BELL RINGER#9:

UV, Y, R, IR

IV < I < II < III/

ultra violet radiation < yellow light < red light < infrared radiation;

A continuous spectrum has all colours/wavelengths/frequencies whereas

a line spectrum has only (lines of) sharp/discrete/specific colours/
wavelengths/frequencies;
 Some key answers:

• UV-B radiation has shorter wavelength;

hence, has higher energy;
increases risk of damage to skin cells / OWTTE / causes
cancer;

• A continuous spectrum has all colors/wavelengths/frequencies

whereas
a line spectrum has only (lines of) sharp/discrete/specific
colors/wavelengths/frequencies;
Problems with Bohr's model = too
simple, doesn't explain bigger atoms,
thought of electrons as particles.
Back to the EQ: is Bohr still useful?
Orbital atom - helps better explain the data.
Electrons in clouds, not planet like orbits!
Every particle have a wavelike nature as well as
a particle nature.
This is the heart of Quantum mechanics....
NO CALCULATOR

PPQ2:
PPQ 2
PPQ2:
 MASS SPECTRA

Naturally occurring potassium consists of potassium-39 and potassium-41.

Calculate the percentage of each isotope present if the average is 39.1.

39
Assume there are x nuclei of K in every 100; so there will be (100-x) of 41K

so 39x + 41 (100-x) = 39.1

100

therefore 39 x + 4100 - 41x = 3910

thus - 2x = - 190

and x = 95

ANSWER There will be 95% 39K and

5% 41K
 MASS SPECTRA

An early application was the demonstration by Aston, (Nobel Prize, 1922),

that naturally occurring neon consisted of 3 isotopes... 20Ne 21Ne 22Ne.

90.92
• positions of peaks gives atomic mass

Abundance / %
• peak intensity gives relative abundance

• highest abundance is scaled up to 100% 8.82

- other values are adjusted accordingly. 0.26

19 20 21 22 23 m/z

Calculate the average relative atomic mass of neon using the above information.

20 21 22
Out of every 100 atoms 90.92 are Ne , 0.26 are Ne and 8.82 are Ne

Average = (90.92 x 20) + (0.26 x 21) + (8.82 x 22) = 20.179

100

Relative atomic mass = 20.18

FLAME TEST
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88XZa79e1Nw&app=deskto
p
 ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATONS
A guide for A level students

KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS
INTRODUCTION
This Powerpoint show is one of several produced to help students understand
selected topics at AS and A2 level Chemistry. It is based on the requirements of
the AQA and OCR specifications but is suitable for other examination boards.
Individual students may use the material at home for revision purposes or it may
be used for classroom teaching if an interactive white board is available.
Accompanying notes on this, and the full range of AS and A2 topics, are available
from the KNOCKHARDY SCIENCE WEBSITE at...
www.argonet.co.uk/users/hoptonj/sci.htm

Navigation is achieved by...

either clicking on the grey arrows at the foot of each page
or using the left and right arrow keys on the keyboard
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS

CONTENTS
• The Bohr Atom
• Levels and sub-levels
• Rules and principles
• Orbitals
• Rules for filling orbitals.
• The Aufbau principle
• Electronic configurations of elements 1 to 36
• Electronic configurations of ions
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS

Before you start it would be helpful to…

• Know that electrons can be found outside the nucleus in energy levels ( shells)
• Know the electronic configurations of the first 36 elements
 THE BOHR ATOM

Ideas about the structure of the atom have changed

over the years. The Bohr theory thought of it as a
small nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded
by circulating electrons.
Each shell or energy level could hold a maximum
number of electrons.
The energy of levels became greater as they got Maximum electrons
per shell
further from the nucleus and electrons filled energy
levels in order. 1st shell 2
2nd shell 8
3rd shell 18
The theory couldn’t explain certain aspects of
chemistry. 4th shell 32
5th shell 50
 LEVELS AND SUB-LEVELS
PRINCIPAL
ENERGY During studies of the spectrum of
LEVELS hydrogen it was shown that the energy
4
levels were not equally spaced. The
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

energy gap between successive levels

got increasingly smaller as the levels
got further from the nucleus. The
importance of this is discussed later.
3

1
 LEVELS AND SUB-LEVELS
PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS
ENERGY During studies of the spectrum of
LEVELS hydrogen it was shown that the energy
4
levels were not equally spaced. The
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

energy gap between successive levels

got increasingly smaller as the levels
got further from the nucleus. The
importance of this is discussed later.
3
A study of Ionisation Energies and the
periodic properties of elements suggested
that the main energy levels were split
into sub levels.
2 Level 1 was split into 1 sub level
Level 2 was split into 2 sub levels
Level 3 was split into 3 sub levels
1 Level 4 was split into 4 sub levels

CONTENTS
 RULES AND PRINCIPLES

HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

“You cannot determine the position and momentum of an electron at the same time.”
This means that you cannot say exactly where an electron is. It put paid to the idea of electrons
orbiting the nucleus in rings and introduced the idea of orbitals.

THE AFBAU PRINCIPLE

“Electrons enter the lowest available energy level.”

PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

“No two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers.”
Two electrons can go in each orbital, providing they are of opposite spin.

HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY

“When in orbitals of equal energy, electrons will try to remain unpaired.”
Placing two electrons in one orbital means that, as they are both negatively charged, there will
be some electrostatic repulsion between them. Placing each electron in a separate orbital
reduces the repulsion and the system is more stable. It can be described as the “SITTING ON A
BUS RULE”!
 Three Rules:
Aufbau rule - Electrons are lazy
Hund's Rule - Electrons hate each other (bus rule)
Pauli Exclusion Principle - each electron in a pair in the
same orbital must have opposite spin.
 ORBITALS
An orbital is... a region in space where one is likely to find an electron.
Orbitals can hold up to two electrons as long as they have opposite spin; this
is known as PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPAL.
Orbitals have different shapes...
 ORBITALS
An orbital is... a region in space where one is likely to find an electron.
Orbitals can hold up to two electrons as long as they have opposite spin; this is
known as PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPAL.
Orbitals have different shapes...

ORBITAL SHAPE OCCURRENCE

s spherical one in every principal level
p dumb-bell three in levels from 2 upwards
d various five in levels from 3 upwards
f various seven in levels from 4 upwards
 ORBITALS
An orbital is... a region in space where one is likely to find an electron.
Orbitals can hold up to two electrons as long as they have opposite spin; this is
known as PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPAL.
Orbitals have different shapes...

ORBITAL SHAPE OCCURRENCE

s spherical one in every principal level
p dumb-bell three in levels from 2 upwards
d various five in levels from 3 upwards
f various seven in levels from 4 upwards

An orbital is a 3-dimensional statistical shape showing where one is most likely to

find an electron. Because, according to Heisenberg, you cannot say exactly where
an electron is, you are only able to say where it might be found.

DO NOT CONFUSE AN ORBITAL WITH AN ORBIT

 SHAPES OF ORBITALS

s orbitals

• spherical
• one occurs in every principal energy level
 SHAPES OF ORBITALS

p orbitals

• dumb-bell shaped
• three occur in energy levels except the first
 SHAPES OF ORBITALS

d orbitals

• various shapes
• five occur in energy levels except the first and second
 ORDER OF FILLING ORBITALS
PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS
ENERGY
LEVELS 4f

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4d
4
4p
4s

3d
3 3p
3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s

Orbitals are not filled in numerical order because the principal energy levels get
closer together as you get further from the nucleus. This results in overlap of sub
levels. The first example occurs when the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbitals.
 ORDER OF FILLING ORBITALS
PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS
ENERGY ENERGY
LEVELS 4f LEVELS 4f

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4d 4d
4 4
4p 4p
4s 3d
4s
3d 3 3p
3 3p 3s
3s
2p
2
2p 2s
2
2s

1 1s 1 1s

Orbitals are not filled in numerical order because the principal energy levels get
closer together as you get further from the nucleus. This results in overlap of sub
levels. The first example occurs when the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbitals.
 ORDER OF FILLING ORBITALS
PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS
ENERGY ENERGY
LEVELS 4f LEVELS 4f
HOW TO

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4d 4d
4 4
4p 4p REMEMBER ...
4s 3d
THE FILLING ORDER
4s
3 3p 1s
3d
3 3p 3s 2s 2p
3s 3s 3p 3d
2p 4s 4p 4d 4f
2
2p 2s 5s 5p 5d 5f
2
2s 6s 6p 6d
7s 7p

1 1s 1 1s

Orbitals are not filled in numerical order because the principal energy levels get
closer together as you get further from the nucleus. This results in overlap of sub
levels. The first example occurs when the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbitals.