MAAM

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MODULE 2: HEREDITY: INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

FIRST QUARTER

Lesson 1

TITLE: NON-MENDELIAN PATTERN OF INHERITANCE: INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

OBJECTIVE:
At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:
 Explain the incomplete dominance pattern of inheritance.
 Illustrate by means of Punnett square a cross involving incomplete dominance pattern of inheritance.
INTRODUCTION:
GENETICS – branch of biology that deals with heredity and variation of organisms.
Chromosomes carry the hereditary information (genes).
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk, born in what is now
Czech Republic in 1822.Gregor Mendel is known to be the father of
modern genetics.
He formed the base for the understanding of heredity and variation.
Mendel looked at seven traits or characteristics of pea plants.
He did this over & over & over again, and noticed patterns to the
inheritance of traits, from one set of pea plants to the next.

Genetic Terminologies
 GENES-factors that controlled the appearance of trait.
 ALLELES- a different form of a gene that controls a certain trait.
 DOMINANT TRAIT- traits that appeared in F1 generation, traits that are always expressed.
- Represented by CAPITAL LETTERS
 RECESSIVE TRAIT- traits that did not appeared in F1 generation, traits that are not always expressed.
- Represented by SMALL LETTERS
 GENOTYPE- allelic combination (RR, WW, RW)
 HOMOZYGOUS-identical alleles (RR, WW)
 PHENOTYPE-expression of genotype of an individual for a particular trait (red, pink, )
 HETEROZYGOUS- contrasting alleles (RW)
 PUNNETT SQUARE- help us to predict the outcome of a given cross. It allows us to determine the possible combinations of
genes in a cross.
 GAMETES- reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new cell called zygote.
 CODOMINANCE – two dominant alleles of a contrasting pair fully expressed at the same time in the heterozygous individual.
 INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE- occurs when the phenotype of the offspring is somewhere
in between the phenotypes of both parents; a completely dominant allele does not occur.
 MULTIPLE ALLELES– when more than two alleles control the inheritance of a character.
 SEX INFLUENCED TRAITS – are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one sex than in the other.
 SEX LIMITED TRAITS- that are expressed exclusively in one sex of the species.
 SEX LINKED TRAITS – traits that are controlled by genes located on the same sex chromosome.

DISCUSSION:
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
- A heterozygote shows a phenotype that is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes.
- Neither allele is dominant over the other.
In flowers, petal color demonstrates incomplete dominance. Red results when a flower has homozygous dominant alleles for the trait.
White results when a flower has homozygous recessive alleles for the trait. A flower that is heterozygous for this trait will be pink.

Other examples of incomplete

dominance is seen in straight,
wavy and curly hairs.

Solving problems of incomplete dominance using Punnett square

Example: Four o clock plant
A crossed between a pure red flowered four o clock and a pure white
four o clock plant. All offspring will be pink.
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Only the phenotype that is INTERMEDIATE

 Red and white alleles remain separate and distinct.
 Half the gametes carry allele for red (R) and
Other half carry allele for white (W).
 Genotypic ratio also becomes the phenotypic ratio.
 Genotypes: RW
 Phenotypes: Pink
 Genotypic ratio: 4:4 or 1
 Phenotypic ratio: 4:4 or 1
 Genotypic percentage: 100 %
 Phenotypic percentage: 100 %
How many types of gametes will each parent produce?
Two types of gametes: RR, WW
What are the genotypes of the parents? RR, WW
What are the phenotypes of the parents? red, white
GENERALIZATION:
Sometimes, there is no dominant or recessive gene, or the trait is controlled by many alleles or genes. With incomplete
dominance, a cross between organisms with two different phenotypes produces offspring with a third phenotype that is a blending of
the parental traits. It's like mixing paints, red + white will make pink. Red doesn't totally dominate the pink, instead there is incomplete
dominance, and we end up with something in-between.

Lesson 2

TITLE: NON-MENDELIAN PATTERN OF INHERITANCE: CODOMINANCE

OBJECTIVE:
At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:
 Explain the codominance pattern of inheritance.
 Illustrate by means of Punnett square a cross involving codominance pattern of inheritance.
INTRODUCTION:
There is another pattern of inheritance that also is an example of lack of dominance. In this situation, if the resulting
phenotype exhibits both traits of the parents, the offspring phenotype is said to be the result of codominance. Examples of this include
A and B blood types in humans, feathers in chicken and coat color in cattle and horses.
Codominance is when two contrasting alleles are present in the same trait (heterozygote genotype), then the phenotype
expressed is a “blend” of the two phenotypes. The two genes interact and the offspring shows the effects of both alleles.
DISCUSSION:
The following picture shows codominance.

Codominance
 results when one allele is not dominant over the other.
 two dominant alleles result in both phenotypes being expressed at the same time.
 the resulting heterozygotes exhibit the traits of both parents.
Codominance in cows with spotted patterns
Cattle can be black (BB- all black hairs), white (WW- all white hairs) or Spotted (BW- black and white hairs together)

Codominance in roan cows

Cattle can be red (RR- all red hairs), white (WW- all white hairs) or Roan (RW- red and white hairs together).
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Codominance in checkered chicken

ACTIVITY:
GENERALIZATION:
POST –ASSESSMENT:

Other example of Codominance is shown in human blood typing.

MN human blood typing
On the surface of our red blood cells are proteins bound to sugar
molecules forming complexes called antigens. One group of antigens are
controlled by pair of alleles LM and LN.The pairing of these alleles will
determine the blood type of an individual, and there are three : M,MN and
N
In blood typing, the gene for type A (IA ) and the gene for type B (IB )
are codominant.
Note: Blood Types will be discussed in the next topic multiple alleles.

GENERALIZATION:
With codominance, a cross between organisms with two
different phenotypes produces offspring with a third phenotype in
which both of the parental traits appear together.

Lesson 3

TITLE: MULTIPLE ALLELES

OBJECTIVE:
At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:
 Define multiple alleles
 Identify the phenotypes and genotypes of ABO blood group system.
 Infer the unknown phenotypes of individuals on the basis of known phenotypes of their family members.
INTRODUCTION:
Sometimes , even if only two alleles control a trait, there may actually be more than two types of alleles available. This will also
lead to more than two phenotypes expressed.
DISCUSSION:
What are multiple alleles?
Multiple alleles are genes that have more than two alleles.
In traits with multiple alleles, each individual can carry any two of the several possible alleles.
ABO blood group system is an example of character governed by multiple alleles.
The gene for blood type has 3 possible alleles.
Allele IA Blood types A and B have
Allele I B two possible genotypes-
homozygous and
Allele i heterozygous
Blood types AB and O only
have one genotype each.

BLOOD GROUP CLASSIFICATION

Blood Group Genotype Antigens Antibodies Safe Transfusion
Produced Produced To From
A I A I A, I A i A Anti-B A, AB A, O
B I B I B, I B i B Anti-A B, AB B, O
AB I AIB AB None AB A, B, AB , O
O ii None Anti -A , Anti-B A, B, AB,O O
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GENERALIZATION:
Multiple alleles are genes with more than two alleles. In humans, there are four blood types A, B, AB, O (phenotypes). Blood type is controlled
by three alleles: A, B, O. O is recessive, two O alleles must be present for a person to have type O blood. A and B are codominant. If a person receives
an A allele and a B allele, their blood type is type AB.

Lesson 4

TITLE: SEX CHROMOSOMES AND SEX DETERMINATION

OBJECTIVE: Type AB- universal
At the end of the lesson the students should be able to: acceptor- can receive
 Explain how sex is determined and inherited. in all blood types.
Type O- universal
INTRODUCTION: donor- can donate in
Most species of animals and plants carry a pair of chromosomes that determine the individual’s sex. all blood types
These are called sex chromosomes . All other chromosomes are called autosomal or body chromosomes.
DISCUSSION:
SEX CHROMOSOMES
Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell. 23 pairs of chromosomes for both male and females. 22 pairs are somatic
chromosomes and the 23rd pair consist of the sex chromosome.
Males have 44 body chromosomes and two sex chromosomes X and Y. The males determine the sex of their children.
Females have 44 body chromosomes and two sex chromosomes, both X. These chromosomes contain the genes, which are
the factors of heredity.

The Y chromosome
 The Y chromosome is much smaller than the X.
 It carries a small number of genes, most of which
are for “male characteristics”
The X chromosome
 All human eggs contain the X chromosome.
 The X chromosome contains genes that code for
all aspects of femaleness and genes unrelated to
gender.
SEX DETERMINATION
If an egg is fertilized by a sperm with a Y chromosome, as shown in Figure 3, the offspring is male. When an egg is fertilized
by a sperm carrying an X chromosome, the offspring is female.
Note that there is a 50 percent chance of having a male or female offspring.
The greater the number of offspring, the greater is the chance of getting the
expected 1:1 ratio of male and female.
Figure 3

GENERALIZATION:
Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell. Observation of the human body cells shows 23 pairs of chromosomes for both
males and females.Twenty-two pairs are somatic chromosomes. The 23rd pairs consist of sex chromosomes. Human male and some
other male organism, such as other mammals and fruits flies, have non-identical sex chromosomes (XY). Female have identical (XX)
sex chromosomes.

Lesson 5

TITLE: SEX LINKED GENES: COLOR BLINDNESS AND HEMOPHILIA

OBJECTIVE:
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At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

 Solve problems related to sex linked traits
 Identify the genotypes and phenotypes of sex linked inheritance.

INTRODUCTION:
Males have 44 body chromosomes and two sex chromosomes X and Y. The males determine the sex of their children.
Females have 44 body chromosomes and two sex chromosomes, both X. The total number in each cell of an individual is 46. These
chromosomes contain the genes, which are the factors of heredity.
The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes (1-22)

Who are the CARRIER of the trait?

A carrier is a person that has the trait on

only one chromosome and does not
express the trait. Carriers of sex linked
traits are always women.

DISCUSSION:
SEX LINKED GENES
Concepts to Emphasize
Genes that are carried on the sex chromosomes (X & Y).
Genes located on the X chromosomes are called X-Linked Genes.
Genes located on the Y chromosomes are called Y-Linked Genes.
The traits they control are called sex-linked traits.
There are both dominant and recessive alleles for sex-linked genes.
Sex-linked traits show up much more often in a male because males do not have a matching X chromosome to
mask a recessive allele.
Sex-linked traits are passed from mother to son and father to daughter
Example of sex linked traits
Hemophilia ( Bleeder’s Disease) ColorBlindness (Red-Green Colorblindness)
1. Hemophilia- blood clots slowly or does not clot at all
so the person suffer from loss of blood even for a
small wound.

Genotypes and phenotypes of color blindness in humans

GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE
1. X X Normal Female
2. X X c Normal female, carrier of the gene
3. X c X c Color blind female
4. X Y Normal Male
5. X c Y Color- blind male
A female to become a color blind, she must be homozygous (X c X c ) for the color blind genes.
The trait is recessive in females.
If a female has only one X chromosome with the allele for color blindness, she becomes normal but can pass on the
trait to her offspring, she therefore is a CARRIER.
Males have only one X chromosomes, the gene for color blindness when present in male, will always expressed
because it does not have an allele to hide or prevent its expression.
Color blindness is more common in males than in females.
Example:
1. A colorblind male marries a normal female. What are the offspring genotypes and phenotypes?

X c
Y Genotypes: XXc , X Y
Phenotypes: carrier, normal male
XXX c
XY
X
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XXc XY
Genotypes and Phenotypes of Hemophilia in human
GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE
1. XH XH Normal Female
2. XH Xh Normal female, carrier of the gene
3. Xh Xh Hemophilic female
4. XH Y Normal Male
5. Xh Y Hemophilic male
Example
1. A hemophilic man marries a carrier. Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring.

Y Xh
XH XH Xh X H Y Genotypes: XH Xh , Xh Xh , X H Y , Xh Y
Phenotypes: Carrier, hemophilic female,
normal male,hemophilic male

Xh Xh Xh Xh Y
GENERALIZATION:
Sex linked traits are inherited through the X chromosomes. Males have only one X chromosome. Thus, if they inherited the
affected X, they will have the disorder. Females have two X chromosomes. Therefore , they can inherit/carry the trait without being
affected if it acts in recessive manner.

Lesson 6

TITLE: SEX LIMITED AND SEX INFLUENCED TRAITS

OBJECTIVE:
At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:
 Solve problems related to sex limited and sex influenced traits.
 Identify the genotypes and phenotypes of sex limited and sex influenced inheritance.

INTRODUCTION:
For a number of traits, gene expression differs in males and females. The causes fall under 3 categories:
Sex-Linked
Sex-Limited
Sex-Influenced
DISCUSSION:
SEX-LIMITED TRAITS
Sex-limited traits are generally autosomal, which means that they are not found on the X or Y chromosomes.
Sex-limited traits are expressed in only one gender.
Example:In cattle, for instance, lactation is expressed in females but never in males. Both male
and female cattle however possess a gene pair for lactation. The gene for lactation (L) is
dominant over the nonlactating gene(l).
Female Genotypes Female Phenotypes
Sex Limited traits are
XXLL Female lactating
shown in cock feathering.
XXLl Female lactating
XXll Female not lactating
Male Genotypes Male Phenotypes
XYLL Male not lactating
XYLl Male not lactating
XYll Male not lactating
SEX-INFLUENCED TRAITS
Sex-influenced traits are also autosomal, meaning that their genes are not carried on the sex chromosomes.
In this case, the difference is in the ways the two genders express the genes.
One classic example of a sex-influenced trait is pattern baldness in humans, though the condition is not restricted to males. This gene
has two alleles, “bald” and “non-bald”. The behaviors of the products of these genes are highly influenced by the hormones in the
individual, particularly by the hormone testosterone. All humans have testosterone, but males have much higher levels of this hormone
than females do. The result is that, in males, the baldness allele behaves like a dominant allele, while in females it behaves like a
recessive allele.
Female Genotypes Female Phenotypes
XXBB Female bald
XXBb Female non bald
XXbb Female non bald
Male Genotypes Male Phenotypes
XYBB Male bald
XYBb Male bald
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XYll bb Male non bald

GENERALIZATION:
Sex limited traits are those that are expressed exclusively in one sex.
Sex influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one than in the other sex.

Lesson 7

TITLE: DNA: The Genetic Material

OBJECTIVE:
At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:
 Identify the components of a DNA molecule.
 Construct a model of a molecule of DNA.
INTRODUCTION:
What is DNA?
DNA is often called the blueprint of life.In simple terms, DNA contains the instructions for making proteins within the cell. DNA
is a nucleic acid .DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid- is the genetic material inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
Why do we study DNA?
We study DNA for many reasons, examples is its central importance to all life on Earth, medical benefits such as cures for
diseases, better food crops.
Discovering the Structure of DNA
Structure was discovered in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick

DISCUSSION:
DNA STRUCTURE
DNA is a very long polymer.
The basic shape is like a twisted ladder or zipper.
This is called a double helix. The DNA double
helix has two strands twisted together.
The backbone of the molecule is alternating
Phosphate group (salt/phosphorus) and deoxyribose
sugar (Pentose Sugar).The teeth are nitrogenous bases.
One strand of DNA is a polymer of nucleotides.
One strand of DNA has many millions of nucleotides.

DNA has four different bases:

Cytosine(C)
Thymine(T)
Adenine (A)
Guanine(G
Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T)
Guanine (G) always pairs with Cytosine (C)
Remember, DNA has two strands that fit together something like a zipper.
The teeth are the nitrogenous bases but why do they stick together.
The bases attract each other because of hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bonds are weak but there are millions and millions of them in a
single molecule of DNA.

GENERALIZATION:
DNA is composed of chains of nucleotides built on a sugar and phosphate backbone and wrapped around each other in
the form of a double helix. The backbone supports four bases: guanine, cytosine, adenine, and thymine. Guanine and cytosine
are complementary, always appearing opposite each other on the helix, as are adenine and thymine. This is critical in the
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reproduction of the genetic material, as it allows a strand to divide and copy itself, since it only needs half of the material in the helix to
duplicate successfully.
DNA is the blueprint of life.