LANDFORMS AND LANDSCAPE PROCESSES

VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES

 As plates collide, slide past each other or pull apart from each other, stress builds up within them
 This eventually cause the rocks in the lithosphere to break suddenly along the fault
 As the rocks break they shake the ground i.e. they cause earthquakes.
 Once the cracks have been formed along the fault, molten magma and other gases trapped
inside the mantle find their way into the crust. This is called volcanic activity
 Vulcanicity refers to a process whereby solid, liquid and gaseous igneous materials are forced
into the earth’s crust or on the earth’s surface
 Intrusive vulcanicity is when the igneous material is moved inside the earth’s crust.
 Extrusive vulcanicity is the ejection of igneous materials onto the earth’s surface
 Volcanology is the study of these ejection processes and volcanoes that result from the
processes.
 There is a close association between plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions

VOLCANOES

 Volcanic activity is mostly concentrated along plate boundaries such as mid-oceanic ridges,
island arcs, oceanic trenches/deeps, faulting and folding ridges

VOLCANIC ERUPTION
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 The earth’s interior is made of very hot mass of liquid (molten) rocks, and gases kept under
pressure below the lithosphere.
 If a crack in form of faults develops, these gases and molten materials pour onto the earth’s
surface or at some point inside the earth’s crust.
 This process is called volcanic eruption
 The eruption process is usually violent since magma and gases are under a lot of pressure such
that if any crack forms, they quickly expand.
 The gases produced are very hot and polluting
 These gases trigger thunderstorms since they add condensation nuclei in the atmosphere
(relationship between vulcanicity and climate explained)

 The thunderstorms also lead to mud flows of ash and cinder called lahars
 Volcanic eruption also lead to the throwing up of small rocks into the air.
 Molten material from the earth’s interior is called magma
 Magma comes out through an opening called a vent/hole or fissure (crack)
 When magma reaches the surface it is called lava
 The lava then piles up to form a mound or cone-shaped hill known as volcanic cone
 A volcanic cone is made up of layers of lava, ashes and cinders (small fragments of lava)
 The layers form because volcanoes lay down different materials at different intervals
 During eruption, rocks and ash are thrown out first to form the first layer on the surface
 This is then followed by lava which spills over through the vent to cover the ashes and rocks
 The process continues until a mound or pile of alternating layers of lava and ash is formed,
known as a composite cone.
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 Some cones are made of almost entirely of cinders and ash while other may be made of purely
lava
 The top of the cone usually has a hole known as a crater
 The crater can be filled with water to form a crater lake.

VOLCANIC PLUGS

 When volcanic eruption stops, lava inside the vent or pipe cools and solidifies to form a vertical
hard rock at the centre of the upland.
 When layers of lava, cinder and ash are washed away by erosion, this steep-sided, tower-like
feature is exposed.
 Volcanic plugs are also known as necks.
 Examples of volcanic plugs are Tororo Rock in Uganda and Wase Rock in Nigeria.

CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES

Volcanoes can be grouped according to the nature of the material being ejected or the shape of
the volcanic cone

Using this criteria there is Acid lava and Basic lava

Acid Lava

 Contains a high percentage of silica

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 It has a lower melting point of 700 C
 It is highly viscous, meaning that it is thick and sticky and it solidifies quickly
 Its lava flows slowly and it moves short distances before solidifying
 Since it is viscous and less mobile, it produces steep-sided dome-shaped volcanic cones
 Acid lava usually results in the formation of volcanic plugs or spines.
 Volcanic plugs close the vent and help to build pressure underground leading to further violent
eruptions
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 When all other materials have been eroded, volcanic plugs are exposed.
 Examples of volcanic plugs are Tororo Rock in Uganda and Wase Rock in Nigeria.

Basic Lava

 It is reach in iron and magnesium and has low silica content.

 It is highly fluid and it can flow over long distances before solidifying
 It flows at greater speeds of more than 40km/hour
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 It has a higher melting point of 1’200 C
 It is associated with less violent volcanic eruptions but very hot lava flows
 Because of its fluid nature, basic lava produce gently sided and extensive features known as
basic lava or shields

Volcanoes can be classified using shape of the volcanic cones

There are six main volcanic types namely fissure, basic or shield, acid or dome, ash and cinder,
composite cone and the caldera

Fissure Volcanoes

 This has more than one fissures or cracks where lava eject through
 On fissure volcanoes, lava erupts to the surface through these numerous cracks/fissure
 The fissure can extend for long distances
 Lava piles up to great heights forming lava plateau
 Examples include Mafungabusi plateau in Gokwe North, Nyamurore plateau in Nembudziya, Al-
Harujal-Aswad plateau in Libya, Drakensberg Mountains, Ethiopian plateau, Jos plateau in
Nigeria

Basic or Shield Volcanoes

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 This is gently sloping since it was made up of highly mobile lava

 The lava flows out of a central vent
 Examples include Mauna Loa on Hawaii, Nyamlagira in the DRC

Acid or Dome Volcanoes

 This is steep-sided since lava quickly solidifies

 The summit is dome-shaped
 The lava can solidify in the pipe to produce a spine (plug) as in Mount Pelee in the West Indies,
Tororo Rock and Wase Rock.

Ash and Cinder Volcanic cones

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 These cones are gently sided and slightly concave-shaped cone.

 They are made of alternating layers of ash and cinder

Composite Volcanic Cones

 Most volcanic cones are of this type.

 It is a steep sided cone made up of layers of lava and ash
 It may develop secondary pipes known as dykes and associated conelets or parasitic cones
 Examples include Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon, Mount Cameron and Mount
Etna in Italy

Calderas
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 These are volcanic cones with large craters

 The large craters are usually filled with water to form caldera lakes
 Calderas are formed either by subsidence or violent eruption or by disintegration
 Examples include Longonot near Nairobi, Ngorongoro crater in Kenya, Lake Bosutwi in West
Africa and Lake Shala in Ethiopia.

Volcanoes are also classified according to the eruption. This classification is based on the degree
of violence of the explosion:

1. Icelandic style- lava flows gently from a fissure

2. Hawaiian style- lava is emitted gently buy from a number of vents
3. Strombolian style- lava emission is violent due to viscous lava
4. Vulcanian style- the eruptions consist of gases, ash and cinder which are violent
5. Versuvian style- the violent eruption of gases produces dark clouds. These eruptions take place
after periods of inactivity
6. Plinian style- these explosions produce the most violent eruption of gases made of fine ash
7. Palean style- a strong lateral blast of gases occurs due to solidified lava

Volcanoes are also classified according to the frequency of eruption

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A. Active volcanoes- these can erupt any time

B. Dormant volcanoes- these have erupted in recent times
C. Extinct volcanoes- these have not erupted in historic times

OTHER MINOR EXTRUSIVE VOLCANIC FEATURES

Mild Volcanoes

 These volcanoes form when hot water from volcanic activity mixes with mud and other surface
materials to produce a bubbling volcano

Solfatara

 This is created when sulfurous gases are released from the earth’s crust
 This volcanic feature does not have a cone but it might have crater wider than 2km
 Example is Solfatara volcano in Naples, Italy

Fumaroles

 These volcanic features are formed by superheated water turning into steam as it cools on its
ejection from the ground

Geysers
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 These are formed when water in the earth’s crust is heated by hot volcanic rocks to produce
steam
 The production of steam forms some cavities or openings and this creates pressure, resulting in
steam and water exploding onto the surface
 Geysers form natural fountains of hot water
 An example is Old Faithful in the Yellowstone National Park in USA

Hot Springs

 These are formed by superheated water flowing out quietly from the ground
 In Zimbabwe these are found in the Nyanyadzi hot springs area and Binga in the Zambezi Valley

INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS FEATURES

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 All volcanic activities that take place on the earth’s surface are called extrusive volcanic forms
 In real life, a very little magma reaches the earth’s surface since most of it is intruded into the
crust and solidifies inside forming intrusive igneous landforms
 The importance of these features is only seen after the features have been exposed to the earth’s
surface by erosion
 The intrusive landforms are classified according to their shape, the mode of formation as the
magma moves along lines of weakness in the rocks and how they look when exposed by erosion

1. Batholith-

A large mass of magma, which accumulates in the earth’s crust.

When exposed by erosion these batholiths form large granite uplands.
Sometimes they form root or core of mountains.
They form dwalas and low-lying hills when they are exposed by denudation. An example
is Domboshava near Harare.
2. Sill-
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This feature is formed when magma intrudes along bedding planes or joints in
sedimentary rocks.
In tilted rock layers the sill can form escarpments if exposed by erosion.
Others remain as caps on the top of hills after erosion
3. Dyke-

Dykes are formed when magma cuts across bedding planes.

Dykes may be exposed by erosion.
If dykes are made of hard rock, they form ridges and if they are made of soft rock they
easily erode and depressions may be formed.
Dykes can be vertical or inclined.
Dykes lead to formation of waterfalls for example Howick Falls in South Africa
4. Laccolith-

When magma intrudes along a bedding plane it arches up or it piles up to form dome-
shaped laccoliths.
They have a pipe-like feeder coming from the magma pool deep down.
Laccolith forces sedimentary rock to curve up.
They form low-lying hills when they are exposed.
Example is Mt Mlanje in Malawi
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5. Lopolith

If magma is forced to move along a bedding plane, it forms a crescent-shaped or saucer-like

landform called a lopolith.
The Great Dyke of Zimbabwe is a good example of a lopolith (however it should have been
called a lopolith not a dyke)
Lopolith may form depression to hold water or form lakes

CASES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

DATE PLACE EFFECT

21 August 1986 A cloud of dense gas was
emitted from Lake Nyos in
Cameron
18 May 1980 Mount St Helens in the USA
threw 400 million tonnes of
volcanic material into the
atmosphere
13 November 1985 A volcano erupted in Nevada
with huge flow of hot ash, ice and
water called lahar
It killed over 1’700 people in
nearby villages
It destroyed forests and floods
and mud flows wiped away local
homes
23 000 people died

NEGATIVE EFFECTS/DANGERS OF VOLCANOES

1. Highly mobile lava such as basic lava kill animals, people and destroying vegetation
2. Volcanic eruptions trigger heavy rains by providing water vapor and condensation nuclei.
3. The heavy rains and falling ash produce mud flows (lahars) which can destroy homes,
infrastructure and towns
4. Small hot rocks and dust thrown in the sky during eruption kills people or bury settlements
5. Dangerous gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphides and carbon
monoxide released into the atmosphere causes health problems
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6. Volcanic eruptions produce huge clouds of very hot gases (more than 1000 C) mixed with dust
which destroy everything on the earth’s surface
7. Volcanic activity trigger landslides resulting in destruction of human life, flora and fauna and
physical features
8. Volcanic activity triggers tsunamis which destroy coastal areas. (Tsunamis are large waves that can
be as high as 20 metres and move with speeds of 800km/hour towards coastal areas. Tsunamis cause
drowning of people for example in Krakatoa, south east of Asia 30 000 people drowned in 1883)
9. Etc

THE POSITIVE EFFECTS/BENEFITS OF VOLCANOES

1. Lava weathers to form fertile soils for example the fertile basaltic clays of the south-east lowveld
of Zimbabwe.
2. Volcanic activity is associated with precious minerals such as platinum, gold, diamond, emerald
etc for example the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe.
3. The superheated water or steam can be used to generate geothermal electricity for example in
Iceland
4. Volcanic areas are tourist attractions for example hot springs and geysers
5. Igneous rocks can be used for building purposes
6. Ash from volcanic eruptions has skin healing properties
7. Caldera lakes can be a source of irrigation water
8. Volcanic uplands are used for sporting activities
9. Etc

EARTHQUAKES

 These are sudden vibrations or tremors in the earth’s crust that are caused by the movement of
tectonic plates as they slide, fold or collide or simply move due to internal pressure
 Earthquakes are mostly found along plate margins such as mid-oceanic ridges, volcanic arcs,
deep sea trenches and transform faults
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 Earthquakes are shock waves transmitted from a focus which lie anywhere from the surface to
300km underground
 The point directly above the focus (source of shock) is called the epicenter
 Shock waves or seismic waves move from the epicenter to the surrounding areas.
 Earthquakes cause most damage if they their focus is closer to the surface.

MEASUREMENTS OF EARTHQUAKES

 Earthquakes are measured with a seismometer which records the amplitude of seismic waves
 The two measurements for earthquakes are magnitude and intensity
 Magnitude is the degree of shaking caused by earthquake waves while intensity is energy
released in an earthquake
 Magnitude is measured using a Richter Scale which ranges from 0 to 8.9
 Intensity is measured by a Mercalli Scale. This is a fixed scale of 0 to 12 where 0 means it was
not felt at all and 12 was total destruction
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DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES IN ZIMBABWE

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 The major occurrences of earthquakes in Zimbabwe are found in the Kariba area along the
Zambezi Valley
 Most of these earthquakes are associated with the infilling of Lake Kariba as well as with changes
in the level of the water in the Lake
 The other significant concentration of earthquakes is found in the south-east of the country
around the Save Valley and Chipinge area

WHAT TO DO BEFORE A VOLCANIC ERUPTION OR AN EARTHQUAKE?

1. Put in place fire extinguishers, first aid kit, battery-powered radio, flashlight and extra batteries at
home
2. Learn first aid
3. Learn how to turn off gas, water and electricity
4. Make a plan for where to meet your family after a disaster
5. Remove heavy objects from shelves
6. Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards and appliances to the walls or floor
7. Learn the volcano or earthquake plan at your workplace or school

WHAT TO DO DURING A VOLCANIC ERUPTION

1. Leave the area immediately if you are warned to leave

2. If you are inside, close all windows and doors.
3. Place damp towels where gas can come in
4. If outside look for shelter in a car or building
5. Move to higher ground to avoid being caught by lahars
6. Sit under metal tables or beds during earthquakes
7. Never panic during the disaster

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

 They cause vertical or lateral displacement of the crust

 They lead to landslides and the opening up of deep cracks on the earth’s surface
 They cause lowering or rising of sea floors
 They cause tsunamis

IMPACT ON PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1. They destroy human life due to collapse of buildings

2. The destroy infrastructure such as roads, railway lines and power plants
3. Collapse of amenities such as clinics and schools
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4. Destroy both wild and domestic animals due to landslides, tsunamis and faulting

NB: in developed countries and rural areas, the effects of earthquakes are felt more. This is
because of the following reasons:

1. Many villages are built on sloppy terrains such as mountain sides

2. There is poor communication system in rural areas resulting in many deaths
3. There is lack of contingency plan for dealing with immediate physical effects of earthquakes in
developing countries
4. Water and sanitation provision is usually poor and easily affected resulting in a high risk of post
event disease and infection
5. Local medical facilities are usually poor and they are unable to respond to any emergencies
6. The houses are built of poor materials such as farm bricks and dagga which easily disintegrate
during earthquakes
7. Buildings and settlements are poorly planned so they are easily affected by floods from bursting
dams
8. Aid supplies are often slow in reaching the affected areas because of their remote nature and
poor communication

WHAT TO DO AFTER AN EARTHQUAKE?

 Check yourself and others for injuries and provide first aid to anyone in need
 Check water, gas and electricity lines for damage and shut off the valves if they are damaged
 Turn on radio or phone
 Stay out of damaged buildings
 Be careful around broken glass and debris, wear boots or sturdy shoes
 After a volcano stay indoors away from volcanic ash
 When outside wear mask, boots and goggles after a volcano

End of form 3 topic