about
65% vegetation cover. Area F, which shows some-
what more pronounced 2.20 /~m absorption [Fig.
6b)], is less vegetated and has about 50% cover.
Field sites H and I, discussed above, again can be
seen to have about the same amount of vegetation
cover, approximately 25%. Figure 8 is drawn so
that a ratio value of 1.84 corresponds to 100%
132 Crowle~1,Brickey, and Rowan
100
80
60
Pe rc e nt
V e g e t a t io n . :!i:.l~i:::.:'i. ~.::::"
(dry) 40
2o . . . .
0 t
1.4 1.5 1.6
Band
1.2611.58
Figure 8. Estimated percent vegetation for various vegeta-
tion index values. Letters refer to field sites indicated in Fig.
7. See text for discussion.
vegetation cover. It should be noted that in some
areas vegetation ratios greater than 1.84 were ob-
served. Such high ratios were associated with for-
est cover and with areas of moist soft and more
vigorous vegetation. Thus, the 1.84 ratio cutoff
value used in Fig. 8 is only applicable to the
relatively dry grass and shrub cover that is the
dominate vegetation in the study area.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The use of RBD images helped to avoid several
problems that otherwise would have impeded the
interpretation of the Ruby Mountains AIS-1 data.
One problem is that there were no large homoge-
neous ground targets in the study area that could
be measured for spectral calibration purposes.
Moreover, the problem of second-order light con-
tamination in this and other AIS-1 datasets would
have limited the value of any calibration effort
based on the use of ground targets or modeling of
linear mixtures between spectral endmembers.
Normalization of the Ruby Mountains data by
using an internally-derived reference spectrum was
also undesirable because the variable amount of
vegetation cover from pixel to pixel would have
introduced large normalization errors in the result-
ing relative reflectance spectra. We expect that
this normalization problem will be common to all
semiarid study areas.
N The RBD technique associates spatial patterns
with specific absorption features, which may in
.::ii!:: turn be attributed to a limited number of miner-
alogical causes. The technique therefore does pre-
serve some of the determinative character of imag-
::!~:~:i:: :~!:::::: ing spectrometry and has other merits that make it
suitable for a wide range of applications. RBD
images offer a good method for discerning the very
subtle absorption features exhibited by soils. De-
spite the fact that the AIS-1 was a prototype
imaging spectrometer system and had rather low
signal to noise, subtle spectral contrast differences
1.7 1.8 1.9 corresponding to a few percent in reflectance were
Ratio evident for some Ruby Mountains softs (e.g., spec-
Micrometers
tra H and I, representing areas H and I, Figs. 5
and 7). The results also show that a strongly ab-
sorbing soft or rock unit, such as area J in Fig. 7b),
can be detected even if the spectral signature is
diluted by substantial vegetation cover. In this
study, distinctive soft units were observed over
several poorly exposed mica schists, which were
not shown as separate units on the existing geo-
logic maps. Here, and in other semiarid areas, NIR
spectral differences between softs may provide a
basis for mapping subtle lithologic and structural
details that would not otherwise be discernable.
RBD images may also be usehft in mineral
resource surveys, especially in cases where the
mineral(s) of interest, or associated minerals, are
known to have diagnostic absorption bands. For
example, the industrial mineral talc produced diag-
nostic spectral features that permitted it to be
observed in rocks and softs of the Ruby Mountains.
This indicates that imaging spectrometer data
might be useful for locating new deposits of talc in
this region. RBD images can be used to rapidly
screen a large imaging spectrometer dataset for
talc or other specific mineral occurrences. RBD
images also provide an opportunity to study the
spatial distribution of minerals like talc with re-
spect to other minerals, lithologies, and structural
trends.
One disadvantage of the RBD approach fol-
lowed here is that it presumes some knowledge
about the absorption features likely to occur in a
particular geologic setting. Although there is sub-
stantial mineral spectroscopy experience to draw
upon, it is conceivable that some mineral absorp-
tion features could be overlooked. Given the signal
to noise and other problems with the Ruby Moun-
 Mineral Discrimination with Imaging Spectrometer Data 133
tains AIS-1 dataset, there were relatively few band
depth images in the 2.1-2.4 /~m wavelength re-
gion that could be constructed. However, newer
imaging spectrometer datasets will permit the
analysis of a large number of RBD images, includ-
ing images spanning several different bandwidths.
In this case, it should be feasible to systematically
consider all of the RBD combinations in the 2.1-2.4
/~m wavelength range. Given n channels of data,
the total number of RBD combinations would be
given by
/1--8,
s=2
where s is the number of channels spanned by a
particular RBD image or set of images. I Not all of
the possible RBD images would actually have to
be examined because many would be either too
narrow or too broad to be useful for detecting
mineral absorption features. Surveys of NIR spec-
tra of rock-forming minerals (e.g., Hunt and
Salisbury, 1970; Clark et al., forthcoming) indicate
that their absorption bandwidths generally range
from about 40 to 100 nm. Given current imaging
spectrometer designs that provide a spectral sam-
piing interval of about 10 nm between channels,
the most usehd RBD combinations would be those
spanning from four to about 10 channels. Follow-
ing these assumptions, 161 RBD combinations
would have to be examined to conduct a thorough
spectral analysis of the 2.1-2.4 /~m wavelength
range. An automated procedure for identifying
useful RBD images based on a statistical screening
algorithm is currently being studied.
Other problems remain to be Solved before
high spectral resolution remote sensing data can be
exploited to hdl potential in semiarid regions. Most
important perhaps is the need for adequate spatial
resolution to permit mineral signatures to be dis-
cerned in the presence of patchy vegetation cover.
In this study, it was necessary to spatially filter the
AIS-1 data to improve the signal to noise to an
acceptable level. However, filtered data are not
suitable for observing bare soil and rock signatures
through small breaks in the vegetation cover, i.e.,
1The formula only considers symmetrical band possibili-
ties and assumes no channel averaging to improve signal to
noise.
pixels that are relatively free of vegetation are
degraded by spatial filtering. Such pixels are espe-
cially important in semiarid regions for defining
subtle structural trends and for characterizing the
surface mineralogy. When processing new imaging
spectrometer data of semiarid targets, workers
should take this problem into consideration by
minimizing the use of spatial filtering.
CONCLUSIONS
Relative absorption band-depth images provide a
simple and effective means for discerning mineral
absorption features in airborne imaging spectrom-
eter datasets. The RBD technique can be applied
to radiometrically-corrected data in situations
where calibration to percent reflectance is infeasi-
ble. Further, the technique does not distort or
subdue spectral features as sometimes occurs when
using other normalization methods. The RBD
technique is especially well suited for detecting
weak near-infrared spectral features produced by
soils and may permit improved mapping of subtle
lithologic and structural details in semiarid regions.
As experience is gained with newer imaging spec-
trometers that provide coverage of a wider swath
than the AIS-1 (Vane and Goetz, 1988), the value
of mapping soil spectral contrasts should become
increasingly evident.
RBD images will also prove useful in regional
surveys for economic mineral resources. If the
objective of a mineral survey is known, for exam-
ple, to locate new talc deposits, RBD images can
be used to rapidly examine a large remote sensing
dataset to identify those areas that display the
diagnostic absorption features. In this type of ap-
plication, calibration of imaging spectrometer data
to percent reflectance may not be warranted. The
RBD technique is well-suited for enhancing spec-
tral signatures that are intrinsically weak or are
partially obscured by vegetation cover--both im-
portant problems from an exploration perspective.
Other semiarid regions like the Ruby Moun-
tains should provide rewarding targets for imaging
spectrometer studies. Because soils and vegetation
have subdued the surface expression of the geo-
logic substrate, semiarid regions are difficult to
characterize by using standard geologic field meth-
134 Crowley, Brickey, and Rowan
ods. As a result, the geology of m a n y semiarid
regions remains poorly known, and the potential
for u n e x p e c t e d r e m o t e sensing discoveries is high.
Several reviewers took the time to study and offer constructive
criticism of this manuscript. For this we are grateful to D.
Klein, D. Knepper, and two anonymous referees. We also
thank the National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Land Processes Branch for supporting our request to obtain
AIS data of the Ruby Mountains.
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