Q1.A.

Water demand is influenced by a variety of factors, and understanding these factors is crucial
for effec ve water resource management. Here are some key factors that affect water demand:

1. **Popula on Growth:** As the global popula on increases, so does the demand for water. More
people require water for drinking, sanita on, and agriculture, pu ng pressure on water resources.

2. **Urbaniza on:** The process of urbaniza on, with more people moving to ci es, leads to
increased water demand for industrial, commercial, and domes c purposes.

3. **Economic Development:** Economic growth o en correlates with increased water

consump on. Industrial processes, manufacturing, and increased irriga on for agriculture are
common in economically developed areas, contribu ng to higher water demand.

4. **Agricultural Prac ces:** Agriculture is a major consumer of water. The type of crops grown,
irriga on methods used, and efficiency of water use in agriculture significantly impact water
demand.

5. **Climate and Weather Pa erns:** Weather condi ons and climate affect water demand. Regions
with hot and arid climates typically have higher water demands for agriculture and domes c use.

6. **Water Management Prac ces:** Efficient water management prac ces, such as water recycling,
conserva on, and the use of modern irriga on technologies, can influence overall water demand.

7. **Social and Cultural Factors:** Cultural habits, lifestyle choices, and social awareness can
influence water consump on pa erns. Public awareness campaigns and educa on can play a role in
promo ng water conserva on.

8. **Water Pricing:** The cost of water can influence consump on pa erns. In some cases, lower
water prices can lead to higher usage, while higher prices may encourage conserva on.

9. **Infrastructure Development:** The availability and quality of water infrastructure, including

reservoirs, pipelines, and treatment plants, affect water supply and, consequently, water demand.

10. **Environmental Concerns:** Awareness of environmental issues, such as water scarcity and
pollu on, can influence individual and community behaviors towards more sustainable water use.
11. **Legisla on and Regula ons:** Government policies, regula ons, and water management
prac ces can impact water demand. For example, restric ons on water use during droughts or the
implementa on of water-saving technologies.

Understanding these factors is essen al for developing effec ve water management strategies and
ensuring sustainable water use in the face of growing global challenges related to water scarcity and
quality.
Q1.B. **Hard Water and So Water (1 mark):**

- **Hard Water:** Hard water is water that contains a high concentra on of dissolved minerals,
primarily calcium and magnesium ions. These minerals are picked up as water passes through rocks
and soil.

- **So Water:** So water is water that has a low concentra on of calcium and magnesium ions. It
may contain higher levels of sodium or potassium ions, o en resul ng from water treatment
processes that exchange calcium and magnesium ions for sodium or potassium ions.

**Causes of Hardness (1 mark):**

- **1. Calcium and Magnesium Dissolu on:** Hard water occurs when water percolates through
calcium and magnesium-containing minerals such as limestone and dolomite, dissolving these
minerals in the process.

- **2. Geological Factors:** The geological composi on of the ground through which water flows can
influence water hardness. Regions with a high prevalence of calcium and magnesium-rich rocks o en
have harder water.

- **3. Human Ac vi es:** Certain human ac vi es, such as the use of certain fer lizers and
detergents, can introduce calcium and magnesium ions into water sources, contribu ng to water
hardness.

**Advisability of Removing All Hardness from Drinking Water (2 marks):**

- **Not Advisable (1 mark):** Completely removing all hardness from drinking water may not be
advisable. Calcium and magnesium are essen al minerals for human health. They contribute to bone
and teeth strength and are involved in various physiological processes.

- **Advisable (1 mark):** However, excessively hard water can lead to scale buildup in pipes and
appliances, reducing their efficiency. It can also affect the lathering ability of soap. Therefore, in areas
with extremely hard water, some level of water so ening might be recommended to prevent these
issues. It's crucial to strike a balance to ensure water is not excessively so , which could lead to
increased sodium intake and poten al health concerns.
In conclusion, while it is advisable to address extreme hardness in drinking water to prevent prac cal
issues, completely removing all hardness may not be op mal for human health due to the
importance of calcium and magnesium ions.

Q1.C. **Types of Treatment Units and Processes for Surface Water with High Turbidity and
Algae/Microorganisms (4 marks):**

1. **Coagula on (1 mark):**

- **Unit:** Coagula on Tank

- **Process:** Chemical coagulants such as aluminum sulfate (alum) or ferric chloride are added to
the water. These chemicals destabilize suspended par cles, causing them to clump together
(coagulate) and form larger flocs.

2. **Floccula on (1 mark):**

- **Unit:** Floccula on Basin

- **Process:** Gentle s rring or agita on encourages the forma on of larger flocs from the
coagulated par cles. This process enhances the se ling characteris cs of the par cles.

3. **Sedimenta on (1 mark):**

- **Unit:** Sedimenta on Basin

- **Process:** Floc-laden water moves into sedimenta on basins where the larger, heavier flocs
se le to the bo om due to gravity. This process removes a significant por on of the suspended
par cles.

4. **Filtra on (1 mark):**

- **Unit:** Rapid Sand Filters

- **Process:** Water passes through a bed of sand or other media, which further removes smaller
suspended par cles not captured during coagula on and sedimenta on. Filtra on helps in reducing
turbidity and removing algae and microorganisms.

**Addi onal Considera ons:**

- **Disinfec on (Bonus point):** A er filtra on, the water undergoes disinfec on to eliminate
remaining algae, microorganisms, and pathogens. Common disinfec on methods include
chlorina on, UV irradia on, or ozona on.
- **Algae Removal (Bonus point):** In cases where algae are a significant concern, addi onal steps
like pre-treatment with algaecides or advanced oxida on processes may be employed to target and
break down algae cells.

- **Monitoring and Control (Bonus point):** Con nuous monitoring of water quality parameters,
including turbidity and microbial content, is crucial. Automated control systems can adjust the
dosages of coagulants and disinfectants based on real- me water quality data.

Implemen ng this comprehensive treatment process ensures the removal of turbidity, algae, and
microorganisms from surface water, providing water that meets regulatory standards for safe
drinking water.
Q2. **Classifica on of Intake Structures (2 marks):**

1. **Open Intake Structures:**

- *Types:*

- **Surface Intake:** Located at the water surface, o en in rivers, lakes, or reservoirs.

- **Submerged Intake:** Posi oned below the water surface, drawing water from a specific
depth.

2. **Closed Intake Structures:**

- *Types:*

- **Collector Wells:** Extract water from permeable aquifers through wells.

- **Infiltra on Galleries:** Collect water from the ground through buried perforated pipes.

3. **Screens and Filters:**

- *Types:*

- **Coarse Screens:** Remove large debris and floa ng materials.

- **Fine Screens:** Remove smaller par cles and aqua c organisms.

**Considera ons for Site Selec on of an Intake (3 marks):**

1. **Water Quality (1 mark):**

- The site should have water of sufficient quality for the intended use. Considera ons include
turbidity, microbial content, chemical composi on, and the presence of pollutants.

2. **Hydraulic Condi ons (1 mark):**

- Understanding the flow characteris cs of the water source is crucial. Intake structures must be
designed to handle varia ons in flow rates, avoiding issues such as sedimenta on, flooding, or low
flow condi ons.

3. **Environmental Impact (1 mark):**

- The chosen site should minimize adverse impacts on the environment. Considera ons include
avoiding disrup on to aqua c ecosystems, protec ng sensi ve habitats, and complying with
environmental regula ons.
These considera ons ensure that the intake structure is not only efficient in capturing water but also
sustainable and environmentally responsible.
Q3. **Principle of Se ling Tank:**

A se ling tank, also known as a sedimenta on tank or clarifier, operates on the principle of gravity
se ling. The primary goal is to allow suspended par cles in water to se le down and
separate from the water. The basic process involves:

1. **Inflow of Water:** The water containing suspended par cles enters the se ling tank.

2. **Reduc on of Velocity:** The flow velocity is reduced to allow gravity to act on the suspended
par cles, causing them to se le.

3. **Se ling of Par cles:** Due to gravity, heavier par cles se le to the bo om of the tank, forming
a sludge layer.

4. **Clarified Water Collec on:** The clarified water, with reduced par cle content, is then collected
from the upper part of the tank.

**Surface Loading as a Measure of Effec ve Par cle Removal:**

The surface loading (Q/A) is the flow rate (Q) divided by the surface area (A) of the se ling tank.
Theore cally, this is a measure of the effec ve removal of par cles because:

- **Higher Surface Loading:** A higher surface loading indicates that more water is treated over the
same surface area. If effec ve se ling occurs, it implies efficient par cle removal.

- **Lower Surface Loading:** If the surface loading is low, either the tank is oversized for the flow
rate or the par cles may not have sufficient me to se le. This can result in reduced par cle
removal efficiency.
Q4. **Processes and Mechanisms in Filtra on Unit:**

A filtra on unit is a cri cal component of water treatment, designed to remove suspended par cles
and impuri es from water. The main processes and mechanisms involved include:

1. **Straining:** Larger par cles are physically blocked by the filter media, preven ng them from
passing through.

2. **Adsorp on:** Some filters, especially those with ac vated carbon, can adsorb certain organic
and inorganic substances onto their surfaces.

3. **Mechanical Intercep on:** Par cles larger than the pore size of the filter media are physically
intercepted and captured as water passes through.

4. **Biological Ac on:** Microorganisms in the filter media may contribute to the removal of certain
contaminants through biological processes.

5. **Floccula on:** Pre-treated water may carry flocs formed during coagula on and floccula on
processes, which are further removed by filtra on.

**Comparison between Slow Sand and Rapid Sand Filters:**

*Slow Sand Filter:*

- **Opera on:** Operates at a slow flow rate, allowing biological ac vity on the surface of the filter
bed.

- **Maintenance:** Requires periodic cleaning and scraping of the top layer to remove accumulated
debris.

- **Effec veness:** Highly effec ve in removing pathogens and par culate ma er.

- **Applica on:** Commonly used for small-scale, decentralized water treatment systems.

*Rapid Sand Filter:*

- **Opera on:** Operates at a higher flow rate and u lizes a finer filter media.

- **Maintenance:** Backwashing is done periodically to remove accumulated par cles and restore
flow.
- **Effec veness:** Efficient in removing suspended solids but may not be as effec ve as slow sand
filters in pathogen removal.

- **Applica on:** Suitable for larger water treatment plants and systems with higher flow rates.
Q5. **Different Types of Disinfec on in Water Supply:**

1. **Chlorina on:** The addi on of chlorine or chlorine compounds to water.

2. **Chloramines:** The use of chloramine compounds, a combina on of chlorine and ammonia.

3. **Ozone Disinfec on:** Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent used to disinfect water.

4. **UV Radia on:** Ultraviolet light is used to inac vate microorganisms.

5. **Ozona on:** Ozone is applied for disinfec on and oxida on of organic and inorganic
substances.

**Interference during Chlorina on:**

1. **Organic Ma er:**

- **Implica on:** Organic ma er reacts with chlorine to form disinfec on by-products (DBPs) such
as trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloace c acids (HAAs). These are poten al health concerns.

2. **Ammonia:**

- **Implica on:** Ammonia reacts with chlorine to form chloramines. While chloramines are
disinfectants, they are less effec ve than free chlorine. Ammonia can also contribute to the
forma on of nitrosamines, which are poten al carcinogens.

3. **Iron and Manganese:**

- **Implica on:** Iron and manganese can react with chlorine, reducing its effec veness. They can
also lead to the forma on of colored and turbid water.

4. **Sulfides:**

- **Implica on:** Sulfides can react with chlorine, producing hydrogen sulfide gas and affec ng
the odor and taste of water.

5. **pH:**

- **Implica on:** The pH of water influences the distribu on of chlorine species. At higher pH,
more hypochlorite (\(OCl^-\)) is formed, which is less effec ve than hypochlorous acid (HOCl).

Proper understanding and control of these factors are crucial to ensuring effec ve disinfec on while
minimizing the forma on of undesirable by-products.

Note- chlorinata on part remaining

Q5. **Con nuous System vs. Intermi ent System of Water Supply:**

**Con nuous System:**

**Merits:**

1. **Constant Pressure:** Provides a constant and uniform pressure throughout the distribu on
network, ensuring consistent water supply at all mes.

2. **Reduced Risk of Contamina on:** Less chance of contamina on compared to intermi ent
supply as water is con nuously flowing.

3. **Suitable for High-Rise Buildings:** Ideal for high-rise buildings where a constant pressure is
crucial for proper func oning of fixtures and appliances.

**Demerits:**

1. **Energy Consump on:** Requires con nuous energy to maintain the pressure, leading to higher
energy consump on.

2. **High Ini al Cost:** Installa on and maintenance costs are higher due to the need for pumps
and con nuous power supply.

3. **Increased Risk of Leaks:** Con nuous pressure can contribute to higher stress on the pipes,
increasing the risk of leaks.

**Intermi ent System:**

**Merits:**

1. **Energy Conserva on:** Lower energy consump on as the system operates only when there is a
demand, reducing overall opera onal costs.

2. **Cost-Effec ve Installa on:** Generally, the ini al installa on costs are lower as compared to
con nuous systems.

3. **Reduced Risk of Leaks:** The intermi ent nature of supply reduces stress on pipes, contribu ng
to lower leakages.

**Demerits:**

1. **Fluctua ng Pressure:** Water pressure can fluctuate during peak demand mes, leading to
varia ons in supply at different loca ons.

2. **Increased Risk of Contamina on:** The risk of contamina on is higher during non-supply
periods as stagnant water may be suscep ble to microbial growth.
3. **Challenges in High-Rise Buildings:** Intermi ent supply may pose challenges in maintaining
consistent pressure, especially in tall buildings.

**Different Types of Pipe Layouts in Water Distribu on:**

1. **Gridiron System:**

- **Merits:** Simple layout, ease of opera on and maintenance.

- **Demerits:** Water pressure can be uneven, especially in distant areas.

2. **Dead-End System:**

- **Merits:** Simple and cost-effec ve layout.

- **Demerits:** Water quality and pressure issues at dead-end points, flushing required.

3. **Ring System:**

- **Merits:** Improved water quality, reduced stagna on.

- **Demerits:** More complex, higher installa on costs.

4. **Circular System:**

- **Merits:** Improved flow distribu on, reduced pressure varia ons.

- **Demerits:** More complex, higher installa on costs.

5. **Radial System:**

- **Merits:** Well-suited for small towns, reduced complexity.

- **Demerits:** Reduced redundancy, poten al pressure issues.

Each layout has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice depends on factors such as the size
of the distribu on network, topography, and available resources. The design should aim to balance
efficiency, reliability, and cost-effec veness.