Assignment 1:

Political and military changes in the 11th and 12th centuries

Jakob Ostwald

20045931

In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the political and military power in the Iberian

Peninsula moved away from Córdoba and into Toledo. After the golden age of Al-Andalus in

the tenth century, the power of the Umayyads waned until it was finally broken with the Berber

sack of Córdoba in 1013, causing power to localize and new centres of power to form. The

former provinces of Córdoba began fighting amongst themselves as well as with the various

Christian kingdoms of the north, causing chaos to reign in the peninsula and creating a power

vacuum to be filled from either within or without. Toledo began to emerge as a preeminent

force in the peninsula under Al-Mamun and continued to rise after Alfonso VI’s conquest, but

the Almoravids and later the Almohads of North Africa will challenge the natives for control.

Politically and militarily the eleventh and twelfth centuries are a bleak time for the people of Al-

Andalus who witness the changes that come from the Christian kingdoms and the Berbers of

North Africa gaining ever increasing power and influence at their expense, whilst their leaders

use mercenaries to raid and ransack neighbouring lands.

King Alfonso VI was able to demand protection money from any taifa North of Gibraltar

with reasonable fear of his retribution should they fail to deliver, marking the new balance of
power in the area. Abd Allah ibn Buluggin, Emir of Granada, writes in his memoir about the

seriousness of Alfonso’s threat by describing Alfonso’s dealings in neighbouring territory. He

states that Alfonso “raised a large force and then came looking for money and threatening

those who refused. He concluded a treaty with the prince of Zaragoza… who staved off

trouble… by paying him”. He then continues, commenting that “on receiving this news I

became more anxious than ever” demonstrating the real influence that Alfonso had even after

his defeat by the Almoravids at Zallaqa nine years before. The Emir is further troubled by the

potential repercussions of paying tribute to Christians whilst officially under the protection of

the Almoravids just across the water who would surely be paying close attention. Abd Allah

was right to be troubled by this matter, as he was sent to exile by the Almoravids upon their

return for paying the proposed tribute. The power and influence of Alfonso continued to be

felt by Muslims after the Almoravid invasion, and Maria Menocal suggests in her book

Ornament of the World that “Most of the taifa kings had concluded that Alfonso himself would

be a more congenial overlord (than the Almoravids)” and that many taifas “ended up appealing

to Alfonso for help in opposing the very Muslims they had originally brought in to protect

themselves against him.” Pg 142. This constant reliance on outside forces for protection

demonstrates one of the main trends of the eleventh and twelfth centuries for the taifas of

Iberia, who, no longer united will always be forced to pay tribute to an overlord until their

eventual conquest by Christian kingdoms.

The prevalence of battles declined in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and raiding and

besieging became more commonplace. The prominence of mercenaries in the peninsula and
their unreliable nature meant that an army could often be assembled for the right price, but

also sent away for a larger sum. Perhaps more importantly, mercenaries prefer raiding and

sacking to battles as there is ample loot to be had with far less risk to oneself. One clear

example of the nefarious nature of armies and warfare during this time is that of Rodrigo Diaz

de Vivar. ‘The Cid’ acquired near mythical status among later generations for his exploits,

described in detail in the ‘Song of the Cid’. In this tale the Cid sent out this message in order to

assemble a force to besiege Valencia: “Whoever wishes to go with me to besiege Valencia, let

him come freely and of his own accord, for there is no compulsion.” This summons starkly

contrasts with what would be expected in feudal Europe or other parts of the Mediterranean,

as in nearly all other areas duty and service are expected, and coercion or the threat thereof

enforces this duty. Here the promise of riches and plunder are the only things needed to

assemble an army. This is verified later in the song when it says, “The proclamation was carried

everywhere, and all who scented plunder came in haste.” The importance of besieging and of

starving the besieged out is also clear to see in this period, as this is the safest and most reliable

way of capturing a city. The Cid knew this, and “year after year the Cid deprived them (the

Valencians) of their food… they were at their wits end being cut off from food on all sides.”-

song of the Cid. Similar tactics were employed by Alfonso VI during his capture of Toledo. The

Primera crónica general de España describes Alfonso’s strategy as follows “As soon as he

arrived, he took all the crops, the vineyards, and the other fruits away from all the surroundings

of Toledo. King Alfonso did this for four years”. This bleak war of attrition would eventually

take its toll on those inside the city until they eventually surrendered. This style of warfare is

much less strenuous and less expensive than a pitched battle, because the soldiers are able to
feed themselves on the stolen food and few are lost, and clearly in contrast with the rapid

conquests of the early Arab invasions.

Toledo became the political centre of the peninsula during the reign of Al-Mamun, and

remined the home of the most powerful and influential people in the peninsula long after. Al-

Mamun, Emir of Toledo was a significant force in the peninsula and was able to protect the

young Alfonso VI during his exile until he was able to devise a way back into power. Maria

Menocal describes the connections that where available to Alfonso in Toledo by saying that

“Alfonso himself had engineered the uprising and the murder, from his comfortable exile in Al-

Mamun’s court.” Pg 137. After Alfonso VI successfully captured Toledo he later, in the words of

Menocal: “His new capital was declared the principal see of the church on the Iberian

Peninsula.” Pg 143. This increased the prestige and influence of the original Visigoth Capital

even further, solidifying the political centre of Iberia in Toledo and ushering in a new era and a

new balance of power.