Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Thermo-optical performance of building glass under salt sedimentation

Huijun Mao , Qinglin Meng , Junsong Wang *
School of Architecture, State Key Lab of Subtropical Building and Urban Science, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510641, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The phenomenon of salt sedimentation on the building glass surface occurs in coastal salt-fog climates, leading to
Salt-fog climate the changes in surface heat transfer characteristics and optical properties, which affects the indoor environment
Building glass and gradually reduces building energy performance. Regrettably, there remains a paucity of research concerning
Salt sedimentation feature
the impact of salt sedimentation on the thermal and optical performances of building glass. This study investi­
Thermo-optical performances
CHTC model
gated the salt sedimentation features of building glass using an indoor accelerated test, and explored the re­
lationships between surface heat transfer coefficients, optical properties and salt sedimentation. As the spray
duration grew, the sedimented salt stains appeared more dispersed and less dense, but their dimensions
increased, exhibiting an exponential growth tendency. The salt sedimentation per unit area grew logarithmically
with the spray duration, with the magnitudes being 14.4 to 40.0 mg/m2 and 15.6 to 44.3 mg/m2 under 5% and
10% brine concentration conditions, respectively. The convection heat transfer coefficient (CHTC) and radiative
heat transfer coefficient (RHTC) showed a linear monotonic increase with the salt sedimentation, in contrast to
the control condition, with the maximum growth rates reaching 178.7% and 97.2%, respectively. The extended
CHTC model could be used to calculate the CHTC regarding the impact of salt sedimentation and wind speed. The
entire solar spectral transmittance and reflectance was affected by salt sedimentation, and the visible light
transmittance, reflectance, hemispherical emissivity, and shading coefficient of low-E and clear glasses all
decreased linearly with the increase of salt sedimentation.

climate, which is laden with salt particles is common in coastal areas

1. Introduction
The ocean contributes significantly to food access [1], energy supply
[2], maritime transport [3], and other fields, which is an important
guarantee for sustainable development of human society and national
economy [4]. For instance, China’s coastal area accounts for only about
14% of the country’s land area, but about 40% of its population and
nearly 60% of its gross domestic product [5]. However, economic
development promotes the urbanization process (the growth of urban
population and building density), resulting in substantial building stock
and high building energy consumption (BEC) in coastal areas. As an
example, in China, buildings in coastal areas make up nearly 38.9% of
the total national building area and consume almost 37.5% of the total
national building energy [6]. Meanwhile, BEC has a great impact on the
total social energy consumption, accounting for about 45.5% of the total
social energy consumption [6]. Consequently, building energy efficiency
in coastal areas is important to high-quality urban development and the
realization of dual-carbon goal of the country.
However, due to wind action on the seawater’s surface, a salt-fog
[7]. As a result of such an environment, the building envelope will be
exposed to salty air for a long time, and its surface and interior will
generate salt sedimentation [8,9]. On the one hand, salt sedimentation
leads to the structural change of the building envelope and the attenu­
ation of its strength [10]; on the other hand, the existence of salt sedi­
mentation and the change of structure will influence the thermal and
moisture properties of building envelopes, thus increasing the BEC [11].
Hence, developing the building envelope that faces the salt sedimenta­
tion and corrosion condition is the priority during city construction in
coast areas, and great efforts have been made.
Numerous studies have been conducted on reinforced concrete,
metal, and other porous media as traditional building materials, and it is
clear that salt has a substantial impact on their mechanical properties
and thermal performance. Reinforced concrete offers notable advan­
tages such as high strength, durability, seismic resilience, and plasticity.
It assumes a pivotal role in urban construction, finding extensive
application in diverse infrastructure projects like buildings and bridges.
Consequently, extensive research has been dedicated to investigating
the corrosion and durability of reinforced concrete within chloride-

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: 20209036@scut.edu.cn (J. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133546
Received 3 July 2023; Received in revised form 14 September 2023; Accepted 24 September 2023
Available online 4 October 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Mao et al.
Nomenclature
A Glass surface area (m2)
a Undetermined coefficient (-)
CHTC Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2⋅K))
dL Average salt stain dimension with 5% brine concentration
(mm)
dH Average salt stain dimension with 10% brine concentration
(mm)
hc Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2⋅K))
hr Radiative heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2⋅K))
m1 Dry mass of sample before sedimentation (g)
m2 Dry mass of sample after sedimentation (g)
p Salt sedimentation amount per unit area (mg/m2)
pL Salt sedimentation amount per unit area with 5% brine
concentration (mg/m2)
pH Salt sedimentation amount per unit area with 10% brine
concentration (mg/m2)
QC Convective heat transfer intensity (W/m2)
QD Conductive heat intensity (W/m2)
QE Latent heat exchange intensity (W/m2)
QR Net received radiation intensity (W/m2)
containing environments [12,13]. Following the elucidation of chloride
ion migration and structural mechanisms within concrete, scholars have
formulated diverse strategies aimed at mitigating the detrimental
impact of chloride ions on reinforced concrete structures [14,15].
Metallic materials such as steel plates and aluminium alloys are
extensively employed in the building industry to manufacture various
structures and components, many of which are also important to urban
construction. As a result, considerable efforts have also been dedicated
to examining the corrosion behavior of steel [16,17] and alloy materials
[18,19] in chloride-containing environments.Therefore, to prevent
metallic materials from corrosion, coatings have been widely used in
marine environments. As an instance, Guo et al. [20] proposed a hy­
drophobic epoxy resin coating to improve the corrosion resistance of
magnesium alloys, Lopez-Ortega et al. [21] evaluated the corrosion
behavior of three potential coatings employed in corrosion protection of
metallic materials.
The above studies mainly focus on the mechanical properties of the
materials subjected to salt corrosion. In addition, the thermal and
moisture properties of building materials exposed to salt sedimentation
and corrosion have also been explored [11,22,23]. It was reported by
Anjum et al. [23] that NaCl crystallization resulted in higher thermal
response and weaker thermal insulation of fired clay brick. Bednarska
et al. [24] found that the thermal conductivity coefficient increased
along with growth of water or Na2SO4 solution content. Kosior-
Kazberuk et al. [25] presented a method to predict the thermal con­
ductivity coefficient for wall materials containing different groups of
salts. Additionally, Pan et al. [26] found that the salty air and liquid
diminished the evaporative potential of porous ceramic materials, but it
was not entirely eliminated; Guimaraes et al. [27] showed substantial
differences in the capillary coefficients when red brick samples were
immersed in saturated solutions of sodium sulphate and potassium
chloride. Koronthalyova et al. [28] revealed that small salt concentra­
tions had no significant effect on the porosity of the bricks, but increased
their hygroscopic moisture content significantly. In addition, salt crust
formation on drying surfaces significantly reduced water vapor
permeability.
However, the transparent envelope, mainly comprise of glasses
(transparent, homogeneous and dense inorganic materials) has been
sharply overlooked. Since 1970 s, glass has been massively used in
public buildings, and the global stock has exceeded 1 billion square
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Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546
QRL Net received long-wave radiation intensity (W/m2)
QRS Net received short-wave radiation intensity (W/m2)
RHTC Radiative heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2⋅K))
SC Shading coefficient (-)
t Spray duration (h)
ta Ambient air temperature (◦ C)
ts Exterior surface temperature (◦ C)
VLR Visible light reflectance (-)
VLT Visible light transmittance (-)
VLT1 Visible light transmittance before salt sedimentation (-)
VLT2 Visible light transmittance after salt sedimentation (-)
V10 Wind speed at a height of 10 m (m/s)
Vloc Wind speed near the building surface (m/s)
λe Correction coefficient of emissivity (-)
λSC,C Correction coefficient of SC of clear glass (-)
λSC,L Correction coefficient of SC of low-E glass (-)
λVLR Correction coefficient of VLR (-)
λVLT Correction coefficient of VLT (-)
BEC Building energy consumption
BES Building energy simulation
MCCT Multi-field Coupling Climatic Wind Tunnel
XPS Polystyrene board
meters. Glass is an essential building element and is regarded as the link
between the building indoors and outside environment, contributing
significantly to both indoor comfort levels and building energy perfor­
mance [29,30]. However, glass is frequently considered to be a signifi­
cant thermal bridge with high thermal losses in the building envelope
[31]. According to related studies, even although building glass makes
up for only 30% of the building surface area, it contributes 40–50% of
the building envelope’s total heat loss [32,33], among which the ther­
mal and optical performances of glass are the primary factors.
Considering the high thermal conductivity of glass, the main pa­
rameters affecting its thermal performance are the surface heat transfer
coefficient, namely the convection heat transfer coefficient (CHTC) and
radiation heat transfer coefficient (RHTC); whereas the optical proper­
ties of glass are mainly characterized by visible light transmittance
(VLT) and shading coefficient (SC). During the indoor physical envi­
ronment assessment and building energy simulation (BES), the thermal
and optical performances of glass, as important input parameters, affect
the rationality of light and thermal comfort evaluation and the accuracy
of energy consumption prediction [34,35]. Previous studies showed that
the calculated heat flux through building envelope will deviate by
15–20% as a result of the uncertainty of exterior building surface CHTC
[36], and the annual air-conditioning energy consumption may vary by
up to 30% as well [34]. In addition, different SC values will also lead to
differences in BEC [37].
Subjected to the salt-fog condition in coastal areas, the phenomenon
of wet or dry salt sedimentation occurs on the building glass surface,
leading to the difference of thermal and optical performances from that
in the conventional climate. The CHTC, RHTC, and optical properties of
building glass in conventional climate have been studied sufficiently
[38–41], but the impact of salt sedimentation has not yet been investi­
gated. Our previous study showed that salt sedimentation on the
building glass would change its surface CHTC and further affect the heat
transmission coefficient [42]. Studies in related fields have shown that
in marine environments, glass-like solar mirrors and radar radomes will
produce chloride sediments (i.e., salt sediments), which will lead to the
degradation of their performance. For example, Guerguer et al. [43]
carried out a 3-year outdoor exposure experiment on the durability of
solar mirrors in the marine environment of Morocco, and the results
showed that the influence of salt sedimentation was extremely impor­
tant in the area short from the coast, and it was an important
H. Mao et al.
environmental indicator for evaluating the service life of solar mirrors.
According to Liu et al. [44], salt sedimentation is one of the coverings in
marine environment that have the greatest impact on the electrical
performance of radomes, which significantly increases the reflection of
radomes wall to radar waves. Therefore, it can be reasonably inferred
that salt sedimentation will affect the thermal and optical performances
of the glass.
Overall, the features of salt sedimentation on the building glass
surface in the salt-containing environment have not been clarified, the
existing CHTC and RTHC calculation models have not considered the
impact of salt sedimentation, and the relationship between the optical
properties of glass and salt sedimentation has not been explored.
Therefore, this study aims to investigate the thermal and optical per­
formance of building glass under salt sedimentation conditions, and lays
a foundation for revealing the effect of salt sedimentation on indoor
photothermal environment and BEC, both of which are of great signif­
icance for building energy-saving design and achieving “dual-carbon”
goal in coastal areas.
This paper is organized into three parts (Fig. 1). In the first part, a salt
spray test was conducted in order to obtain salt sedimentation on the
glass surface. Additionally, the quantitative relationship between
experimental parameters (spray duration and brine concentration) and
salt sedimentation features (salt stain dimension and salt sedimentation
Fig. 1. Roadmap for investigating the salt sedimentation features, and its impact on surface heat transfer coefficients and optical properties.
3
Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546
amount) was investigated. In the second part, the surface heat transfer
coefficients (CHTC and RHTC) for various salt sedimentation amounts
were measured using wind tunnel experiment based on the salt sedi­
mentation experiment, and their correlations were also established.
Moreover, an extended CHTC model simultaneously considering salt
sedimentation and wind speed was developed. In the third part, the
impact of salt sedimentation on optical properties (e.g., transmittance
and reflectance) of two types of building glass was determined. The
quantitative relationship between the correction coefficients of optical
properties and salt sedimentation was fitted.
2. Methodology
2.1. Materials preparation
As a uniform, dense inorganic material, building glass typically
prevents water and fog from penetrating its interior. Consequently, the
principal impact of a salt fog-contaminated outdoor atmosphere is to
induce salt to sediment on the glass surface, which then affects the
thermal and optical performance of the glass.
To ensure the representativeness of the experimental results, two
types of building glass commonly used in the market were selected
[45,46], i.e., hollow low-E glass (6-mm clear glass, 12-mm air, and 6-
H. Mao et al.
mm low-E glass) and hollow clear glass (6-mm clear glass, 12-mm air,
and 6-mm clear glass). The optical properties of these glasses are dis­
played in Table 1. In accordance with the internal dimensions of the salt
spray chamber (Fig. 2.1-a), wind tunnel (Fig. 20.2-a), and spectropho­
tometer (Fig. 20.3-b), two sizes were prepared for each type of glass,
namely the large size (300.0 × 300.0 mm) and small size (100.0 × 100.0
mm). Specifically, large size specimens were used for accelerated salt
spray test and wind tunnel experiment, while small size specimens were
used for optical properties measurement.
2.2. Description of experiments
2.2.1. Salt sedimentation experiment
Since there was no experimental method to guide the salt sedimen­
tation the building glass surface, this study referred to a related standard
(ISO 14993–2018) [47] to simulate the impact of salt-contaminated
environment on the building glass. The method in ISO 14993–2018 in­
volves cyclic exposure of samples to different conditions (including “salt
mist”, “dry”, and “wet”), which provides valuable information on the
properties of materials exposed to salt-contaminated environments.
However, for the building glass, the main experimental purpose is to
sediment salt on its surface, so the “wet” procedure should be omitted,
while the “salt mist” and “dry” procedures ought to be maintained, and
the cyclic cycle is not necessary. The test procedures and conditions are
as displayed in Fig. 20.1-c. For the “salt mist” procedure, a temperature
of 35 ± 1 ◦ C and a spray duration of 2 h were set. The NaCl solution was
chosen as the salt spray source, with a mass concentration of 5%, which
was the same as the salt solution concentration used in most salt spray
tests [8,47]. In order to ensure that the salt-containing droplets adhered
to the glass surface completely dried, a 4-hour “dry” procedure was then
carried out, and the chamber thermal and humidity environment was
approximately controlled at 60 ◦ C and 30%, respectively. All the above
procedures were implemented in the salt spray test chamber, which
could control the range/accuracy of physical environment at 0–85 ◦ C/
±1◦ C and 20–98%/0.1%.
In order to explore the impact of spray duration on salt sedimenta­
tion features and the corresponding quantitative relationship, low-E
glass was taken as the experimental object. Based on the recom­
mended spray duration of 2 h by the accelerated test standard [47], the
experimental comparison of spray durations of 2–6 h was carried out
successively (A1–A5 in Fig. 2.1-c). The salt sedimentation features of
glass surfaces under natural salt-fog circumstances are influenced by salt
fog concentration as well as duration. Therefore, low-E glass was still
taken as the experimental object, and given the concentration conditions
in several related experiments [18,48], the salt spray source was
changed to a 10% NaCl solution, and the spray duration increased
evenly from 2 h to 6 h, with other conditions unchanged, as shown in A-
6–A-10 in Fig. 2.1-c. Furthermore, to further study how salt sedimen­
tation affects the optical properties of the two types of glass, clear glass
was also taken as the experimental object, and the spray duration ranged
from 2 h to 6 h, with the brine concentration of 5%, as shown in B1–B5 in
Fig. 2.1-c.
White opaque salt stains appeared on the glass following the pro­
cesses of “salt spray” and “dry”, in order to characterize the dimension
and distribution of salt stains, 9 points were evenly selected on the glass
surface, as shown in Fig. 2.3-a. However, directly measuring the
dimension of salt stain by steel ruler or vernier caliper can introduce
artificial random errors. Therefore, this study employed image-
Table 1
Optical properties of hollow low-E and clear glasses under conditions of no salt
sedimentation.
Type VLT (%) VLR (%) SC (-)
Hollow low-E 40.0 15.7 0.38
Hollow clear 79.3 17.3 0.82
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Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546
processing software (Adobe Photoshop) [49] to indirectly measure the
dimension of salt stain. In addition to the dimension and distribution of
salt stains, the most important salt sedimentation feature is the sedi­
mentation amount per unit area (p), which is determined as below:
m2 − m1
p= (1)
A
where dry mass of specimen before sedimentation (m1) and dry mass of
specimen after sedimentation (m2) were weighted by an electronic
balance (range 0–32 kg, accuracy ± 0.1 g). Meanwhile, the length and
width of glass sample were measured by an electronic ruler (range
0–600 mm, accuracy ± 0.5 mm), and then the surface area of glass
sample (A) was calculated by rectangular area formula.
2.2.2. Surface heat transfer coefficients test
The heat transfer coefficient of the glass surface was measured using
the direct heat balancing method in this study, and its heat balance
equation is shown as follows:
QR = QC + QE + QD (2)
According to wavelength range, QR in Eq. (2) contains short- and
long-wave radiation energy, which can be described in this way:
QR = QRS + QRL (3)
where a pyranometer and a pyrgeometer, respectively, can be used to
measure QRS and QRL, as shown in Fig. 2.2-b–f.
Since glass cannot retain water, it can be considered as the building
surface without water evaporation, so the water evaporation flux (QE) is
set to zero. In addition, with a heat flux meter, QD can be observed
directly. As for the convective heat transfer flux (QC), which is described
below:
QC = hc (ts − ta ) (4)
Therefore, the CHTC can be determined as follows:
QC QRS + QRL − QD
hc = = (5)
ts − ta ts − ta
Similarly, the RHTC is expressed in the form of Newton’s cooling law
as follows:
QR QRS + QRL
hr = = (6)
ts − ta ts − ta
The surface heat transfer coefficients of building glasses were
measured in the Multi-field Coupling Climatic Wind Tunnel (MCCT)
[42,50], which could avoid irregular variations in outdoor meteoro­
logical parameters and reproduce the required experimental conditions.
The MCCT and its performance have been introduced in our previous
work [51], and its structural profile is illustrated in Fig. 2.2-a. It should
be noted that the glass samples were put inside an acrylic container with
its bottom and sides filled with extruded polystyrene board (XPS) to
ensure unilateral heat transfer of the glass samples, as illustrated in
Fig. 2.2-b and c.
Due to the salt stains sedimented unevenly on the glass surface, two
sets of thermocouples (T-type, range -200–260 ◦ C, accuracy ± 0.5 ◦ C)
and heat flux meters (range 0–1200 W/m2, accuracy ± 3%) were
attached on both side surfaces of glass sample, respectively (Fig. 2.2-b),
to prevent measurement errors caused by insufficient test points. Be­
sides, on the outside of the glass, a group of pyranometer (range 0–2000
W/m2, accuracy ± 10 W/m2) and pyrgeometer (range -250–250 W/m2,
accuracy ± 5 W/m2) was used to measure the intensity of short- and
long-wave radiation received by the glass. Additionally, to measure the
reflected and emitted short- and long-wave radiation, a set of pyran­
ometer and pyrgeometer (Fig. 2.2-c) were also fixed downwards, slightly
above the outside surface of the glass. It should be mentioned that the
integrated sensors of the MCCT were utilized to keep track of the inside
H. Mao et al.
Fig. 2. Details of each experimental setup.
physical parameters (e.g., air temperature and wind speed), with the
interval of one minute.
In contrast to the climatic parameters, the effect of salt sedimenta­
tion on the surface heat transfer coefficients was the experiment’s pri­
mary priority. Thus, the wind tunnel was operating steadily to reduce
experimental time and prevent moisture absorption brought by the
combination of salt and high humidity, and the stable experimental
conditions are shown in Table 2, representing typical summer weather
in south China’s coastal regions [52].
In order to evaluate the accuracy of the extended model proposed in
Section 3.2.3, a dynamic wind tunnel experiment was carried out, and
the typical 24-hour climatic parameters of the coastal areas were
reproduced, as shown in Fig. 5a and b. Then, the CHTC of glass speci­
mens was measured using the method introduced above. It should be
noted that, in order to fully verify the proposed extended model, spec­
imens with no salt sedimentation and salt sedimentation amount of 15
mg/m2 were selected, respectively. Besides, due to the data was stored
once a minute, we averaged the data over an hour to get the hourly
values of CHTC.
2.2.3. Optical properties measurement
After salt sedimentation experiment was finished, small glass speci­
mens (100.0 × 100.0 mm) were removed from the salt spray test
chamber and then installed in the spectrophotometer (U-4100, range
0–100%, accuracy ± 0.2%) for optical properties measurement, as
shown in Fig. 2.3-b and c, and the numbers of all specimens to be tested
Table 2
Working conditions in MCCT during the experiment.
Parameter Solar radiation Air temperature Relative Wind
(W/m2) (◦ C) humidity (%) velocity (m/
s)
Magnitude 600 30 60 2.0
5
Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546
have been listed in Fig. 2.1-c. The measurement was performed in
accordance with the international standard (ISO 9050–2003) [53] for
building glass, which included the requirements on the specimen size,
test devices and test procedures.
Besides, the test on hemisphere emissivity referred to the American
standard ASTM C1371-15 [54], which provided a method for determi­
nation of the emissivity of opaque and highly thermally conductive
materials, and the main device was a digital hemisphere emissivity
meter (AE1/RD1, range 0–1, accuracy ± 0.02), as displayed in Fig. 2.3-
d. During the test procedures, the room temperature and relative hu­
midity were controlled as 25.0 ± 1.0 ◦ C and 55%, respectively.
It should be pointed out that due to the uneven distribution of salt
sedimentation on the glass surface, the optical properties at different
positions of each glass specimen were measured many times and the
average value was derived to represent the glass specimen’s overall
performance. This study presents the correction coefficient (λ) to char­
acterize the impact of salt sedimentation on the optical properties (e.g.,
VLT, VLR) of different building glasses, the correction coefficient of VLT
(λVLT), considered as an example to explain its calculation method, is
expressed as follows:
VLT1
λVLT = (7)
VLT2
3. Results
3.1. Salt sedimentation features
3.1.1. Salt stain dimension
The dimension and distribution of salt stains on the glass surface will
be affected by the contact time with the salt fog, hereby spray duration is
used to characterize the contact time. As displayed in Fig. 3, the salt
stains appear more dispersed and less dense as the spray duration in­
creases, but the dimension of salt stains shows an obvious increasing
H. Mao et al. Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546

Fig. 3. Salt sedimentation features, (a) and (b) salt sedimentation features on the glass surface versus spray duration for conditions with 5% and 10% brine con­
centration; (c) and (d) distribution of salt stain dimension on the glass surface versus spray duration for conditions with 5% and 10% brine concentration; (e)
regression curves of p and spray duration for conditions with 5% and 10% brine concentration, and (f) comparison of p for conditions with 5% and 10% brine
concentration.

trend. Besides, the differences of surface salt sedimentation features
caused by brine concentration are depicted in Fig. 3a and b, it is evident
that as the spray duration increases, the dimension of salt stains on the
surface under two brine concentrations conditions displays an
increasing trend. However, under the premise of the same spray dura­
tion, the dimension of salt stains with 10% brine concentration is larger
than that of stains with 5% brine concentration.
Fig. 3c and d further present the variation of salt stain dimension
with spray duration. As spray duration becomes longer, salt stain
dimension gradually increases, with a slow growth at the beginning and
then a fast growth. Explicitly, for the salt stain dimension under 5%
brine concentration condition, the average value increases from 4.4 to
22.3 mm (Fig. 3c); for the salt stain dimension under 10% brine con­
centration condition, the average value increases from 3.8 to 25.3 mm

6
H. Mao et al.
(Fig. 3d). Additionally, the spray duration also affects the distribution of
salt stains. When the spray duration is short, the salt stain dimension
distribution uniformity is better; but when the spray duration becomes
long, the fluctuation range of salt stain dimension is great. For the salt
stain dimension under 5% brine concentration condition, the standard
deviation value increases from 2.4 to 9.1 mm; for the salt stain dimen­
sion under 10% brine concentration condition, the standard deviation
value increases from 0.7 to 2.5 mm (Fig. 3c and d).
The reason is that when the spray duration is short, fewer salt-
containing droplets adhere to the glass surface, and there is less possi­
bility that they will polymerize into big droplets. However, as the spray
duration increases, more droplets will attach to the glass surface, then
converge as a result of the combined actions of gravity and surface
tension, thus increasing the size of the droplet. Related studies have
observed that the larger the size of the droplet prior to polymerization,
the lower the size oscillation frequency and the larger the amplitude
during polymerization [55,56], which accounts for the phenomenon
that the longer spray duration leads to the increase of the dimension
fluctuation of salt stain.
Besides, to quantify the relationship between salt stain dimension
and spray duration, the relationship between salt stain dimension and
spray duration was fitted by nonlinear fitting function. The analysis
revealed that the salt stain dimension and spray duration show an
exponential growth trend. The specific formulas can be expressed as
follows:
dL = 0.29 × e0.7t + 2.82 (8)
dH = 0.54 × e0.63t + 2.02 (9)
The adjusted determination coefficients (R2) of the above fitting
formulas are as high as 0.997 and 0.998, respectively, indicating that the
fitting effect is good.
3.1.2. Salt sedimentation amount
Compared with the salt stain size, the sedimentation amount is a
more important indicator to characterize the salt sedimentation fea­
tures, Fig. 3e illustrates how the p on the glass surface changes with the
spray duration. With longer spray duration, p rises monotonically, and
the ranges are 14.4–40.0 mg/m2 and 15.6–44.3 mg/m2, respectively, for
conditions with 5% and 10% brine concentration. The 10% brine con­
centration condition results in a larger p with an average growth rate of
11.6% compared to the 5% brine concentration condition (Fig. 3f).
Although there is a decline in growth tendency, as depicted in Fig. 3e.
Similarly, the relationship between the p and spray duration was also
fitted using a nonlinear fitting method. According to the results, as
shown in Fig. 3e, a logarithmic function is suitable to describe its vari­
ation trend and has high coincidence degree and prediction accuracy.
The following is an expression for the formula:
pL = 23.60 × lnt − 2.62 (10)
pH = 26.41 × lnt − 2.99 (11)
2
The fitting effect was good as evidenced by the R values of 0.994
and 0.977, respectively.
As explained above, when the spray duration increases, the droplets
continue to adhere to the glass surface, polymerize into larger droplets,
and even form a continuous large-surface liquid accumulation film. This
may cause horizontal flow with small displacement as a result of surface
tension and gravity. Surface sedimentation amount cannot maintain a
linear increase if the flow keeps growing and flowing to areas beyond the
glass surface. This explains why the salt sedimentation amount exhibits
a logarithmic function relationship with the spray duration. A similar
trend was observed in previous studies of other building materials
[8,10], which demonstrated that chloride ions (equivalent to salt sedi­
mentation) on building surfaces rose and then stabilised as the exposure
time increased.
7
Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546
3.2. Variations of surface heat transfer coefficients due to salt
sedimentation
3.2.1. Convection heat transfer coefficient
As demonstrated in Fig. 4a, the CHTCs of glass surface show a
monotonic growth with the p. As the p increases from 0 to 41.1 mg/m2,
the range of CHTC is 6.8–18.8 W/(m2⋅K), with a growth rate of 178.7%.
The main reason is that the existence of salt sedimentation alters the
roughness of the glass surface, which subsequently increases the in­
tensity of convective heat exchange with ambient air. Besides, two main
findings can be drawn from the aforementioned results: first, the
building glass surface CHTC in the salt–containing environment is very
different from that under the conventional climate; secondly, it also
differs greatly under various salt sedimentation conditions.
Herein, to predict how the building glass surface CHTC changes with
the salt sedimentation, a mathematical model should be developed. As
shown in Fig. 4b, the correlation between the CHTC and p can be
described by linear function, with the R2 of 0.89, and the formula is as
follows:
CHTC = 0.24 × p + 8.05 (12)
Notably, in terms of form, the linear function is more straightforward
than the polynomial (although the latter has a better fitting effect, with a
R2 of 0.96), and more precise than that of prior studies [57]. As a result,
the linear correlation between the CHTC and p is more suitable to
establish a CHTC model which can be used for BES.
3.2.2. Radiation heat transfer coefficient
RHTCs of glass surface also show a monotonic growth with the p
(Fig. 4c). As the p increases from 0 to 41.1 mg/m2, the variation range of
RHTC is 12.8–25.3 W/(m2⋅K), with a growth rate of 97.2%. One possible
reason is that the salt sedimentation increases the solar radiation
absorptance of the glass surface, which results in an increase in the ra­
diation intensity absorbed by the glass surface and its RHTC, as stated in
Eq. (6).
Similarly, linear function is used to establish the quantitative rela­
tionship between RHTC and p, and the R2 is 0.84 (Fig. 4d). The fitting
effect is slightly worse than that of CHTC, but it still meets the accuracy
standard. The formula is as follows:
RHTC = 0.23 × p + 13.13 (13)
By comparing Eqs. (12) and (13), it is found that the derivative of
CHTC with respect to p is slightly larger than the derivative of RHTC
with respect to p, indicating that the salt sedimentation has a greater
influence on CHTC.
For glass specimens under the same sedimentation condition, the
RHTC is always greater than the CHTC, with an average difference rate
of 34.4% (Fig. 4e), which means that the heat of building glass entering
the room through radiation heat transfer is greater than that generated
by convective heat transfer. In detail, the CHTC of glass surface is
slightly smaller than that of RHTC, and the biggest difference can be
seen when comparing their proportions under the salt-free scenario,
which are 34% and 66%, respectively. When the salt begins to sediment
on the glass surface, the proportion of CHTC increases to 41–45%, and
the proportion of RHTC reduces to 55–59%, but the magnitude is rela­
tively stable (Fig. 4f). Therefore, the total convection and radiation heat
transfer intensities of glass surface will be changed by salt sedimenta­
tion, but the salt sedimentation amount has little effect on the energy
partition process.
3.2.3. Extended CHTC model
Although the CHTC models applied in the current BES software are
all related to wind speed, the correlation established by Eq. (12) only
consider the salt sedimentation on the glass surface. In order to embed
the model into the BES software, wind speed should be introduced into
the above model for expansion. However, during the surface heat
H. Mao et al. Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546

Fig. 4. Variations of CHTC and RHTC with salt sedimentation amount. (a) surface CHTCs versus different sedimentation amounts, (b) regression curve of surface
CHTC and p, (c) surface RHTCs versus different sedimentation amounts, (d) regression curve of surface RHTC and p, (e) overall average value of CHTC and RHTC, and
(f) proportion of CHTC and RHTC under different salt sedimentation scenarios.

transfer coefficient test, the primary goal is to explore the impact of salt
sedimentation on surface heat transfer coefficient, so the wind speed is
controlled as a constant (at 2.0 m/s), and the correlation between CHTC,
salt sedimentation amount and wind speed cannot be simultaneously
obtained.
However, many studies have been carried out on CHTC of building
surface under conventional climate. Therefore, this paper attempts to
establish an extended CHTC model suitable for salt-fog climate based on
the existing CHTC models. Liu et al. [58] used Large eddy simulation
(LES) and Smagorink-Lily model to study the CHTC of buildings on the
windward side, leeward side, side and top, and the proposed CHTC
model has been widely used. The CHTC model of building horizontal
plane was established by Liu et al. is as follows:
0.81
CHTC = 3.67 × V10 (14)
where V10 can be directly obtained from the weather file of the BES
software. The wind speed measured in the wind tunnel experiment is

8
H. Mao et al. Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546

actually the wind speed around the building Vloc, but according to building glass surface suitable for salt-fog climate is as follows:
Mirsadeghi et al. [34], V10 and Vloc have the following relationship: 0.81
(0.24 × p + 8.05) × (3.67 × V10 )
CHTC(V10 , p) = (19)
3 8.05
V10 = × Vloc (15)
2
The accuracy of the extended CHTC model is verified by comparing
Combined with Eqs. (12), (14), and (15), we create the following the measured and calculated values, the verification results are shown in
function to describe the relationship between CHTC, salt sedimentation Fig. 5c and d, in which it is clear that the NRMSE is less than 6.6%,
amount and wind speed: indicating that the prediction accuracy is high and can satisfy the re­
0.81 quirements of engineering calculation and BES.
(0.24 × p + 8.05) × (3.67 × V10 )
CHTC(V10 , p) = (16)
a
3.3. Relationship between optical properties and salt sedimentation
where the physical implication of Eq. (16) is that the effect of salt
sedimentation is considered as a correction factor, and a is the unde­ 3.3.1. Transmittance and reflectance
termined coefficient. As depicted in Fig. 6a, A-0, A-2 and A-5 specimens are used as case
Substituting V10 = 3 m/s (namely Vloc = 2 m/s) and p = 0 into Eq. studies to analyze the impact of surface salt sedimentation on the solar
(16), spectral transmittance of low-E glass. As can be observed, the salt
sedimentation mainly attenuates the VLT of low-E glass, which de­
8.05 × (3.67 × 30.81 )
CHTC(3, 0) = (17) creases from 40.0% to 26.2%, while the transmittance of other spectrum
a
shows little change. The reason is that the transmittance of other spec­
The above input data represents the salt-free condition, the following trums is close to zero. The reflectance and transmittance responses to
equation must be satisfied consequently: salt sedimentation are consistent. The reflectance decreases with the
increase of sedimentation amount, and the visible light reflectance
8.05 × (3.67 × 30.81 )
= 3.67 × 30.81 (18) (VLR) decreases from 15.7% to 4.6%. However, the reflectance of entire
a
solar spectral spectrum was affected by salt sedimentation, especially in
By solving Eq. (18), a = 8.05, hence, the extended CHTC model of the near-infrared spectrum, as shown in Fig. 6b. As for the VLT of

Fig. 5. (a) and (b) meteorological parameters in MCCT, (c) measured versus predicted CHTC under the condition of p = 0 mg/m2, and (d) measured versus predicted
CHTC under the condition of p = 15 mg/m2.

9
H. Mao et al.
Fig. 6. (a) and (b) solar spectral transmittance and reflectance of low-E glass versus different p, (c) and (d) the correction coefficients of VLT and VLR of low-E glass
versus different p.
building glasses, if the window-wall ratio of a single facade is greater
than or equal to 0.40, it should not be less than 40% to ensure indoor
natural lighting effect [59]. In the salt-fog climate zones, when choosing
glasses with low VLT (e.g., low-E glass) in the architectural design stage,
the risk of salt sedimentation on the glass surface after long-term oper­
ation must be taken into account. Thus, the VLT should be properly
surplus, that is, the initial value should be greater than 40% of the limit
value.
In order to quickly predict the VLT and VLR of low-E glass with
different sedimentation amounts, as shown in Fig. 6c and d, the quan­
titative relationships between the correction coefficients of VLT, VLR
and p were established, and the R2 are 0.93 and 0.89, respectively. The
specific expressions are as follows:
λVLT = − 8.49 × 10− 3 × p + 1.01
λVLR = − 1.87 × 10− 2 × p + 1.04
Based on Eqs. (20) and (21), for low-E glass, the VLT and VLR vary
linearly with the surface salt sedimentation, but the VLR changes
slightly faster with the sedimentation amount than the VLT. Addition­
ally, the attenuation of VLT after the use of low-E glass in salt-fog climate
zones can be predicted in the future, so as to determine its surplus in the
design stage.
For clear glass, B-0, B-2 and B-5 specimens are taken as examples, as
displayed in Fig. 7a and b. The spectral transmittance and reflectance
are all decreased by salt sedimentation, but the change in the
Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546
transmittance is more dramatic. Combined with the finding in low-E
glass, it can be inferred that salt sedimentation can reduce the trans­
mittance and reflectance of the entire spectrum, no matter what type of
glass. When p increases from 0 to 40.0 mg/m2, the VLT decreases from
79.3% to 27.9%, and the VLR drops from 17.3% to 2.7%. Similar to low-
E glass, due to the attenuation effect of salt sedimentation, the VLT of
salt-sedimented clear glass cannot meet the requirements of limit value
(40%).
Similarly, in order to predict how salt sedimentation on surface af­
fects the VLT and VLR of clear glass, linear fitting method is also utilized
to establish the quantitative relationship between the correction co­
efficients of VLT, VLR and p, as shown in Fig. 7c and d, and the R2 are
0.87 and 0.85, respectively, indicating good fitting effect. The formulas
can be expressed as follows:
(20)
λVLT = − 1.41 × 10− 2 × p + 1.01 (22)
(21)
λVLR = − 1.82 × 10− 2 × p + 0.89 (23)
Eqs. (22) and (23) show that the VLT and VLR of clear glass both
exhibit a linear relationship with surface salt sedimentation, with the
VLR changing more rapidly than the VLT as the salt is deposited.
3.3.2. Hemispherical emissivity and shading coefficient
When the p increases from 0 to 41.1 mg/m2, the reduction rate of
hemispherical emissivity reaches 8.4% (Fig. 8a). The long-wave radia­
tion heat transfer of building surface is closely related to the surface
10
H. Mao et al.
Fig. 7. (a) and (b) solar spectral transmittance and reflectance of clear glass versus different p, (c) and (d) the correction coefficients of VLT and VLR of clear glass
versus different p.
emissivity [60,61], so it is difficult to accurately calculate the long-wave
radiation heat transfer intensity between building glass and the envi­
ronment in the salt-fog climate zones, as the effect of salt sedimentation
on glass emissivity has not been considered. Therefore, the correction
coefficient of surface emissivity (λe) is proposed to correct the conven­
tional calculation model of long-wave radiation heat transfer, and the
correlation between λe and p is as follows:
λe = − 2.12 × 10− 3 × p + 1.01 (24)
2 efficient of building glass due to salt sedimentation, correction co­
The fitting effect is satisfactory, with the R of 0.94. It is evident from
Eq. (24) that the λe has a linear relationship with the p, but its change
rate is very small, which means that the surface emissivity of building
glass with minor salt sedimentation does not need to be corrected. It is
worth noting that since the salt sediments on the exterior surface, and
the shading coefficient are only related to the interior surface emissivity
but not the exterior surface emissivity [53]. Therefore, the change of
surface emissivity induced by salt sedimentation will not change the
shading coefficient.
The shading coefficients of low-E and clear glasses decrease with the
increase of surface sedimentation amount (Fig. 8c and d). The reason is
that the solar direct transmittance attenuates greatly (Fig. 6a and
Fig. 7a), despite the solar direct absorption increasing significantly, only
part of the solar radiation absorbed by glass enters the room through
11
Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546
secondary heat transfer, which causes the shading coefficient to
decrease. Additionally, the impact of salt sedimentation on the shading
coefficient of low-E glass is limited, with a maximum variation of only
0.05, and a variation rate of 13.2%. While for the clear glass, its shading
coefficient will vary up to 0.32, with a variation rate of 39.0%. The
findings demonstrate that salt sedimentation can improve the shading
effect, with the effect being more pronounced on clear glass, but at the
cost of some of the daylighting effect.
Similarly, in order to precisely estimate the change of shading co­
efficients λSC,L and λSC,C are proposed to correct the shading coefficients
of low-E and clear glasses in the salt-fog climate zones, respectively. The
quantitative relationships between λSC,L and λSC,C and p are fitted (Fig. 8c
and d), and the R2 are 0.96 and 0.92, respectively, and the detailed
expressions are as follows:
λSC,L = − 2.80 × 10− 3 × p + 0.99 (25)
λSC,C = − 8.77 × 10− 3 × p + 1.00 (26)
The above formulas reveal that salt sedimentation has a greater ef­
fect on the shading coefficient of clear glass than that of low-E glass.
H. Mao et al.
Fig. 8. (a) reduction of glass surface hemispherical emissivity, (b) the correction coefficient of hemispherical emissivity versus different p, (c) and (d) the correction
coefficients of shading coefficient of low-E and clear glass versus different p.
4. Discussions
As previously stated, the deviation of surface CHTC will significantly
affect the accuracy of heat flux prediction of building envelope [34], and
the impact of salt sedimentation on CHTC being up to 178.7% in Section
3.2.1. Therefore, the CHTC models in the conventional climate are not
capable of predicting the BEC in the salt-containing areas, but the
extended CHTC model developed in this paper solves the aforemen­
tioned issues and makes the BES results more accurate. Furthermore,
this study also presents some correction coefficient models for the main
optical parameters of low-E and clear glasses, which can improve the
accuracy of BES in salt-fog climate areas. Besides, the correction coef­
ficient models can serve as a guideline for the selection of building glass
in the architectural design stage. Because the optical properties will
change after long-term salt sedimentation, in order to ensure that the
performance of glass can still meet the standard requirements, the per­
formance should be properly surplus in the design stage.
However, their study has certain limitations. The results of the
accelerated salt spray test cannot correspond to the sedimentation fea­
tures of the same material used for a long time under such environ­
mental conditions. Nonetheless, despite the differences in the indoor
accelerated test and outdoor exposure test, there is still a certain cor­
relation between them [16,62,63]. Through long-term outdoor exposure
test, a quantitative relationship can be established to describe how
12
Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546
related factors (e.g., exposure time, salt–fog concentration) to affect the
surface salt sedimentation. A correlation can then be determined be­
tween indoor accelerated test and outdoor long-term experiment on the
salt sedimentation features. On this basis, it is possible to quickly predict
the salt sedimentation features, thermal and optical properties of
building glass in a salt-containing environment.
In addition to the horizontal daylighting roof, the application of glass
in practical engineering is more inclined and vertical transparent en­
velopes such as windows and glass curtain walls. However, due to the
limitation of salt spray chamber on the placing angle of specimens, this
study only focused on the sedimentation features and surface heat
transfer coefficient of horizontal glass, and did not consider vertical and
inclined glass. Uneven salt deposition will occur in the vertical and in­
clined glass, because the salt-containing droplets adhered to the glass
surface will flow in the direction of gravity under the action of gravity.
This potential result might lead to non-one-dimensional heat transfer
through the specimen surface, which would compromise the accuracy of
the surface heat transfer test. Furthermore, the salt spray chamber
cannot be modified to allow air to flow at different speeds or directions,
thus the salt-containing droplets only naturally fall to the specimen’s
surface under the action of gravity. The ambient wind under the actual
natural conditions, however, will drive the salty air against the building
surfaces, further complicating the salt sedimentation features [64].
The primary purpose of this study was to examine how salt
H. Mao et al.
sedimentation affected the thermal and optical performances of building
glass. However, the variation of thermal and optical performances of
building glass will certainly lead to the change of BEC. Therefore, BES
software can be used to predict the impact of salt sedimentation on BEC
in different salt-fog climate zones in the future.
5. Conclusions
This study presents a systematic framework for quickly determining
the salt sedimentation features, as well as the thermal and optical
properties of building glass under various salt sedimentation circum­
stances. The salt sedimentation features on building glass surfaces were
extensively studied, the surface heat transfer coefficients versus
different sedimentation amounts were measured, and an extended CHTC
model simultaneously considering salt sedimentation and wind speed
was developed. Besides, the impact of salt sedimentation on the optical
properties of two types of building glass was determined, and the
quantitative relationship between the correction coefficients of optical
properties and salt sedimentation was fitted. The following conclusions
can be drawn.
(1) As the spray duration grew, the salt stains on the glass surface
appeared more dispersed and less dense, but their dimensions
increased, showing an exponential growth tendency, and the
dimension of salt stains with 10% brine concentration was larger
than that with 5% brine concentration.
(2) The salt sedimentation per unit area increased logarithmically
with the spray duration, for conditions with 5% and 10% brine
concentration, the ranges were 14.4–40.0 mg/m2 and 15.6–44.3
mg/m2, respectively. The 10% brine concentration condition
resulted in a larger salt sedimentation amount with an average
growth rate of 11.6% compared to the 5% brine concentration
condition.
(3) The CHTC and RHTC showed a linear monotonic growth with salt
sedimentation, in contrast to the control condition, with the
maximum increases reaching 178.7% and 97.2%, respectively.
Besides, the extended CHTC model could be used to calculate the
CHTC regarding the impact of salt sedimentation and wind speed,
with the NRMSE being less than 6.6%.
(4) The entire solar spectral transmittance and reflectance was
affected by salt sedimentation. For the low-E glass, the maximum
reduction of visible light transmittance and reflectance were
13.8% and 11.1%, respectively; for the clear glass, the maximum
reduction of visible light transmittance and reflectance were
51.4% and 14.6%, respectively. Additionally, the hemispherical
emissivity and shading coefficient of low-E and clear glasses also
decreased linearly with the increase of surface sedimentation.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Huijun Mao: Writing – original draft, Methodology. Qinglin Meng:
Supervision, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization.
Junsong Wang: Writing – review & editing, Supervision,
Conceptualization.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
13
Construction and Building Materials 408 (2023) 133546
Acknowledgments
This work is jointly supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 52008173, 51938006), Guangdong Natural
Science Foundation (No. 2022A1515010788), Key Project of Indepen­
dent Research Subject, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building
Science (No. 2022KA03), and Open Project of International Cooperative
Research, State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building Science (No.
2022ZC02).
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