Water, 𝐇𝟐 𝐎

 Liquid H2 O cover 71% of the earth’s surface

 Water, 𝐇𝟐 𝐎
 Inorganic compound

 Gas, liquid and solid state

 Pure 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 boils at 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 C and melts at 𝟎𝟎 C at standard

sea level of 1 atmosphere or 760 mm 𝐇𝐠.

At higher altitudes, pure 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 boils at lower temperature.

 Tasteless and odorless liquid at room temperature

 Solid 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 is less denser than the liquid 𝐇𝟐 𝐎.

 Universal solvent, Hydrolytic property

 High polarity
 High heat capacity, 𝐐

The heat required to raise the temperature

𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐞 𝑱
of one gram of liquid 𝐇𝟐 O, 1.0 𝐠𝟎 𝐂 or 4.2 𝐠𝟎𝐂

𝒈
 Density of liquid H2 O at 𝟐𝟓𝒐 , 𝛒 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟕𝟏 ;
𝐜𝐦𝟑
𝒈
at 𝟗𝟓𝒐 𝑪, 𝛒 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟏𝟗 𝐜𝐦𝟑 ;
𝒈
at 𝟎𝒐 𝑪, 𝛒 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟖 𝐜𝐦𝟑

𝒈
 Density of solid H2 O at 𝟎𝒐 𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟔𝟕 𝐜𝐦𝟑

𝒈
 Maximum density at 𝟑. 𝟗𝟖𝟎 𝐂 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐦𝟑
Entropy of vaporization

 Increase in entropy upon

vaporization of a liquid
𝐉
substance, 118.8 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝟎 𝑪

Viscosity
 Resistance of a fluid substance to
move or flow, 0.8903 cP (centipoise)
 Surface tension

property of a liquid substance to

𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒
resist an external force, 𝟕𝟏. 𝟗𝟕
𝑐𝑚

pH
potential of H;
degree of acidity or
alkalinity.
 Autoionization
Acid-base chemical reaction process by which atom or
molecule in an excited state emits one of the outer shell
electrons
 𝐇𝟐 O is amphoteric, either acid or base
𝐇𝟐 𝐎(𝒍) + 𝐍𝐇𝟑 (𝒂𝒒) ↔ 𝐍𝐇𝟒+ (𝒂𝒒) + 𝐎𝐇(𝒂𝒒)
−
acidic

𝐇𝟐 𝐎(𝒍) + 𝐇𝟐 𝑺(𝒂𝒒) ↔ 𝑯𝟑 𝑶+
(𝒂𝒒) + 𝐇𝐒 −
(𝒂𝒒) basic

 Oxidation-reduction
chemical reaction process in which electrons are transferred.

𝟐𝐍𝐚(𝒔) + 𝟐𝐇𝟐 𝐎(𝒍) → 𝟐𝐍𝐚+

(𝒂𝒒) + 𝟐𝐎𝐇 −
(𝒂𝒒) + 𝐇𝟐 (𝒈)
Sources of Water
 Ground water
 Drawn from under the ground

 Underground streams and aquifers.

 Cracks and spaces in soils, sand and

rock
 Surface Water
 Water bodies found on top of a
forming terrestrial waterbodies

 Blue water

 Permanent or perennial surface

water – persist throughout the
year and is replenished by
ground water and when there is
little precipitation

 Semi-permanent or ephemeral
surface water – persist for only
part of the year.
Waste water
 Water used for domestic. industrial and storm
sewage purposes

 Sewage and Non-sewage waste water

 Storm Water
 Water originally coming from heavy rain, storm or
snow melt down
Types of Water

Potable water:
 Safe to drink, pleasant to taste,
and usable for domestic purposes.

Palatable water:
Esthetically pleasing has
chemicals not a threat to human
health
Contaminated or polluted water:
 Contains unwanted physical, chemical,
biological, or radiological substances, and unfit
for drinking or domestic use.

Infected water::
 Contaminated with pathogenic organism.
Drinking water
Drinking water
 Tap water
- originates from piped water supply

 Mineral water
- originates from mineral spring
containing S, Mg and Ca

 Spring or glacier water

- originates from flowing spring or
glacier free from toxins
  Sparkling water
- carbonated water or soda water with
infused 𝐂𝐎𝟐 while under pressure.

 Distilled water
- water boiled, steam at condensed to liquid
form.

 Purified water
- tap water or ground water free from harmful
materials such as bacteria, fungi and parasites
Flavored or infused water
- water with infused sugar or artificial sugar and
other natural and artificial flavorings

 Alkaline water
- water with higher pH level than normal
tap water and contains alkaline minerals and
negative oxidation reduction potential

 Well water
- untreated ground water
Quality standard for drinking water

 Clear, no objectionable taste, odor and color

 Pleasant to drink and free from all harmful organisms,

chemical substances and radionuclides

 Measured in terms microbiological, physical, chemical and

radiological constituents
Uses of water
 Uses of water
 Bathing
 Cooking

 Hydropower  Drinking
 Tourism  Recreation

 Transportation  Industries
  Fisheries  Photosynthesis

 Brushing of teeth  Washing

Prevent constipation Healthy joints Loss weight Prevent illness

Perspiration Glowing skin

Good mood Good blood circulation
 Water Contamination
 Sewage releases

 Naturally occurring chemicals and minerals e.g

As, Ra, Ur

 Local land uses e,g fertilizers, pesticides,

livestock, concentrated feeding operations

 Manufacturing processes e.g heavy metals, CN

 Malfunctional onsite-waste water treatment e.g

septic system
  Protection and propagation of fish,
shellfish and wildlife
Water Quality, WQ  Recreation
 Public drinking water
 Agricultural, industrial, navigational
and other purposes
Core of Water Quality Standard

 Designated use – expected use of water bodies

 Permitted maximum pollutant
 Criteria – desirable conditions of water bodies concentration levels

 Antidegradation requirements – maintenance and protection requirement

 Laws and ordinances to

maintain and protect
water bodies
Water Quality Indicators
𝑚𝑔
 Dissolved oxygen (DO) – oxygen concentration of 6.5 – 8 𝐿
or
between 80 – 120%

 pH scale: 6.5 – 8.5

 Water temperature = temperature of surrounding

𝑚𝑔
 Salinity: < 600 − 900 𝐿

 Nutrients (N & P)

 Toxicants: free from bacteria, human and animal drugs

 Turbidity: Not cloudy or murky

Thermochemistry
 Thermochemistry
 Branch of chemistry that deals with the qualitative and
quantitative description of the changes in energy when
physical and chemical change occur.

 Energy is the capacity to do work.

 1.0 cal (calorie) = 4.1868 J (Joules)

 1.0 BTU (British thermal unit) = 1055.06 J

• Heat of fusion – heat required to change one gram of solid to liquid state with no rise
𝐉
in temperature, For water: 𝐻𝑓 = 333.55 𝒈 at 0𝑜 𝐶
Isothermal process – when the temperature is constant.
 Heat of fusion = Latent of fusion
𝐉
The heat of fusion of liquid water is 333.55 at 0𝑜 𝐶 . How
𝒈
much heat is needed to melt a kilogram of ice to liquid
water at 𝟎𝟎 C ?
Given: 𝐶
𝐉
𝐻𝑓 = 333.55 𝒈
at 0𝑜 ; 𝑚 = 1 𝑘𝑔

Required: 𝑄

Solution: 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐻𝑓
Substitute
𝐽 1000 𝑔
𝑄 = 1 𝑘𝑔 333.55
𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔
𝑄 = 333.55 𝑥 103 𝐽 or 𝑄 = 333, 550 𝐽
How many kilograms of ice can be fused by 5000 calories isothermally
at 𝟎𝒐 C to liquid?

Given: 𝑄 = 5000 𝑐𝑎𝑙

Required: 𝑚

𝑄 𝐉
Solution: Use 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐻𝑓 ; 𝑚= where 𝐻𝑓 = 333.55 𝒈 at 0𝑜 𝐶
𝐻𝑓
5000 𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑚= 𝑗 but 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙 =4.1868 J
333.55
𝑔
4.1868 𝐽
5000 𝑐𝑎𝑙∙ 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑚= 𝐽
333.55 𝑔
1 𝑘𝑔
𝑚 = 62.7612 𝑔 1000 𝑔

𝑚 = 62.7612 𝑥10−3 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 6.2761 𝑥 10−2 kg

How many kilocalorie of heat is necessary to fuse 2.5 kilograms of ice without
𝐉
change in temperature at 𝟎𝒐 𝑪? The heat of fusion of ice at 𝟎𝒐 𝑪 is 333.55 𝒈
  Heat of vaporization – heat required to change one gram of liquid to gas state
𝒌𝐉
with no rise in temperature, For water: 𝐻𝑣 = 40.65 at 100𝑜 C
𝒎𝒐𝒍

 Heat of vaporization = Latent of vaporization

𝒌𝐉
The latent of vaporization of water is 40.65 𝒎𝒐𝒍 at
100𝑜 C. How much heat is needed to vaporize a
kilogram of liquid water at constant temperature of
100𝑜 C?
𝒌𝐉
Given; 𝐻𝑣 = 40.65 at 100𝑜 C
𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑚 = 1 𝑘𝑔
Required: 𝑄
𝑚 18 𝑔
Solution: Use 𝑄 = 𝑛𝐻𝑣 but 𝑛 = ; for water, MW =
𝑀𝑊 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚
Substitute in 𝑛 = 𝑀𝑊
1000 𝑔
𝑛= 𝑔
18
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛 = 55.5556 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛 = 55.5556 𝑚𝑜𝑙

Substitute in 𝑄 = 𝑛𝐻𝑣

40.65 𝐾𝐽
𝑄 = 55.5556 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑄 = 2,258.3351 𝑘𝐽
How many pounds of steam is produced with 500 kilocalories of heat?
How many kilojoules of heat is needed to fuse a kilogram of ice to
𝐉
liquid state? 𝑯𝒇 = 333.55 𝒈 at 𝟎𝒐 𝑪
Pure liquid water boils and vaporizes at 100𝑜 C. The latent of vaporization of pure
𝒌𝐉
liquid water at 100𝑜 C is 40.65 . How many grams of pure liquid water is vaporized
𝒎𝒐𝒍
with 1000 calories of heat?
 Heat of formation – heat absorbed or evolved when one mole of a compound is
formed from its constituent elements in its normal physical state,
𝐤𝐉
∆𝐻𝑓 = - 285.85 for liquid H2 O at 25𝑜 C
𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝐤𝐉
∆𝐻𝑓 = - 241.83 𝒎𝒐𝒍
for gas H2 O at 25𝑜 C

 Heat of formation = standard heat of formation = enthalpy of formation =

standard enthalpy of formation
 𝐤𝐉
The heat of formation for liquid H2 O at 25𝑜 C is - 285.85 𝒎𝒐𝒍 . How much heat
is released to form liquid water at standard condition?
 𝐤𝐉
The heat of formation for liquid H2 O at 25𝑜 C is - 285.85 𝒎𝒐𝒍 . How many grams
of liquid water are formed at standard condition from hydrogen gas and
oxygen gas?
 𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐞
The heat capacity of liquid 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 is 1.0 . How many joules of heat is needed
𝐠𝟎𝐂
to raise the temperature of 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝟐𝟓𝒐 𝑪 to 𝟕𝟎𝒐 𝑪 ?
How many kilojoules of heat is needed to fuse a kilogram of ice to gas state? The
𝑱
heat of fusion of liquid water to ice is 333.55 𝒈 at 𝟎𝒐 𝑪 ; the heat of vaporization of
𝒌𝐉 𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐞
40.65 at 100𝑜 C and heat capacity of water is 1.0 .
𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐠𝟎𝐂
How many joules of energy are needed to produce 5000 kg of liquid water?
𝐤𝐉
𝐻𝑓 = - 285.85 for liquid H2 O
𝒎𝒐𝒍
References

CK Foundation (2022). Heat capacity and Specific heat. Accessed on August 30, 2022 at
https://chem.libretexts.org/

Libretexts (2020). Heat of Fusion. Accessed August 30, 2022 at https://chem.libretexts.org/

Success is the sum of small
efforts repeated day in and day out
- R. Collins