TEACHER: CAP.

RAMÓN DURÁN FERNÁNDEZ

SUBJECT: TEORÍA DEL BUQUE

TOPIC: PETROLEUM CHARACTERISTICS AND HAZARDS

STUDENT: DURAND SILES BRAYAN MANUEL

GRADE AND GROUP: VII “D”

DATE: 18/09/2023
Evolution during Loading:
1. What happens to the gas when high vapor pressure petroleum cargo enters an
empty gas- free tank? When high vapor pressure petroleum cargo enters an empty gas-
free tank, the gas in the cargo will start to evaporate and form a gas layer above the liquid
surface. This gas layer is composed of the volatile components of the cargo.
2. How does the gas layer change as the tank is filled? As the tank is filled with
petroleum cargo, the gas layer will initially remain relatively constant in terms of volume
and concentration. However, as more liquid is added to the tank, the gas layer may
become compressed and its concentration may increase due to the displacement of the
gas by the incoming liquid.
3. What factors influence the volume and concentration of the gas layer during
loading? Several factors can influence the volume and concentration of the gas layer
during loading, including the temperature of the cargo, the initial vapor pressure of the
cargo, the rate of loading, and the size and shape of the tank.
4. How does the gas concentration near the liquid surface relate to the True Vapor
Pressure (TVP)? The gas concentration near the liquid surface is directly related to the
True Vapor Pressure (TVP) of the cargo. The TVP represents the pressure exerted by the
vapor in equilibrium with the liquid at a specific temperature. Higher TVP values indicate
that the cargo is more volatile, and therefore, the gas concentration near the liquid surface
will also be higher.
5. What is the significance of the gas layer depth? The significance of the gas layer
depth lies in its potential to create hazardous conditions during loading and unloading
operations. If the gas layer becomes too concentrated and approaches its lower flammable
limit (LFL), it can pose a fire or explosion risk when exposed to ignition sources.
6. Why are high vapor pressure cargoes of particular concern during loading? High
vapor pressure cargoes are of particular concern during loading because they have a
greater tendency to release volatile gases into the tank's atmosphere. This can create a
hazardous environment, especially in confined spaces. Proper safety measures and
procedures, such as vapor recovery systems and monitoring for LFL conditions, are crucial
when handling such cargoes to minimize the associated risks.

Venting during Loading:

7. What type of gas initially enters the ven2ng system during loading? During
loading, the type of gas that initially enters the venting system is typically a mixture of
hydrocarbon vapor released from the oil cargo. This gas can contain a variety of volatile
organic compounds.
8. How does the hydrocarbon content in the vented gas change as loading
proceeds? As loading progresses, the hydrocarbon content in the vented gas tends to
decrease. This is because the more volatile and lighter components are released first,
leaving behind the heavier and less volatile hydrocarbons in the liquid.
9. What happens to the very dense gas mixture during oil discharge? During oil
discharge, the very dense gas mixture that may have accumulated in the tank is displaced
as the liquid is removed. This allows for ventilation and replacement with air to prevent the
formation of a vacuum or partial vacuum in the tank, which could lead to structural
collapse.
10. How does the previous history of the tank affect the hydrocarbon gas
concentration during loading? The previous history of the tank can affect the
hydrocarbon gas concentration during loading. If the tank has previously held cargoes with
high levels of volatile components, there may be residues or traces of these components
inside the tank. This could influence the gas concentration during the current loading.
11. What conditions can result in concentrated gas layers in tanks during loading?
Several conditions can result in concentrated gas layers in tanks during loading, including:

• Loading a petroleum cargo with a high content of volatile components.

• Rapid loading that does not allow for proper gas ventilation.
• Elevated temperatures of the petroleum, which promote greater evaporation of
volatile components.
• Limitations in the ventilation systems or the absence of a vapor recovery system.

Ballasting into a Cargo Tank:

12. What is the purpose of ballas2ng into a cargo tank? The purpose of ballasting into
a cargo tank is to control the trim and stability of the vessel. Ballasting involves adding
water or other ballast materials to specific tanks to adjust the ship's draft, weight
distribution, and buoyancy. It helps ensure that the vessel remains stable and safe during
transit, especially when carrying various cargoes that may affect the ship's balance.
13. How does inert gas purging impact the hydrocarbon gas layer at the boYom of
the tank? Inert gas purging involves introducing an inert gas (such as nitrogen or carbon
dioxide) into the cargo tank to reduce the oxygen concentration and minimize the risk of
combustion or explosion. When inert gas purging is used, it displaces the hydrocarbon gas
layer at the bottom of the tank, pushing it upward and reducing its concentration.
14. What happens if 1G purging is carried out by the displacement method? If inert
gas purging (1G purging) is carried out by the displacement method, it means that the inert
gas is introduced into the tank, pushing the cargo liquid out of the tank. This method is
used to remove the cargo from the tank and replace it with inert gas to create a non-
flammable atmosphere. It helps prevent the formation of explosive mixtures in the tank
during cargo handling.
15. How does 1G purging by the dilution method affect gas concentration? When 1G
purging is carried out by the dilution method, inert gas is introduced into the tank without
removing the entire cargo. Instead, the inert gas is used to dilute the hydrocarbon gas
concentration within the tank, reducing its flammability. This method maintains a certain
level of cargo in the tank while making the atmosphere safer by lowering the percentage of
hydrocarbon gases in the mixture.
Gas Freeing:
16. Explain the process of gas freeing. The process of gas freeing, also known as tank
or cargo tank gas freeing, is essential in maritime and industrial operations to make
enclosed spaces, such as cargo tanks on ships or storage tanks, safe for personnel entry,
maintenance, inspection, or other activities. The primary goal of gas freeing is to remove
or reduce the concentration of hazardous or potentially flammable gases in these spaces.
Here's an overview of the gas freeing process: Assessment and Planning, Isolation,
Ventilation, Monitoring, Purging and Sweeping, Testing for Safe Entry, Entry and Work,
Continued Monitoring, Lockout/Tagout, Gas-Free Certificate.
17. What happens to gas layers when air is delivered into the tank during gas
freeing? When air is delivered into a tank during the gas freeing process, several things
can happen to the gas layers inside the tank:

• The fresh air introduced contains oxygen, which can react with any flammable
gases present in the tank. This can potentially lead to combustion or explosion if
the conditions are right.
• The air can displace the existing gas layers, pushing them out of the tank and
reducing the concentration of hazardous gases inside.
• The air may dilute the concentration of flammable or toxic gases, making the tank
atmosphere safer for personnel entry.
18. What are the poten2al dangers associated with gas freeing?
There are several potential dangers associated with gas freeing:

• Fire and Explosion Hazard: Introducing air into a tank with flammable gases can
create explosive mixtures, leading to fire or explosion if ignited.
• Oxygen Deficiency: In some cases, the gas freeing process can deplete oxygen
levels in the tank, creating an oxygen-deficient atmosphere that poses a
suffocation hazard to personnel.
• Toxic Gas Exposure: Cargo tanks may contain toxic gases, and the gas freeing
process can release these toxins into the atmosphere, posing health risks to
personnel involved in the process.
• Uncontrolled Reactions: Uncontrolled reactions between oxygen and cargo
residues or contaminants can produce unexpected chemical reactions, leading to
safety hazards.
19. How does gas freeing on inerted tankers differ from non-inerted tankers? Gas
freeing on inerted tankers differs from non-inerted tankers primarily in the atmosphere
within the tanks:

• Inerted Tankers: Inerted tankers have a controlled atmosphere inside the tanks,
typically with a higher concentration of inert gas (such as nitrogen) to reduce the
oxygen levels and minimize the risk of fire or explosion. When gas freeing on an
inerted tanker, inert gas is often used to displace or dilute any remaining hazardous
gases, making the process safer. The inerted atmosphere significantly reduces the
risk of fire or explosion during gas freeing
 • Non-Inerted Tankers: Non-inerted tankers may not have an inert atmosphere inside
the tanks, and the tank atmosphere may contain higher levels of oxygen and
potentially flammable gases. Gas freeing on non-inerted tankers requires careful
monitoring and control to avoid the formation of explosive mixtures when
introducing air. It's generally riskier compared to inerted tankers, and additional
precautions are necessary to ensure safety.

Gas Dispersion:
20. Describe the dispersion process of hydrocarbon gas as it emerges from the
vent. The dispersion process of hydrocarbon gas as it emerges from a vent involves the
movement and spreading of the gas into the surrounding atmosphere. This process is
essential to ensure that any released gas is safely diluted and dispersed, minimizing the
risk of flammable or hazardous concentrations in the immediate vicinity of the vent. Here's
a description of the dispersion process: Release Point, Gas Expansion, Initial Momentum,
Turbulent Mixing, Dilution, Wind and Atmospheric Condition, Gas Concentration Reduction
Safety Measures.
21. What factors influence the dispersion of hydrocarbon gas?

• Wind Speed and Direction: Wind can carry gas away from the release point and
affect the direction and distance of dispersion.
• Gas Release Rate: The rate at which gas is released from the source impacts the
initial concentration and the rate of dispersion.
• Gas Density: Heavier gases tend to disperse more slowly than lighter gases.
• Atmospheric Stability: Atmospheric conditions, such as temperature inversions or
unstable air masses, can influence how gases disperse.
• Obstacles and Terrain: Buildings, structures, and terrain can obstruct or redirect
gas dispersion.
• Gas Properties: The properties of the hydrocarbon gas, including its molecular
weight, vapor density, and flammability characteristics, influence dispersion
behavior.
22. How does wind speed affect gas dispersion?

• Higher wind speeds increase the rate of gas dispersion by carrying the gas away
from the source more quickly.
• Wind direction determines the path the gas plume follows.
• Low wind speeds can result in slower dispersion and the potential for gas
accumulation near the source, posing a higher risk.
23. What role does the rate of flow of gas play in dispersion?

• The rate of gas flow directly affects the initial concentration of the gas plume and
how quickly it disperses.
• A higher flow rate results in a more concentrated and faster-moving plume.
• Lower flow rates may lead to slower dispersion and lower concentrations.
24. What is the flammable zone, and why is it important to monitor it?

• The flammable zone, also known as the explosive or flammable range, is the range
of gas concentrations in the air where a mixture of gas and air is flammable or
explosive.
• Monitoring the flammable zone is crucial because gas concentrations within this
range can lead to fires or explosions if ignited.
• It's important to keep gas concentrations below the lower flammable limit (LFL) and
above the upper flammable limit (UFL) to maintain a safe atmosphere.
25. What are the poten2al areas where a flammable zone could pose risks?

• Areas near gas processing facilities, storage tanks, or pipelines.

• Confined spaces where gas can accumulate, such as storage tanks or
underground vaults.
• Locations with potential ignition sources, including open flames, electrical
equipment, or hot surfaces.
• Areas where personnel are working, especially if gas leaks or accumulates in their
vicinity.
• Industrial and chemical plants, refineries, and other facilities handling hydrocarbon
gases.

Safety Measures for Vented Gas:

26. What are the objectives of venting arrangements and operational control?

• Ensure the safe release of gases to prevent overpressure in storage tanks.

• Control emissions of hazardous gases during normal operations.
• Prevent the formation of flammable or toxic atmospheres.
• Minimize the impact of emissions on the environment and personnel.
27. How can rapid gas dispersion be promoted?

• Use high-efflux velocity vents.

• Ensure proper vent placement and orientation.
• Consider wind direction and speed to aid dispersion.
• Use mechanical fans or blowers for forced dispersion.
• Maintain safe distances between potential ignition sources and the release point.
28. What conditions are required for any opera2on involving the displacement of
flammable mixtures to the atmosphere?

• Adequate ventilation and monitoring.

• Control over ignition sources.
• Knowledge of the flammable range.
• Proper procedures and safety measures.
• Adequate training for personnel involved.
29. What are the characteristics of high-efflux velocity vents?

• These vents have larger openings and can release gases at high velocities.
• They promote rapid gas dispersion.
• Commonly used in emergency relief systems and in facilities with potentially
hazardous gas emissions.
30. How does wind speed impact the dispersion of hydrocarbon gas?

• Higher wind speeds promote faster dispersion and can carry gas plumes away
from the source.
• Lower wind speeds can result in slower dispersion and potential gas accumulation.
31. How does the flow rate of gas affect the distance the plume travels?

• Higher gas flow rates result in more concentrated and faster-moving gas plumes.
• Lower flow rates may lead to slower dispersion and shorter travel distances.
32. What types of gas detection instruments are used to monitor hydrocarbon gas
concentrations?

• Catalytic (pellistor) sensors.

• Infrared (IR) gas detectors.
• Flame ionization detectors (FID).
• Photoionization detectors (PID).
• Gas chromatographs (GC).
33. Why is it important to interpret oxygen concentrations correctly?

• Low oxygen levels can pose an asphyxiation hazard.

• High oxygen levels can increase the risk of fire and explosion.
• Correct interpretation helps ensure a safe working environment.
34. What types of instruments are used for measuring toxic gases?

• Electrochemical sensors.
• Infrared (IR) gas detectors.
• Photoionization detectors (PID).
• Colorimetric tubes.
• Gas chromatographs (GC).
35. What maintenance and testing should be carried out on gas detection systems?

• Regular calibration and bump testing.

• Sensor replacement as needed.
• Inspection of wiring, power sources, and alarms.
• Periodic functional testing and verification.
• Documentation of maintenance and testing activities for record-keeping and
compliance.

These questions cover the key points related to the evolution of gas during
loading of high vapor pressure petroleum cargo and the safety measures
involved.
36. What is the typical gas concentration just above the liquid surface when the
True Vapor Pressure (TVP) of the cargo is 0.75 bar, expressed as a percentage? The
gas concentration just above the liquid surface when the True Vapor Pressure (TVP) of the
cargo is 0.75 bar is typically expressed as a percentage by volume, and it can vary
depending on factors such as temperature and specific cargo properties. However, a
rough estimate might be around 75% to 80% of the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) for the
specific hydrocarbon gas present.
37. What is the maximum gas concentration observed with crude oils, expressed as
a percentage, when an equilibrium hydrocarbon gas concentration is established
throughout the ullage space? When an equilibrium hydrocarbon gas concentration is
established throughout the ullage space in crude oil tanks, the gas concentration is usually
expressed as a percentage by volume. It can be up to the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL),
which varies depending on the specific composition of the gases present.
38. How does the gas concentration change as the gas layer depth increases,
expressed as a percentage? As the gas layer depth increases in the ullage space above
a liquid cargo, the gas concentration tends to become more uniform throughout the ullage
space. This means that the percentage of gas in the ullage space will approach equilibrium
with the cargo's vapor pressure, which can vary but is typically a fraction of the Lower
Flammable Limit (LFL).
39. What percentage of hydrocarbon gas concentration has been measured in the
boYom layer of a motor or aviation gasoline tank shortly a`er discharge? Shortly after
discharge, the gas concentration in the bottom layer of a gasoline tank can be significantly
above the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL). It may be in the range of 20% to 50% or even
higher, depending on factors like the type of gasoline and temperature conditions.
40. In a crude oil tank that has been crude oil washed but not purged with inert gas
or gas freed, what percentage is the gas concentration usually well above the
flammable range? In a crude oil tank that has been crude oil washed but not purged with
inert gas or gas freed, the gas concentration can be well above the flammable range. It
can range from 20% to 60% or higher, depending on several factors, including the type of
crude oil, washing procedures, and temperature.
41. When toxic gas detectors sound alarms at predetermined levels, such as 5 ppm
for H2S, how are these concentrations typically expressed as percentages? Toxic
gas detectors typically sound alarms at predetermined concentration levels, such as 5 ppm
(parts per million) for H2S (hydrogen sulfide). These concentrations are expressed in ppm,
which represents the number of gas molecules per million air molecules. While this is not
typically expressed as a percentage, it's a standardized way to represent trace
concentrations of gases in the air. In the case of H2S, 5 ppm means there are 5 molecules
of H2S for every million molecules of air.