DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- consists of a group of organs that break down the food we eat into smaller molecules that
can be used by body cells.

6 Basic Processes Involved in Digestion

1. Ingestion – putting food/liquids into mouth
2. Secretion – involves certain glands and enzymes that they release (Ex. Salivary glands
which produce salivary analyse “saliva”)
3. Motility (mixing and propulsion) – capability of the GI tract to mix and move material
along its length
4. Digestion – making large food particles mixed with digestive enzymes to break it down
to become smaller food molecules
a. Mechanical Digestion – teeth cut and grind food before it’s swallowed then smooth
muscles of the stomach and small intestine churn food to further assist the process
b. Chemical Digestion – large carbohydrate, lipid, protein, and nucleic acid molecules
in food are split into smaller molecules by hydrolysis
5. Absorption – movement of the products of digestion from the lumen of the GI tract into
blood or lymphatic vessel *a few substances in food can be absorbed w/out undergoing
digestion (Ex. Vitamins, ions, H2O & cholesterol)
6. Defecation – digestive materials that were not absorbed in their journey through the
digestive tract, formation of feces (eliminated material) and exits the anus

2 Groups of Organs of the Digestive System

I. Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract “Ailmentary Canal” – 5-7 meters (16.5-23 ft)
» continues long tube from the mouth and to the anus through the thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities, but they do contribute to food processing
» Organs that include in the GI:
o Mouth o Stomach
o Most of the pharynx o Small Intestine
o Esophagus o Large Intestine
» mechanical digestive functions of both voluntary & involuntary muscle contractions
and relaxation of skeletal & smooth muscle layers in GI tract including:
o chewing & swallowing
o mixing and moving food throughout the GI tract
o elimination of feces
» the propulsive & mixing movement of the smooth muscles in the digestive system
are regulated by:
o Hormonal & Neural Feedback Loops
» Arrangement of Layers in GI Tract from deep to superficial:
1. Mucosa
▪ or inner lining of the GI tract, is a mucous membrane.
▪ It is composed of (1) a layer of epithelium in direct contact with the contents
of the GI tract, (2) a layer of connective tissue called the lamina propria, and
(3) a thin layer of smooth muscle (muscularis mucosae).
2. Submucosa
▪ consists of areolar connective tissue that binds the mucosa to the
muscularis.
▪ It contains many blood and lymphatic vessels that receive absorbed food
molecules.
▪ located in the submucosal plexus.
3. Muscularis
▪ The muscularis of the mouth, pharynx, and superior and middle parts of the
esophagus contains skeletal muscle that produces voluntary swallowing.
4. Serosa
▪ portions of the GI tract that are suspended in the abdominal cavity have a
superficial layer.
▪ a serous membrane composed of areolar connective tissue and simple
squamous epithelium (mesothelium).
▪ also called the visceral peritoneum because it forms a portion of the
peritoneum.

LEI-ANN BELLE I. CORRECHE (BS SLP 1A)

II. Accessory Structures
» not part of GI tract, but they do contribute to food processing and digestion
» Organs that includes:
o Teeth (aid in physical breakdown of food)
o Tongue (assists in chewing and swallowing)
o Salivary Glands
o Liver
o Gallbladder
o Pancreas

Neural Innervation of the Gut

• Enteric Nervous System
» Controls the contractions of the GI tract, create peristalsis to push down the food for
motility, independent but are subject to regulation by neurons of ANS
o Submucosal Plexus (regulates GI secretion)
o Myenteric Plexus (regulates GI mortility)
• Autonomic Nervous System
» Parasympathetic fibers of Vagus (X) nerve & pelvic splanchnic nerves increase GI
tract secretion & motility by increasing activity of ENS neurons
» Sympathetic fibers from thoracic & upper lumbar regions of the spinal cord
decrease GI tract secretion & motility by inhibiting ENS neurons

Neural Regulation of Mechanical Digestion

- neural control of the movements in the GI tract comes from the:
• CNS
» controls the voluntary swallowing movements
» presence of food is the stimulus for voluntary digestive movements
• ANS (long) Neural Reflexes
» include a CNS control center in the spinal cord or brain
» regulates involuntary smooth muscular movements
» the stimulus for many involuntary digestive movements is distension
» the response is either increased or decreased contraction of muscularis
• ENS (local) Reflexes
» utilize the plexuses embedded in the wall of the GI tract
» controls involuntary movements of the muscularis

Peritoneum
- largest serous membrane of the body; lines the wall of abdominal cavity & covers some
abdominal organs
- The peritoneum is divided into:
1. Parietal Peritoneum, which lines the wall of the abdominal cavity.
2. Visceral Peritoneum, which covers some of the organs in the cavity and is their
serosa.
- There are five major peritoneal folds:
1. Greater Omentum – the longest peritoneal fold, drapes over the transverse colon
and coils of the small intestine like a “fatty apron.”
2. Falciform Ligament – attaches the liver to the anterior abdominal wall and
diaphragm. The liver is the only digestive organ that is attached to the anterior
abdominal wall.
3. Lesser Omentum – It is the pathway for blood vessels entering the liver and contains
the hepatic portal vein, common hepatic artery, and common bile duct, along with
some lymph nodes.
4. Mesentery – A fan-shaped fold of the peritoneum, binds the jejunum and ileum of
the small intestine to the posterior abdominal wall. This is the most massive
peritoneal fold, is typically laden with fat, and contributes extensively to the large
abdomen in obese individuals.
5. Mesocolon – Two separate folds of peritoneum, bind the transverse colon
(transverse mesocolon) and sigmoid colon (sigmoid mesocolon) of the large
intestine to the posterior abdominal wall. It also carries blood and lymphatic vessels
to the intestines.
Mouth
• also referred to as the oral or buccal cavity, is formed by the cheeks, hard and soft
palates, and tongue.
• The cheeks form the lateral walls of the oral cavity; covered externally by skin and
internally by a mucous membrane, which consists of nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
• The lips or labia are fleshy folds surrounding the opening of the mouth; contain the
orbicularis oris muscle and are covered externally by skin and internally by a mucous
membrane.
• The inner surface of each lip is attached to its corresponding gum by a midline fold of
mucous membrane called the labial frenulum.
• The oral vestibule of the oral cavity is the space bounded externally by the cheeks and
lips and internally by the gums and teeth.
• The oral cavity proper is the space that extends from the gums and teeth to the fauces,
the opening between the oral cavity and the oropharynx (throat).
• The palate is a wall or septum that separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity, and
forms the roof of the mouth; makes it possible to chew and breathe at the same time.
1. The hard palate—the anterior portion of the roof of the mouth—is formed by the
maxillae and palatine bones and is covered by a mucous membrane; it forms a bony
partition between the oral and nasal cavities.
2. The soft palate, which forms the posterior portion of the roof of the mouth, is an
arch-shaped muscular partition between the oropharynx and nasopharynx that is
lined with mucous membrane.
• Hanging from the free border of the soft palate is a fingerlike muscular structure called
the uvula. During swallowing, the soft palate and uvula are drawn superiorly, closing off
the nasopharynx and preventing swallowed foods and liquids from entering the nasal
cavity.
• Lateral to the base of the uvula are two muscular folds that run down the lateral sides of
the soft palate:
1. Anteriorly, the palatoglossal arch extends to the side of the base of the tongue.
2. Posteriorly, the palatopharyngeal arch extends to the side of the pharynx.

Salivary Glands
- A gland that releases a secretion called saliva into the oral cavity.
- Ordinarily, just enough saliva is secreted to keep the mucous membranes of the mouth
and pharynx moist and to cleanse the mouth and teeth.
- When food enters the mouth, however, secretion of saliva increases, and it lubricates,
dissolves, and begins the chemical breakdown of the food.
- The mucous membrane of the mouth and tongue contains many small salivary glands
that open directly, or indirectly via short ducts, to the oral cavity.
- These glands include labial, buccal, and palatal glands in the lips, cheeks, and palate,
respectively, and lingual glands in the tongue, all of which make a small contribution to
saliva.
- However, most saliva is secreted by the major salivary glands, which lie beyond the oral
mucosa, into ducts that lead to the oral cavity.
- There are three pairs of major salivary glands:
1. The parotid glands are located inferior and anterior to the ears, between the skin
and the masseter muscle. Each secretes saliva into the oral cavity via a parotid duct
that pierces the buccinator muscle to open into the vestibule opposite the second
maxillary (upper) molar tooth.
2. The submandibular glands are found in the floor of the mouth; they are medial and
partly inferior to the body of the mandible. Their ducts, the submandibular ducts,
run under the mucosa on either side of the midline of the floor of the mouth and enter
the oral cavity proper lateral to the lingual frenulum.
3. The sublingual glands are beneath the tongue and superior to the submandibular
glands. Their ducts, the lesser sublingual ducts, open into the floor of the mouth in
the oral cavity proper.
- Composition and Function of Saliva
o Chemically, saliva is 99.5% water and 0.5% solutes.
 o Among the solutes are ions, including sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, and
phosphate.
- Salivation
o The secretion of saliva, called salivation, is controlled by the autonomic nervous
system.
o Amounts of saliva secreted daily vary considerably but average 1000–1500 mL (1–
1.6 qt).
o Normally, parasympathetic stimulation promotes continuous secretion of a
moderate amount of saliva, which keeps the mucous membranes moist and
lubricates the movements of the tongue and lips during speech.
o The saliva is then swallowed and helps moisten the esophagus.
o Eventually, most components of saliva are reabsorbed, which prevents fluid loss.
o If the body becomes dehydrated, the salivary glands stop secreting saliva to conserve
water; the resulting dryness in the mouth contributes to the sensation of thirst.
o Drinking not only restores the homeostasis of body water but also moistens the
mouth.
o The feel and taste of food also are potent stimulators of salivary gland secretions.
o Chemicals in the food stimulate receptors in taste buds on the tongue, and impulses
are conveyed from the taste buds to two salivary nuclei in the brain stem (superior
and inferior salivatory nuclei).
o Mumps is an inflammation and enlargement of the parotid glands.

Tongue
- together with associated muscles forms the floor of the oral cavity
- composed of skeletal muscle covered with mucous membrane
- participates in chewing, swallowing and speech
- upper and lateral surfaces of the tongue are covered with papillae, some of which contain
taste buds
- role of tongue helps transports or move the food around the mouth and forms the bolus
which is chewed food mixed with saliva
- it propels the bolus down the pharynx

Teeth “Dentes”
- project into the mouth and are adapted for mechanical digestion
- composed of primarily of dentin and are covered by enamel (hardest substance in the
body)
- 3 Major External Regions of a Tooth:
1. The crown is the visible portion above the level of the gums.
2. Embedded in the socket are one to three roots.
3. The neck is the constricted junction of the crown and root near the gum line.
- 2 Dentition:
» Deciduous teeth also called primary teeth, milk teeth, or baby teeth—begin to
erupt at about 6 months of age, and approximately two teeth appear each month
thereafter, until all 20 are present.
» Permanent (secondary) teeth – All of the deciduous teeth are lost—generally
between ages 6 and 12 years. The permanent dentition contains 32 teeth that erupt
between age 6 and adulthood. The pattern resembles the deciduous dentition, with
the following exceptions.

Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Mouth

- Mechanical digestion in the mouth results from chewing, or mastication, in which food
is manipulated by the tongue, ground by the teeth, and mixed with saliva.
- As a result, the food is reduced to a soft , flexible, easily swallowed mass called a bolus.
- Food molecules begin to dissolve in the water in saliva, an important activity because
enzymes can react with food molecules in a liquid medium only.

Pharynx
- a funnel shaped tube that extends from the internal nares to the esophagus posteriorly
and to the larynx anteriorly
- has both digestive and respiratory functions
- The pharynx is composed of skeletal muscle and lined by mucous membrane, and is
divided into three parts: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx, and the laryngopharynx.
- The nasopharynx functions only in respiration, but both the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx have digestive as well as respiratory functions.
- Swallowed food passes from the mouth into the oropharynx and laryngopharynx; the
muscular contractions of these areas help propel food into the esophagus and then into
the stomach.

Esophagus
- collapsible, muscular tube that lies posterior to the trachea and connects the pharynx to
the stomach
- it contains upper and lower esophageal sphincter

Deglutition “Swallowing”
- moves bolus from mouth to stomach
- consists of voluntary, pharyngeal (involuntary, and esophageal (involuntary) stages

*Epiglottis (flaps that closes the larynx)

Process:
» the tongue shapes the chewed, lubricated food (bolus) and moves it to the back of the
mouth cavity
» tongue rises against the palate and closes the nasopharynx
» uvula and soft palate seal off nasal cavity
» base of the tongue and posterior pharyngeal wall squeezes to move the bolus down
» epiglottis covers the larynx and vocal folds close
*breathing is temporarily interrupted

Hyolaryngeal Excursion
- The hyoid and larynx move up and forward as a result of contraction of extrinsic tongue
muscles that are attached to the hyoid. As the hyoid moves, the larynx is pulled along
with it due to its muscular connections.

Cricopharyngeus Muscle
- located at the junction of the pharynx (throat) and esophagus and is the major muscular
component of what is called the upper esophageal sphincter (UES).

*At rest, the UES closes the passageway between the pharynx and esophagus.

Main functions of UES closure:

i. to prevent esophageal air insufflation during negative intrathoracic pressure events,
for example, inspiration, and to prevent esophagopharyngeal/laryngeal reflux
during esophageal peristalsis.

Esophageal sphincters are bands of muscles at the top and bottom of the esophagus; the
muscular tube that passes food and drink from the mouth to the stomach.

Peristalsis
- progression of coordinated contractions and relaxations of the circular and
longitudinal layers of the muscularis, pushes the bolus downward in the esophagus
which is controlled by the medulla oblongata

Stomach
- The stomach is a J-shaped enlargement of the GI tract directly inferior to the
diaphragm in the abdomen.
- The stomach connects the esophagus to the duodenum, the first part of the small
intestine.
- Functions:
1. Mixes saliva, food, and gastric juices to form chyme
2. Serves as reservoir for food before release into small intestine
 3. Secretes gastric juice, which contains HCI, pepsin, intrinsic factor, and gastric lipase
(enzymes that help digest the food)
4. Secretes gastrin into the blood

Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Stomach

• Stomach Peristalsis
» food enters, distending the stomach
» stretch receptors activate enteric reflexes that promote peristaltic movements
» these movements, called mixing waves, begin to mix the food with stomach secretions
» mixing waves force the digesting food (chyme) toward and through the pyloric
sphincter
» most food doesn’t exit the stomach, so it moves back and forth in a churning digestive
motion
» the parasympathetic NS stimulates digestive movements in the stomach
• Enterogastic Reflex
» is triggered when more and more chyme leave the stomach, distending the stretch
receptors in the duodenum
» the motor impulses in this reflex are sympathetic
• Functions:
» inhibits excessive amounts of chyme entering the duodenum
» reduces intestinal cell erosion by limiting inflow of gastric acid
» increases duration of digestion of chyme before it moved to the small intestine

Pancreas
• lies posterior to the stomach
• produces enzymes that digest carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nuclei acids
• produces sodium bicarbonate which buffers (reduces acidity) stomach acid
• empties its content into the duodenum *as the food goes down, more enzymes are
produced to increase the digestion until it is fully absorb by the body

Liver
• it makes bile, which is important in the emulsification of fats

Gallbladder
• stores bile until it’s needed

Functions of Liver and Gallbladder:

» Carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism
» processing of drugs and hormones (to lessen toxicity)
» bilirubin excretion (responsible for the color of bile)
» Bile salt synthesis (storage of bile)
» Storage
» Phagocytosis (cleaning up dead or aged cells)
» Vitamin D activation (whenever it is needed)

Small Intestine
- majority of digestion and absorption
- Funtions:
1. Segmentations mix chyme with digestive juices and bring food into contact with
mucosa for absorption; Peristalsis propels chyme through SI
2. Completes digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids; begins and completes
digestion of nucleic acids
3. Absorbs about 90% of nutrients and water that pass through digestive system
- Starts: Duodenum
- Middle part: Jejunum
- Lower part: Ileum (connects w/ large intestine)

Circular Folds “Plicae Circulares” in the SI

- increase surface area for digestion and absorption in the small intestines
Mechanical Digestion in the SI
- Segmentation: Localized Contractions (to help breakdown of the food)
- Peristalsis: Propulsive Contractions (to help propelling down the food)

Segmentation and Migrating Motility Complexes

» within a few hours, most of the stomach contents are in the duodenum
» distension of stretch receptors in the small intestine activates a reflex that stimulates
segmentation (mixing movement)
» during segmentation, sections of the intestines are constricted
» this movement increases digestion and absorption in the small intestine. However,
there’s no net movement of chyme
» Peristaltic movements “migrating motility complexes” are stimulated by a decrease in
distension when most of the nutrients have been absorbed in the SI
» Migrating motility complexes are responsible for propelling undigested and liquefied
chyme toward the ileocecal valve

Gastroileal Reflex
» Normally, ileocecal valve is closed, so chyme can’t enter the LI
» However, when food enters and distends the stomach,the gastroileal reflex is triggered
» Then, gastroileal reflex intensifies by migrating motility complexes, this muscular
movements forces chyme through the ileocecal valve into the cecum of the LI

Large Intestine “Colon”

- 10% of the food is being absorbed Chemical Digestion in the SI

Digestion of:
» Carbohydrates
» Proteins
» Lipids
» Nuclei Acids

Flow:
Cecum -> 4 types of colon ascend to transverse to descending to sigmoid -> rectum -> anal
canal -> anus -> 2 sphincter (internal “involuntary” & external “voluntary”)

Functions:
1. Haustral churning, peristalsis, and mass peristalsis drive contents of colon into rectum
2. Bacteria in colon convert proteins into amino acids, break down amino acids, and
produce some B vitamins
3. Absorption of some water, ions and vitamins
4. Formation of feces
5. Defecation

Mechanical Digestion in the Colon

• Haustral Churning
- distension reaches a certain point and the walls of the haustra contract to squeeze
contents onward
Flow:
- As the cecum becomes filled and distends, a local reflex cause:
▪ closure of the ileocecal valve
▪ activation of haustral churning
- it mixes the chyme, which helps absorption of water, salts and vitamins
- it propels the contents of the colon along the large intestine
• Peristalsis
- Propulsive contractions
• Mass Peristalsis
- strong peristaltic wave that begins in the transverse colon and quickly drives the
contents of the colon into rectum
Gastrocolic Reflex and Mass Peristalsis
• when food enters and distends the stomach, stress receptors trigger gastrocolic reflex
• this reflex intensifies strong mass peristalsis movements, forcing feces into rectum

Chemical Digestion in the Colon

• the last stages of digestion occur through bacterial action
- substances are further broken down by bacteria
- some vitamins are synthesized by bacterial action

Absorption and Feces Formation

Absorption
• colons absorbs water, electrolytes, and some vitamins

Feces
• consist of water, inorganic salts, sloughed-off epithelial cells, bacteria, products of
bacterial decomposition, and undigested portions of food

Defecation Reflex
• rectal wall distends and stretch receptors send sensory nerve impulses to the sacral
spinal cord
• motor impulses travel back to the descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus
• longitudinal rectal muscles contract and the internal anal sphincter opens

Phases of Digestion
• Cephalic Phase
- stimulates gastric secretion and motility (starts at the level of chewing)
• Gastric Phase
- neural and hormonal mechanisms
• Intestinal Phase
- neural and hormonal mechanisms

Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances

• Dental Caries – or tooth decay, involves a gradual demineralization (soft ening) of the
enamel and dentin.
• Periodontal Disease – a collective term for a variety of conditions characterized by
inflammation and degeneration of the gingivae, alveolar bone, periodontal ligament, and
cementum.
• Peptic Ulcer Disease – An ulcer is a craterlike lesion in a membrane; ulcers that develop
in areas of the GI tract exposed to acidic gastric juice are called peptic ulcers.
• Diverticular Disease – saclike outpouchings of the wall of the colon, termed diverticula,
occur in places where the muscularis has weakened and may become inflamed.
• Colorectal Cancer
• Hepatitis – an inflammation of the liver that can be caused by viruses, drugs, and
chemicals, including alcohol.
o Hepatitis A (infectious hepatitis) is caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV) and is
spread via fecal contamination of objects such as food, clothing, toys, and eating
utensils (fecal–oral route).
o Hepatitis B is caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and is spread primarily by sexual
contact and contaminated syringes and transfusion equipment. It can also be spread
via saliva and tears.
o Hepatitis C, caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV), is clinically similar to hepatitis B.
Hepatitis C can cause cirrhosis and possibly liver cancer.
o Hepatitis D is caused by the hepatitis D virus (HDV). It is transmitted like hepatitis
B, and in fact a person must have been co-infected with hepatitis B before contracting
hepatitis D.
o Hepatitis E is caused by the hepatitis E virus and is spread like hepatitis A. Although
it does not cause chronic liver disease, hepatitis E virus has a very high mortality rate
among pregnant women.