Previous Questions:

1. Ethernet Cable: An Ethernet cable is a type of wired network cable commonly used to connect
devices in a local area network (LAN). It allows for the transmission of data signals between
devices, such as computers, routers, switches, and modems. Ethernet cables typically use
copper wires to transmit data and adhere to specific standards, such as the popular Category 5
(Cat 5) or Category 6 (Cat 6) standards.

2. Types of Network Topologies:

a. Bus Topology: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a central cable called a bus.
Data is transmitted from one end to another, and all devices on the bus can receive the data
simultaneously.
b. Star Topology: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch. The
hub or switch acts as a central point for data transmission, and each device has a separate
connection to it.
c. Ring Topology: In a ring topology, devices are connected in a circular loop, where each device
is connected to two neighboring devices. Data circulates around the ring, and each device
receives and passes on the data until it reaches the intended recipient.
d. Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, each device is connected to every other device in the
network. This creates multiple paths for data transmission, enhancing reliability and fault
tolerance.
e. Hybrid Topology: A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more different topologies. For
example, a combination of star and ring topologies is known as a star-ring topology.

3. Logical Addresses: Logical addresses are network addresses used at the network layer (Layer
3) of the TCP/IP protocol suite. They provide a unique identifier for devices within a network. An
example of a logical address is an IP (Internet Protocol) address, which is used to identify and
locate devices on an IP network.

4. Physical Addresses: Physical addresses, also known as MAC (Media Access Control)
addresses, are unique identifiers assigned to network interface cards (NICs) at the data link layer
(Layer 2) of the TCP/IP protocol suite. They are hardcoded into the network interface by the
manufacturer and provide a unique identity for a specific network interface.

5. Length of Logical and Physical Addresses:

- Logical addresses: IP addresses are typically 32 bits for IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) or
128 bits for IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6).
- Physical addresses: MAC addresses are 48 bits long and commonly represented as six groups
of two hexadecimal digits (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).

6. Problem in RJ45: RJ45 is a standard connector used for Ethernet cables. Some common
problems with RJ45 connectors include loose connections, bent or damaged pins, or improper
crimping of the cable.
7. Difference between Distance Vector and Link State:
- Distance Vector Routing Protocol: Distance Vector protocols, such as Routing Information
Protocol (RIP) and Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP), determine the best path to a
destination by using metrics, such as hop count. Each router shares its routing table with its
neighboring routers at regular intervals. Distance Vector protocols are prone to routing loops
and slow convergence.
- Link State Routing Protocol: Link State protocols, such as Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
and Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS), build a detailed map of the network by
exchanging information about link states with neighboring routers. They consider factors like
bandwidth, delay, and reliability to calculate the best path. Link State protocols provide faster
convergence and are less prone to routing loops.

8. Difference between NS2 and NS3:

- NS2 (Network Simulator version 2): NS2 is a popular discrete event network simulator
primarily used for simulating and analyzing network protocols. It is mainly based on the Tcl
programming language and supports the simulation of both wired and wireless networks.
- NS3 (Network Simulator version 3): NS3 is the successor to NS2 and is a more modern
network simulator. It is written in C++ and offers improved performance, better modeling
capabilities, and a more extensible architecture. NS3 is designed for simulating and analyzing
various network protocols and applications.

9. Devices and Categories of Layers:

The layers mentioned here refer to the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model.
- Layer 1: Physical Layer: Devices like network cables, hubs, repeaters, and network interface
cards (NICs) operate at the physical layer.
- Layer 2: Data Link Layer: Devices like switches and bridges operate at the data link layer.
- Layer 3: Network Layer: Routers operate at the network layer.
- Layer 4: Transport Layer: Devices like gateways and firewalls may operate at the transport
layer for routing or filtering purposes.
- Layer 5-7: Session, Presentation, and Application Layers: Devices like proxies and load
balancers may operate at these higher layers to provide additional functionality.

10. Gateway Category: A gateway is a device that connects two different networks with different
protocols, architectures, or communication methods. Gateways usually operate at the network
layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.

GENERAL QUESTION(Mashed up)

Question: What is a computer network?
Answer: A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices, such as computers,
servers, routers, switches, etc., that are linked together to enable communication and data
sharing between them.
Question: What is the difference between an emulator and a simulator?
Answer: Emulators and simulators are tools used for testing and evaluating systems or software.
The main difference is that an emulator mimics the behavior of a real system or hardware, while
a simulator recreates the behavior of a system or software using models and algorithms.

Question: What is the purpose of an emulator?

Answer: An emulator is used to replicate the behavior of a specific hardware or system on a
different platform or architecture. It enables software or applications to run on different
environments, allowing developers to test and debug their software without requiring the actual
hardware.

Question: Can you provide an example of an emulator?

Answer: Yes, a popular example of an emulator is the Android Emulator, which allows
developers to test and run Android applications on their computers without needing a physical
Android device.

Question: What is the advantage of using an emulator for testing purposes?

Answer: Emulators provide a cost-effective and convenient way to test software or applications
on different platforms without the need for physical devices. They also offer features like
debugging tools and the ability to simulate specific hardware configurations.

Question: What is a simulator?

Answer: A simulator is a tool used to mimic the behavior of a system, software, or process. It
recreates the functionality and performance of the system using mathematical models and
algorithms, allowing users to analyze, predict, and optimize system behavior.

Question: What are the typical applications of simulators?

Answer: Simulators find applications in various fields, such as aviation, automotive,
manufacturing, and computer networks. They are used for training purposes, performance
evaluation, system optimization, and predicting system behavior under different conditions.

Question: What is the purpose of subnetting in computer networks?

Answer: Subnetting is used to divide a large network into smaller subnetworks, known as
subnets. It helps in improving network performance, managing network resources efficiently,
and providing better security and control over the network.

Question: What is the difference between a hub and a switch?

Answer: A hub is a simple networking device that broadcasts data to all devices connected to it,
whereas a switch is an intelligent device that forwards data only to the intended recipient based
on the destination MAC address. Switches are more efficient and secure compared to hubs.
Question: What is the role of a router in a computer network?
Answer: A router is a networking device that connects multiple networks together and forwards
data packets between them. It determines the best path for data transmission using routing
protocols and maintains routing tables to make routing decisions.

Question: Explain the concept of IP addressing and subnet masks.

Answer: IP addressing is a method of assigning unique numerical identifiers (IP addresses) to
devices connected to a network. Subnet masks are used to divide the IP address into network
and host portions, allowing devices to identify whether they are on the same network or need to
communicate through a router.

Question: What is the purpose of the Domain Name System (DNS)?

Answer: The Domain Name System (DNS) translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,
www.example.com) into IP addresses. It acts as a distributed directory service that resolves
domain names to their corresponding IP addresses, allowing users to access websites using
easy-to-remember domain names.

Question: What is the difference between TCP and UDP?

Answer: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented protocol that provides
reliable and ordered delivery of data. It guarantees that data is delivered without errors and in
the correct order. UDP (User Datagram Protocol), on the other hand, is a connectionless protocol
that does not guarantee reliable delivery or ordered data, but it offers faster transmission with
lower overhead.

Question: Explain the concept of port numbers.

Answer: Port numbers are used to identify specific processes or services running on a device in a
network. They help in directing network traffic to the appropriate application or service. Well-
known port numbers are standardized for common services, such as port 80 for HTTP (web), port
25 for SMTP (email), etc.

Question: What is the purpose of a firewall in network security?

Answer: A firewall acts as a barrier between an internal network and the external network
(typically the internet). It enforces security policies by monitoring and controlling incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predetermined rules. Firewalls protect against unauthorized
access, malicious attacks, and the spread of malware.

Question: Describe the process of data encryption in network communication.

Answer: Data encryption is the process of converting plaintext data into an unreadable form
(ciphertext) using an encryption algorithm and a secret key. It ensures that even if the data is
intercepted, it remains confidential. The recipient uses the corresponding decryption algorithm
and key to convert the ciphertext back into plaintext.

Question: How does a VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network) work?

Answer: A VLAN is a logical grouping of devices within a network, regardless of their physical
location. It allows network administrators to segment a network into multiple isolated broadcast
domains, enhancing security and reducing network congestion. VLANs are created and managed
using switches.

Question: Explain the concept of packet switching.

Answer: Packet switching is a method of transmitting data over a network by dividing it into
small, manageable packets. Each packet is independently routed to its destination, allowing
efficient use of network resources and enabling data transmission even if multiple paths are
available.

Question: What is the purpose of ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)?

Answer: ICMP is used to send error messages and control information between network devices.
It is commonly used for diagnostic and troubleshooting purposes, such as ping (echo
request/reply) to test network connectivity or traceroute to determine the path packets take
between devices.

Question: What is a MAC address, and how is it different from an IP address?

Answer: A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique identifier assigned to a network
interface card (NIC) at the hardware level. It operates at the data link layer of the OSI model. In
contrast, an IP (Internet Protocol) address is a logical address assigned to devices on a network,
operating at the network layer. MAC addresses are used for local network communication, while
IP addresses are used for global network communication.

Question: What are the advantages of using a wireless network over a wired network?
Answer: Wireless networks provide mobility and flexibility, allowing devices to connect without
physical cables. They enable easy access in environments where wiring is impractical or
impossible. Wireless networks also simplify network expansion and can be more cost-effective for
certain scenarios.

Question: What is NS2 (Network Simulator 2) and NS3 (Network Simulator 3)?
Answer: NS2 and NS3 are discrete event network simulators used for designing, simulating, and
analyzing computer networks. They allow researchers and network engineers to evaluate
network protocols, performance, and behavior in a controlled environment.

Question: How do NS2 and NS3 differ from each other?

Answer: NS2 and NS3 are different versions of network simulators, with NS3 being the newer
version. NS2 is written in C++ and supports both wired and wireless networks. NS3, on the other
hand, is written in a combination of C++ and Python and provides more comprehensive support
for wireless networks, including more accurate models and simulations.

Question: What is the difference between a straight-through cable and a crossover cable?
Answer: A straight-through cable is used to connect different types of devices, such as a
computer to a switch or a router to a hub. The pin configurations on both ends of the cable are
the same. In contrast, a crossover cable is used to connect similar devices, such as a computer
to a computer or a switch to a switch. The pin configurations are crossed over, allowing for direct
communication between the devices.

Question: What is the purpose of a coaxial cable in networking?

Answer: Coaxial cables are used in networking for various purposes, such as cable television
(CATV) distribution, broadband internet access, and legacy Ethernet connections. They consist
of a central conductor, insulation, metallic shielding, and an outer protective layer.

Question: What is the advantage of using fiber optic cables over copper cables?
Answer: Fiber optic cables offer several advantages over copper cables, including higher
bandwidth capabilities, longer transmission distances, immunity to electromagnetic interference
(EMI), lighter weight, and increased security due to the difficulty of tapping or intercepting
optical signals.

Question: What is an RJ45 connector?

Answer: An RJ45 connector is a standardized connector used for Ethernet networking. It has
eight pins and is commonly used to terminate twisted-pair cables, such as Cat 5e or Cat 6
cables.

Question: How is an RJ45 connector wired?

Answer: An RJ45 connector follows the T568A or T568B wiring standards for Ethernet
connections. These standards specify the arrangement of the eight wires inside the connector,
ensuring consistency across network installations.
The order of colors for an RJ45 Ethernet cable is typically as follows:
Pin 1 (white/orange)
Pin 2 (orange)
Pin 3 (white/green)
Pin 4 (blue)
Pin 5 (white/blue)
Pin 6 (green)

Pin 7 (white/brown)
Pin 8 (brown)

Question: What is the purpose of an RJ45 Ethernet cable?

Answer: An RJ45 Ethernet cable is used to connect network devices, such as computers,
switches, routers, and network-enabled devices, to establish wired Ethernet connections. It
enables the transmission of data signals between these devices.
Question: How are Ethernet cables with RJ45 connectors used in networking?
Answer: Ethernet cables with RJ45 connectors are used to establish wired connections between
devices on a local area network (LAN). They carry Ethernet signals, allowing devices to
communicate and transfer data within the network.

Question: What is guided media? Provide some examples.

Answer: Guided media refers to the physical media that provide a guided path for data
transmission. Examples of guided media include twisted-pair copper cables, coaxial cables, and
fiber-optic cables.

Question: What is unguided media? Provide some examples.

Answer: Unguided media, also known as wireless or wireless media, refers to the transmission
media where signals propagate through the air or free space. Examples of unguided media
include radio waves, microwave, and infrared.

Question: Explain the difference between circuit switching and packet switching.
Answer: Circuit switching establishes a dedicated communication path between two nodes for
the duration of a connection, ensuring a constant and predictable delay. Packet switching
breaks data into small packets that are individually routed across the network, allowing for more
efficient use of network resources but with variable delay.

Question: What is multiplexing and why is it used?

Answer: Multiplexing is the technique of combining multiple signals or data streams into a single
transmission medium or channel. It is used to maximize the utilization of the transmission
medium and enable multiple simultaneous communications over a shared resource.

Question: What is Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)?

Answer: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a multiplexing technique that divides the
available frequency bandwidth into multiple non-overlapping frequency sub-bands. Each sub-
band is allocated to a different communication channel, allowing multiple signals to be
transmitted simultaneously.

Question: What is Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)?

Answer: Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a multiplexing technique that combines
multiple optical signals with different wavelengths onto a single optical fiber. Each wavelength
represents a separate communication channel, enabling high-capacity data transmission.

Question: What is Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)?

Answer: Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a multiplexing technique where multiple signals or
data streams are transmitted sequentially over the same channel. Each input signal is assigned
a specific time slot, and the time slots are repeated cyclically. This allows multiple signals to
share the same transmission medium.

Question: What are the advantages of fiber-optic cables over other guided media?
Answer: Fiber-optic cables offer advantages such as high bandwidth capacity, low attenuation,
resistance to electromagnetic interference, and long-distance transmission capabilities. They also
provide better security as they are difficult to tap or intercept.

Jyada Padhliya bro Aab niche mat Jaa

~~~..Jaa Bhai teri Marji merko kya ..~~~

TOPOLOGY

Question: What is a network topology?

Answer: A network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of devices and connections in
a computer network. It defines how devices are interconnected and how data flows between
them.

Question: Explain the bus topology.

Answer: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a common communication medium,
known as a bus. Data transmitted by one device is received by all other devices on the bus. It is
a simple topology but can suffer from collisions and limited scalability.

Question: What is a star topology?

Answer: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central device, such as a switch or hub.
Data flows through the central device, which facilitates communication between devices. It
provides better scalability and easier troubleshooting compared to bus topology.

Question: Describe the ring topology.

Answer: In a ring topology, devices are connected in a circular manner, forming a closed loop.
Each device is connected to its neighboring devices, and data flows in a unidirectional manner
around the ring. It requires a token passing mechanism to control data transmission.

Question: What is a mesh topology?

Answer: In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device in the network,
forming multiple redundant paths. It provides high redundancy and fault tolerance but requires
a large number of physical connections, making it costly and complex to implement.
Question: Explain the tree topology.
Answer: In a tree topology, devices are arranged in a hierarchical structure resembling a tree. It
consists of a root node connected to multiple child nodes, and further branching can occur. It
offers better scalability and allows for easier network expansion.

Question: What is a hybrid topology?

Answer: A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more different network topologies. It can be
a mix of bus, star, ring, or other topologies, allowing network designers to customize and
optimize the network based on specific requirements.

Question: What are the factors to consider when selecting a network topology?
Answer: Factors to consider include the size of the network, scalability requirements, fault
tolerance, cost, ease of maintenance, performance requirements, and the types of applications
and services being used.

Question: Which topology is commonly used in Ethernet networks?

Answer: Star topology is commonly used in Ethernet networks, where devices are connected to a
central switch or hub using twisted-pair cables or fiber optics.

Question: What are the advantages of a mesh topology?

Answer: Advantages of a mesh topology include high redundancy, fault tolerance, robustness,
and the ability to handle heavy network traffic. It ensures alternative paths for data transmission
and minimizes the chances of network failure.

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model

Question: What is the OSI model?

Answer: The OSI model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a
communication system into seven layers. It stands for Open Systems Interconnection and
provides a structured approach to understand and design computer networks and
communication protocols.

Question: Name the seven layers of the OSI model.

Answer: The seven layers of the OSI model, from bottom to top, are:

• Physical Layer
• Data Link Layer
• Network Layer
• Transport Layer
• Session Layer
• Presentation Layer
• Application Layer
Question: What is the role of the Physical Layer in the OSI model?
Answer: The Physical Layer is responsible for the physical transmission of data over the network
medium. It deals with electrical, mechanical, and physical aspects of the network, including
connectors, cables, and signaling.

Question: Explain the purpose of the Data Link Layer.

Answer: The Data Link Layer provides error-free and reliable data transfer between adjacent
network nodes. It handles framing, error detection and correction, and flow control. It also
establishes and terminates links between nodes, allowing data to be transferred safely.

Question: What functions does the Network Layer perform?

Answer: The Network Layer focuses on routing and forwarding data packets across different
networks. It determines the best path for packet delivery, performs logical addressing, and
handles network congestion and traffic control.

Question: What is the role of the Transport Layer?

Answer: The Transport Layer ensures reliable and end-to-end data delivery between hosts. It
segments large data into smaller units, manages data sequencing, performs error recovery, and
provides flow control. It also establishes connections and terminates them when the data
transfer is complete.

Question: Explain the purpose of the Session Layer.

Answer: The Session Layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions
between applications. It enables synchronization, checkpointing, and recovery, allowing data
exchange between processes on different hosts.

Question: What functions does the Presentation Layer perform?

Answer: The Presentation Layer focuses on data representation and ensures that information
exchanged between applications is understood by both parties. It handles data compression,
encryption, and decryption, as well as data formatting and conversion.

Question: What is the role of the Application Layer?

Answer: The Application Layer provides network services directly to end-users and applications.
It enables users to access network resources and services, such as file transfer, email, web
browsing, and remote login.

Question: Why is the OSI model important in computer networking?

Answer: The OSI model provides a common framework and reference model for designing,
implementing, and troubleshooting network protocols and communication systems. It helps in
understanding the interaction between different network layers, promotes interoperability, and
facilitates the development of standardized networking technologies.
 Protocol based

Question: What is a communication protocol?

Answer: A communication protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern the exchange of
data and enable communication between devices or systems. It defines the format, timing,
sequencing, and error control mechanisms for transmitting and receiving data.

Question: What is the difference between a connection-oriented and a connectionless protocol?

Answer: A connection-oriented protocol establishes a dedicated connection between the sender
and receiver before data transmission, ensuring reliable and ordered delivery. A connectionless
protocol, on the other hand, does not establish a dedicated connection and each packet is
treated independently, allowing for more efficient and scalable communication.

Question: Can you give examples of connection-oriented and connectionless protocols?

Answer: Examples of connection-oriented protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
and X.25. Examples of connectionless protocols include UDP (User Datagram Protocol) and IP
(Internet Protocol).

Question: What are the different types of protocols used in computer networks?

Answer: There are several types of protocols used in computer networks, including:

Transport Layer Protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Network Layer Protocols: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), ARP
(Address Resolution Protocol)
Application Layer Protocols: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol),
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), DNS (Domain Name System), SSH (Secure Shell), SNMP
(Simple Network Management Protocol)

Question: What is the purpose of TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)?

Answer: TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented transport layer protocol. It ensures that data
packets are delivered in the correct order and without errors, handling flow control and
congestion control to optimize data transmission between applications.

Question: Explain the role of UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

Answer: UDP is a connectionless, unreliable transport layer protocol. It provides a lightweight
and efficient means of sending datagrams without the overhead of reliability mechanisms. UDP
is commonly used for real-time applications, multimedia streaming, and simple request-response
communication.

Question: What is the significance of IP (Internet Protocol) in networking?

Answer: IP is a network layer protocol responsible for addressing and routing packets between
devices on a network. It assigns unique IP addresses to devices and ensures the delivery of
packets to the correct destination based on these addresses.
Question: What is ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) used for?
Answer: ICMP is a network layer protocol that enables the reporting of errors and exchanging
control messages between devices on an IP network. It is commonly used for diagnostics,
troubleshooting, and network management purposes.

Question: Explain the purpose of ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).

Answer: ARP is a protocol used for mapping an IP address to a MAC (Media Access Control)
address in a local network. It resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses, allowing devices to
communicate within the same network.

Question: What are some commonly used application layer protocols?

Answer: There are numerous application layer protocols, including:

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for web communication.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for file transfer between clients and servers.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending and receiving email.
DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves domain names to IP addresses.

SSH (Secure Shell): Provides secure remote login and file transfer.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Used for network management and monitoring.
Question: What is the purpose of HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)?
Answer: HTTP is an application layer protocol that enables the transfer of hypertext and other
media files over the internet. It is the foundation of the World Wide Web, allowing web browsers
to retrieve and display web pages from web servers.

Question: Explain the role of FTP (File Transfer Protocol).

Answer: FTP is an application layer protocol used for transferring files between a client and a
server on a network. It provides functionalities such as file upload, download, renaming,
deletion, and directory listing.

Question: What is the significance of DNS (Domain Name System)?

Answer: DNS is an application layer protocol that translates domain names into IP addresses,
allowing users to access websites using human-readable names. It plays a crucial role in
facilitating communication and resource discovery on the internet.

Question: What are the key features of TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)?
Answer: TCP provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of data packets over IP
networks. It offers features such as flow control, congestion control, and retransmission of lost
packets to ensure reliable data transfer between applications.
Question: What is the purpose of UDP (User Datagram Protocol)?
Answer: UDP is a connectionless protocol that provides an unreliable and unordered delivery of
datagrams. It is lightweight and suitable for applications where low latency and minimal
overhead are more important than reliable delivery, such as streaming media or real-time
communication.

Question: Explain the role of HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) in web communication.
Answer: HTTP is a protocol used for transferring hypertext, such as HTML pages, over the
internet. It defines the rules for client-server communication, allowing web browsers to request
web pages and web servers to respond with the requested content.

Question: What is SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) used for?

Answer: SMTP is a protocol for sending and receiving email messages between mail servers. It
handles the transmission, routing, and delivery of email, allowing users to send and receive
messages across different email systems.

PSDN ISDN

Question: What is PSTN?

Answer: PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. It is a global voice communication
network that uses traditional analog technology to provide telephone services to residential and
business users. It is based on the circuit-switching technology.

Question: How does PSTN work?

Answer: PSTN works by establishing a dedicated physical circuit between the calling and
receiving parties for the duration of a phone call. It converts voice signals into analog electrical
signals and transmits them over copper wires, fiber optics, or wireless connections to reach the
destination.

Question: What are the limitations of PSTN?

Answer: Some limitations of PSTN include limited bandwidth for data transmission, higher costs
for long-distance calls, lack of advanced features and services, and vulnerability to natural
disasters or physical line damages.

Question: What is ISDN?

Answer: ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network. It is a digital telecommunications
network that provides voice, data, and video services over traditional telephone lines. It uses
digital circuit-switching technology and offers higher bandwidth and advanced features
compared to PSTN.

Question: How does ISDN differ from PSTN?

Answer: ISDN differs from PSTN in that it is a digital network that supports the transmission of
voice, data, and video over the same line simultaneously. It provides faster call setup, better call
quality, and supports various digital services like video conferencing and high-speed internet
access.

Question: What are the advantages of ISDN?

Answer: Some advantages of ISDN include faster call setup time, improved voice quality, the
ability to transmit voice and data simultaneously, support for various digital services, and
greater flexibility in using multiple devices on the same line.

Question: What are the applications of ISDN?

Answer: ISDN is used in various applications such as video conferencing, telephony services,
remote access to corporate networks, high-speed internet access, and transmitting large data
files over digital connections.

Question: Is ISDN still widely used today?

Answer: The usage of ISDN has declined in recent years due to the emergence of broadband
internet and digital communication technologies. However, it is still utilized in some areas where
high-speed internet access is limited, or specific applications require its capabilities.

IPV4 / IPv6

Question: What is the purpose of IPv4 addressing?

Answer: IPv4 addressing provides a unique identification for devices connected to a network. It
enables communication and routing of data packets across different networks.

Question: What is a subnet and why is subnetting important?

Answer: A subnet is a logical division of a larger network. Subnetting allows for the partitioning
of a network into smaller subnets, which helps optimize network performance, manage network
resources, and improve security.

Question: How is subnetting achieved in IPv4?

Answer: Subnetting in IPv4 involves borrowing bits from the host portion of an IP address to
create a subnet identifier. This process allows for the creation of multiple subnets within a
network.

Question: Explain the format of an IPv4 packet.

Answer: An IPv4 packet consists of a header and a data payload. The header contains various
fields, including source and destination IP addresses, version, header length, type of service,
time-to-live (TTL), protocol, header checksum, etc. The data payload carries the actual data being
transmitted.
Question: How are IP packets forwarded across networks?
Answer: IP packet forwarding is the process of transferring packets from one network to another
based on the destination IP address. Routers examine the destination IP address and use routing
tables to determine the next hop for packet delivery.

Question: What are the key differences between IPv4 and IPv6?
Answer: Some key differences between IPv4 and IPv6 include:

• Address length: IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long, while IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long.
• Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses, whereas IPv6
provides a significantly larger address space.
• Addressing scheme: IPv4 uses a hierarchical addressing scheme, while IPv6 uses a flat
addressing scheme.
• Network address translation (NAT): IPv4 often relies on NAT to conserve address space,
while IPv6 eliminates the need for NAT.
• Features: IPv6 incorporates built-in support for security and mobility, whereas IPv4
required additional features for these functionalities.

Question: What are some advantages of IPv6 over IPv4?

Answer: Some advantages of IPv6 over IPv4 include a larger address space, improved addressing
and routing efficiency, simplified header format, built-in security features, and support for
emerging technologies and devices.

Question: Why is the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 necessary?

Answer: The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is necessary due to the depletion of IPv4 addresses.
IPv6 provides a larger address space to accommodate the growing number of devices and
ensures the long-term sustainability of the internet.

ARQ Protocols (Automatic repeat request)

Question: What is the purpose of the window size in ARQ protocols?

Answer: The window size in ARQ protocols is used to control the flow of data and ensure reliable
transmission. It determines the number of unacknowledged packets that can be sent before
waiting for acknowledgments.

Question: What is the Stop and Wait protocol?

Answer: The Stop and Wait protocol is a simple error control protocol used in data
communication. It ensures reliable delivery of data by sending a single data frame and waiting
for an acknowledgment before sending the next frame.

Question: What is the window size in the Stop-and-Wait ARQ protocol?

Answer: The window size in the Stop-and-Wait ARQ protocol is 1. Only one packet is allowed to
be in transit at a time. The sender waits for the acknowledgment of the sent packet before
sending the next one.

Question: Explain the Selective Repeat protocol.

Answer: The Selective Repeat protocol is an error control protocol used in data communication.
It allows for the retransmission of only the lost or corrupted frames, while correctly received
frames are acknowledged and processed. It uses sliding windows to control the flow of data.

Question: What is the Go-Back-N protocol?

Answer: The Go-Back-N protocol is an error control protocol used in data communication. It
allows the sender to transmit a number of frames without waiting for individual
acknowledgments. However, if any frame is lost or corrupted, the sender has to retransmit all
the frames from that point onward.

Question: What are the advantages of the Stop and Wait protocol?
Answer: The advantages of the Stop and Wait protocol include simplicity of implementation,
efficient use of network resources for error-free channels, and low buffer requirements.

Question: What are the advantages of the Selective Repeat protocol?

Answer: The advantages of the Selective Repeat protocol include selective retransmission of only
lost or corrupted frames, improved throughput compared to Stop and Wait protocol, and efficient
use of network resources by transmitting only necessary frames.

Question: What are the advantages of the Go-Back-N protocol?

Answer: The advantages of the Go-Back-N protocol include its simplicity, efficient use of network
bandwidth, and improved throughput compared to Stop and Wait protocol.

Question: What are the limitations of the Stop and Wait protocol?
Answer: The limitations of the Stop and Wait protocol include its low throughput due to the wait
time for acknowledgment after each frame and its vulnerability to delays caused by network
latency.

Question: What are the limitations of the Selective Repeat protocol?

Answer: The limitations of the Selective Repeat protocol include the increased complexity of
implementation compared to Stop and Wait, increased buffer requirements, and the need for
additional control information in the data frames.
Question: What are the limitations of the Go-Back-N protocol?
Answer: The limitations of the Go-Back-N protocol include the potential for unnecessary
retransmissions of correctly received frames, increased buffer requirements, and limited
scalability due to the cumulative acknowledgment mechanism.

Question: What happens if a frame is lost in the Go-Back-N ARQ protocol?

Answer: In the Go-Back-N ARQ protocol, if a frame is lost, all subsequent frames in the sender's
window are retransmitted. The sender "goes back" to the lost frame and retransmits all frames
following it.

DVRA / LSRP

Question: What is the Distance Vector Routing algorithm?

Answer: The Distance Vector Routing algorithm is a routing protocol that calculates the best
path to a destination based on distance metrics. Each router maintains a routing table
containing information about the distance to various destinations, as well as the next-hop router
to reach them. Routers periodically exchange routing updates with their neighboring routers to
learn about network changes and update their routing tables accordingly.

Question: How does the Distance Vector Routing algorithm determine the best path?
Answer: The Distance Vector Routing algorithm determines the best path based on the hop
count or a metric such as the cost associated with a link. Routers exchange routing information
with their neighbors and update their routing tables by considering the received distance
vectors. The algorithm iteratively calculates the shortest path to each destination by comparing
the received distance vectors and updating its own routing table accordingly.

Question: What are some examples of Distance Vector Routing protocols?

Answer: Examples of Distance Vector Routing protocols include Routing Information Protocol
(RIP) and Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP).

Question: What is the Link State Routing protocol?

Answer: The Link State Routing protocol is a routing protocol that builds a detailed and
synchronized map of the entire network. Each router in the network floods its neighboring
routers with information about its directly connected links, including their state and cost. This
information is then used to construct a complete network topology map, allowing each router to
calculate the best path to a destination based on the available information.

Question: How does the Link State Routing protocol work?

Answer: In the Link State Routing protocol, each router maintains a database called the Link
State Database (LSDB), which contains the information about all the routers and links in the
network. Routers exchange Link State Advertisements (LSAs) to disseminate information about
their local links and their states. Using the LSDB, routers run the Dijkstra's algorithm to
calculate the shortest path to each destination and update their routing tables accordingly.

Question: What are some examples of Link State Routing protocols?

Answer: Examples of Link State Routing protocols include Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and
Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS).

Question: What are the advantages of Distance Vector Routing algorithm?

Answer: The advantages of Distance Vector Routing algorithm include simplicity of
implementation, low processing and memory requirements, and suitability for small to medium-
sized networks.

Question: What are the advantages of Link State Routing protocol?

Answer: The advantages of Link State Routing protocol include faster convergence, efficient use
of network resources, support for load balancing, and the ability to scale to larger networks.