THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY December 8, 1962

Village Caste and Community

V Nath
The village and the caste arc the two foci of community feeling in rural India. The average
villager feels that he belongs to these two entities. W hat is happening to these feelings of belonging to the
village and the caste in the midst of the rapid social and economic changes which are coming over rural
India? The question is of fundamental importance.
In much of our thinking on rural development it is assumed that the "village" is the "community".
Many of our policies and programmes in this field depend for their success on the existence of a strong fed-
ing of community centering on the village and would by their success, strengthen this feeling further. Pro-
grammes requiring popular participation for works of collective benefit like a road or school building fur-
nish an example.
The basic developmental institutions in the village, the panchayat and the co-operative, similarly depend
for their success on the existence of a strong feeling of community centering on the village. The feeling
of belonging to a caste is to an extent complementary to that of belonging to the village. But it is also com-
petitive; loyalty to caste serves also as a rival to loyalty to the village.
An attempt is made here to answer the question posed above by describing the situation in a Raja-
sthan village which the author has had the opportunity of studying in some detail for about a year.

If I S a medium-sized multi-caste village itself is thought of as an taken place so far. Practically

village w i t h a population of entity composed of seven castes; the all the village families continue to
about 2,000, located at a distance smaller castes being ignored in this live w i t h i n the abadi (habitation
of 6 miles f r o m the district head- reckoning. It is recognised that in area) of the village. W i t h increase
quarter t o w n , which itself is a any matter concerning the whole i n population and g r o w i n g pro-
small town w i t h a population of village, representatives of a l l the sperity, a large number of new
about 20,000. K is connected w i t h castes must be consulted. Each houses have come up d u r i n g the
the t o w n by an all-weather motor- caste is k n o w n by its t r a d i t i o n a l last 10 years; hut all these are
able road. U n t i l 1955 when the occupation and social status (place located w i t h i n the village abadi.
Jagir was resumed, K f o r m e d part i n the social h i e r a r c h y ) , although T h i s area is now f u l l y occupied
of the Jagir of an i m p o r t a n t Jagir- it is recognised that very impor- and the villagers have been feeling
dar of the former J a i p u r State. tant changes have taken place in the need f o r additional land for
The Jagirdar was very powerful these respects in recent years. It housing. A few families whose
in the village, up to the f o r m a t i o n is recognised for instance, that the houses in the village abadi are
of Rajasthan in 1949-50, There- Rajputs have lost their political insufficient for their needs have
after, his power disappeared be- and social supremacy and that the begun to use baras (literally
cause Jaipur State ceased to exist; Chamars after leaving l i f t i n g of "cattle sheds") built near their
the new Government was com- dead animals and leather-work, are i r r i g a t i o n wells for residential pur-
m i t t e d to a b o l i t i o n of J a g i r d a r i and concentrating on c u l t i v a t i o n and poses. But these bar a dwellings
it was accepted by a l l that its are aspiring to become equals of are additional and supplementary
a b o l i t i o n was only a matter of t i m e . the traditional cultivating castas to t h e i r m a i n houses in the village.
The village has 26 castes, of like the Meenas and Jats. There is as yet no movement out
which Brahmins and Kajputs Only One Abadi o f the abadi area; but there w i l l
among the h i g h castes, Jats, M a l i s In order to understand the be soon, because the need f o r ad-
and Meenas among the c u l t i v a t i n g changes w h i c h are o c c u r r i n g in the d i t i o n a l land is being keenly felt.
castes, and Chamars among the feelings of belonging to the village The new abadi lands w i l l have to
Scheduled castes are the most and the caste, it w i l l be useful first be at some distance f r o m the exist-
numerous. Chamars, f o r m i n g about to recall the bases on w h i c h these i n g abadi, because the lands con-
¼th of the total population of feelings rested in the past, and then tiguous to the abadi are a l l h i g h l y
the village, are the largest single to analyse the changes to w h i c h productive, well i r r i g a t e d lands —
caste. However, no single caste is each of these has been subject. In the best in the village —, w h i c h
in a d o m i n a n t position in the my view, the feeling of belonging the owners are v e r y u n w i l l i n g to
village. to the village rested on four m a i n give up. W h e n movement to the
Village Is Home bases: new abadi areas takes place, the
The average resident of K is ( i ) contiguous l i v i n g ; village families w i l l be divided
very conscious of the fact of his ( i i ) isolation and concentra- among two, three or more settle-
belonging to the village. K is his t i o n of economic activity ment units, and the feeling of be-
w i t h i n the village: longing to one village, w h i c h is
home. He is also keenly aware of
membership of his particular ( i i i ) the Jajmani system; and, continuously strengthened by the
caate. Caste is the most impor- ( i v ) caste. fact of l i v i n g together in a com-
tant social i n s t i t u t i o n and the m a i n So far as contiguous l i v i n g is pact settlement w i l l be weakened.
basis of social grouping. The concerned, no marked change has It is not improbable that in course
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December 8, 1962 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY
THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY December 8, 1962

of time each of these new abadis the w o r l d a t large. A l l i n ally the. but 'the regions * f o r these are dif-
develops an identity of its o w n . village i s i n constant touch w i t h ferent a n d do not coincide w i t h the
However, this is f o r the distant the t o w n and the average.". v i l l a g e r above administrative units.
'future. is nearly as w e l l i n f o r m e d about
The Jajmani System
I s o l a t i o n and concentration of news as the t o w n d w e l l e r of com-
economic- activity w i t h i n the v i l l - parable economic and educational The J a j m a n i system has a l l but
age are things of the past now. It status. broken d o w n . The system even
is h a r d l y necessary to recount the though it had been d i s i n t e g r a t i n g
W i t h about one s i x t h of the
stages in w h i c h these changes have f o r a l o n g time had continued some-
labour force w o r k i n g outside i t ,
occurred over the last 100 years or what longer in this area, than in
the village is no longer the sole
more, or to m e n t i o n the social a n d other parts of the country, be-
theatre of economic a c t i v i t y . Those
economic forces which have cause the Jagirdars enforced the
who w o r k outside feel that they
b r o u g h t these about. These are t r a d i t i o n a l obligations, especially
are no longer entirely dependent
well k n o w n . However, it is well those i n v o l v i n g unpleasant jobs l i k e
upon the village for their l i v i n g
to emphasise that these forces have d r a w i n g of water by the K u m h a r s
hut are p a r t of a larger economic
been operating with increasing (potters) and cleaning of utensils
system, of which the focus is the
v i g o u r d u r i n g the last decade, and by the Nais ( b a r b e r s ) . As a result,
t o w n . Even those who do not
especially since the c o m p l e t i o n of the b r e a k d o w n of the system was
w o r k themselves k n o w that w o r k
the all-weather motorable road, especially r a p i d after the a b o l i t i o n
is available in town, that it is an
five years ago. To-day, the com- of J a g i r d a r i , when one caste after
alternative or supplement to their
b i n a t i o n of the road, m o t o r trans- another repudiated its customary
a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k , and an oppor-
p o r t , and bicycles has brought the obligations. The biggest b l o w to
t u n i t y f o r their younger generation
village w i t h i n 20-30 minutes of the the system was given in 1956 by
w h i c h can be availed of w h e n the
t o w n and has made active a n d the Chamars" refusal to l i f t dead
f a m i l y holding is no longer suffi-
d a i l y contact w i t h it possible. One cattle and to do leather w o r k . The
cient. The village lands are no
i m p o r t a n t result of this has been movement against doing these two
longer seen as the sole source of
the g r o w t h of c o m m u t i n g to w o r k jobs had been active among the
sustenance; other sources are seen
in t o w n . About 50 men of the Chamars of the area since the m i d -
as actually or potentially impor-
v i l l a g e have permanent year-round dle forties. It came to the v i l l a g e
tant. The consciousness of being
jobs in industries and p u b l i c works i m m e d i a t e l y after the a b o l i t i o n of
p a r t of a nation-wide economic
in t o w n or the r a i l w a y station. J a g i r d a r i . Most of the villagers op-
system grows, albeit s l o w l y . The
A n o t h e r 100-150 persons w o r k as posed the Chamars : but a few i n -
more t h i n k i n g and better i n f o r m e d
casual or salaried workers f o r 4-8 c l u d i n g the Sarpanch who depended
villagers realise that the pace of
months in the year. These 150-200 upon their votes, supported them,
development works in the t o w n de-
workers, representing about 176th A f t e r some time, the villagers ac-
pends upon decisions taken by
of the total labour force of the quiesced in this change w h i c h had
Ministers and officers in Delbi
village, go to t o w n almost every- been occurving over the whole area
and Jaipur. The trader and the
day and are in constant touch w i t h and w h i c h they considered inevita-
village leader who has had much to
happenings in it and the outside ble. The dead cattle are now l i f t e d
do w i t h courts and other a d m i n i -
world. T h e merchants, v i l l a g e by the Bhangis (scavangers), who
strative agenries has had this con-
leaders like the Sarpanch and the flay the c a r a s e s and sell the raw
sciousness for a long time. It is
four students w h o go to study in bides, but do not do any tanning
now coming slowly to the o r d i n a r y
the H i g h school, are other frequent or leather-work- The villagers have
villager.
visitors to the t o w n . The average to depend upon purchases in town
As a result of this active and f o r a l l their requirements of leather-
cultivator does not go to the t o w n
continuous contact, there is wide- goods, chief among w h i c h are shoes
so m u c h : but even he goes often
spread awareness of the link w i t h and charas (leather bucket f o r l i f t -
enough — to b u y cloth and other
the t o w n . However, there is as i n g water for i r r i g a t i o n ) . There is
essentials, to dispose of his produce
yet no realisation of f o r m i n g part not even a cobbler in the v i l l a g e
and for various miscellaneous p u r -
of a region ( l i k e the area of the who w o u l d do repairs. T w o other
poses.
Panchayat S a m i t i or the T e h s i l ) of castes, the K u m h a r s and the Nais,
Contact with Town w h i c h the t o w n is the centre. The have left their customary obligations
Besides the villagers g o i n g to panchayat members and other in- of d r a w i n g water and cleaning
t o w n , m a n y townmen come to the formed villagers know that their utensils, though they are c a r r y i n g
village. Eight school teachers v i l l a g e forms part of the S Pancha- on their major t r a d i t i o n a l occupa-
come d a i l y to teach in the village yat S a m i t i . A l l o f them know that tions of m a k i n g pots and hair-cutt-
school: two shopkeepers live in it f o r m s part of the tehsil of the i n g , respectively.
t o w n and come to their shops in same name. But. these institutions
the village. Government officials, o n l y emphasize the l i n k of the v i l l - The J a j m a n i system is being
p o l i t i c a l leaders, itinerant vendors, age w i t h the t o w n ; they do not as f o l l o w e d in an attenuated f o r m in
are other frequent visitors to the yet b r i n g any marked awareness of respect of only four castes: K u m -
v i l l a g e . The d a i l y newspapers, the b e l o n g i n g to the region covered by hars, Nais, Khatis (carpenters) and
postal service and the radio also them o r o f any l i n k w i t h other
contribute towards keeping the villages i n the region. T h e links * The area in which the marital re-
w i t h other villages depend u p o n lations of a caste are concentrated.
villagers i n f o r m e d about happen- These regions are different for
ings i n the t o w n , i n Rajasthan a n d k i n s h i p and m a r i t a l relationships; different castes.
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1880
THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY
Lohars (smiths). The Kumhars
supply earthen pots f o r w h i c h there
are no factory-made substitutes yet.
The other three render services
w h i c h are essential, especially for
cultivators. But even in case of
these f o u r castes, the J a j m a n i sys-
tem is not being f o l l o w e d by a l l the
families in the v i l l a g e . Most of the,
n o n - c u l t i v a t i n g and a large number
of the c u l t i v a t i n g families are not
f o l l o w i n g J a j m a n i , but are p a y i n g
f o r the goods and services furnished
by these f o u r castes in cash. Even
the families h a v i n g Jajmani rela-
tionships, o b t a i n o n l y a part of
t h e i r requirements in J a j m a n i pay-
ments, and pay for the rest in cash,
Caste
Caste acted as a support of the
J a j m a n i system : the two were i n t i -
mately related, and it is d o u b t f u l if
the Jajmani system could have
existed w i t h o u t caste. Therefore,
t h r o u g h its support to the J a j m a n i
system, caste m a y be seen as a con-
t r i b u t o r to the feeling of belonging
to the v i l l a g e , just as the isolation
and the feeling of belonging to the
v i l l a g e c o u l d be seen as factors con-
t r i b u t i n g to the enforcement of caste
discipline. However, the more i m -
portant role of caste today is as
an alternative or r i v a l focus of
c o m m u n i t y feeling, and it is w i t h
this role of caste that we are con-
cerned here p r i m a r i l y .
Caste has been weakened in seve-
ral ways. First, w i t h the g r o w t h
of i n d i v i d u a l i s m , caste organisations
have become weaker, especially
among the h i g h castes — Brahmins,
Rajputs and Mahajans. M a n y mem-
bers of these castes feel that they
have no caste organisation or dis-
c i p l i n e left any longer. T h i s is an
exaggeration however, because there
are few cases of serious lapse from
the conduct t r a d i t i o n a l l y sanctioned
by the caste. The Raiputs and to
a lesser extent the B r a h m i n s have
had to suffer a m a j o r social and
economic come-down in the wake
of a b o l i t i o n of J a g i r d a r i and to
make major adjustments in their
attitudes and modes of l i v i n g . The
weakness of the caste organisations
among them is due p a r t l y to this
factor. A m o n g the c u l t i v a t i n g and
lower castes however, as the f o l l o w -
i n g discussion w i l l show, the caste
organisations continue to be strong
and have been assuming new roles.
Ideas of Social Equality
Second, caste as an a r b i t e r of so-
cial status is m u c h less i m p o r t a n t
than before. The lower castes p a r t i -
c u l a r l y are restive w i t h the i n f e r i o r
status w h i c h the caste system gives
them. Ideas of p o l i t i c a l and social
equality have been sweeping the
v i l l a g e . There have been two Gene-
ral Elections and four elections to
the Panchayat and the lower castes
have experienced the p o l i t i c a l pro-
paganda w h i c h accompanies these.
They see also that the v i l l a g e level
institutions, the Panchayat, the co-
operative and the school, are a l l
based on e g a l i t a r i a n principles and
that they are entitled to the benefits
of these institutions as m u c h as the
h i g h castes. They see their repre-
sentatives s i t t i n g on the Panchayat
along w i t h the h i g h castes and rea-
lise that one of them c o u l d one day
he the Sarpanch (there is one Cha-
mar Sarpanch in the Panchayat
Samiti a l r e a d y ) . T h i s more than
a n y t h i n g else convinces them that
time have changed and that social
equality is not o n l y desirable, but
also attainable. They are also be-
c o m i n g increasingly conscious of
their economic rights and privileges.
This is true especially of the Gha-
mars, who after leaving their
leather-work are depending entirely
upon c u l t i v a t i o n and labour. They
have got rights in l a n d under the
recent Tenancy L e g i s l a t i o n and are
very anxious to o b t a i n more Gov-
ernment l a n d for c u l t i v a t i o n . The)
know that the Government is g i v i n g
special concessions to the landless
and the Scheduled castes in allot-
ment of a g r i c u l t u r a l lands. They
are very keen to avail of these con-
cessions and are quite vocal about
their special previleges and " r i g h t s " .
The h i g h castes also realise that
the obvious social inequalities asso-
ciated w i t h the caste system must
go. Some h i g h caste villagers, not-
a b l y the Sarpanch, have made an
effort to abolish u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and
have succeded to the extent of open-
i n g one d r i n k i n g water well to all
castes. T h e y also realise that res-
trictions on food and d r i n k are not
practical in towns, and have seen
shopkeepers in the t o w n serving
h i g h and low caste alike. However,
they are not yet ready to practise
commensality in the v i l l a g e .
But w h i l e the obvious manifesta-
tions of caste are being reduced,
1881
December 8, 1962
caste as a social i n s t i t u t i o n is not
getting any weaker, nor is there any
d i m i n u t i o n i n feeling o f belonging
to one's caste. In fact in some
ways, the reverse is true. The caste
organisation is gathering new stren-
gth by a c q u i r i n g new functions and
roles. The role of caste in elections
and politics has been commented on
by several social scientists and need
not be reiterated here. In this area,
the most notable recent demonstra-
t i o n of the strength of the caste
organizations has been their effec-
tiveness in sweeping away customary
o b l i g a t i o n s : leather-work for the
Chamars; c a r r y i n g water for the
K u m h a r s ; cleaning utensils for the
Nais. No member of the caste con-
cerned i n this or s u r r o u n d i n g v i l l -
ages dare p e r f o r m these tasks. The
caste organisations are also effective
i n preventing their members f r o m
t a k i n g up new occupations for w h i c h
new opportunities are arising, but
w h i c h are not sanctioned by them.
Thus, there is not a single non-
Guja, who sells m i l k , or n o n - M a l i
who grows or sells vegetables. The
demand for m i l k and vegetables is
increasing w i t h the g r o w t h of popu-
l a t i o n in the town and near the
r a i l w a y station. But the supply of
these products remains entirely in
the hands of castes that have been
s u p p l y i n g these t r a d i t i o n a l l y , and in
case of m i l k there is an acute scar-
city as supplies have failed to keep
pace w i t h the increasing demand.
Caste Endogamy Rigid
It is perhaps unnecessary to men-
t i o n that there is no instance of
inter-caste marriage or other breach
of rules of caste endogamy. A n y
such departures w o u l d be inconcei-
vable. What is more significant
and disturbing is that association
and social intercourse are becoming
increasingly caste-wise. The t r a d i -
tional forms of inter-caste associa-
t i o n have steadily lost g r o u n d and
the new forms, mostly sponsored by
development staffs, have f a i l e d to
gain p o p u l a r i t y . Feasts on the oc-
casions of marriages and deaths,
are the best means for getting
together in this area. These are
now almost a l l caste-wise. Large
feasts at the homes of r i c h Jagir-
dars or Mahajans w h i c h people of
a l l castes attended are becoming i n -
frequent. The Jagirdars are gone
and large feasts are not encouraged
(death feasts are p r o h i b i t e d by
l a w ) . On the other hand, s m a l l
 December 8, 1962 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY

feasts to w h i c h members of one's , t u r a l supplies. These institutions benefit is extremely difficult. On the
o w n caste,. alone are i n v i t e d , have have a c o n t r i b u t i o n to make in pro- other hand, casterwise m o b i l i s a t i o n
become m u c h more frequent; be- m o t i n g inter-caste association on an of contributions has been moderate-
cause even the s m a l l c u l t i v a t o r or equal f o o t i n g , b u t they are not i n - ly active. Three temples, of the
labourer can now afford to give a stitutions of social intercourse and Chamars, M a i is and Jains, have
s m a l l feast. Festivals l i k e Dus- their w o r k i n g does not f u r n i s h any been completed w i t h contributions
sehra T e e j , Gangore, w h i c h were occasions f o r a l l or most v i l l a g e r s from members of the respective
organised by the Jagirdar a n d in to come together. castes d u r i n g the last five years.
w h i c h the whole v i l l a g e participated, One final fact may be mentioned.
have been discontinued. Most of the K has not had a t r a d i t i o n of v o l u n - Conclusion
festivals are now celebrated by the t a r y c o m m u n i t y action. D u r i n g the The experience of this v i l l a g e
people either in their o w n homes t i m e of the Jagirdar, a l l works of leads to two m a j o r conclusions :
(e g D i w a l i ) or in their temples collective benefit were carried out ( i ) The feeling of belonging to
e g Janmashtami), each of w h i c h under the orders of the Jagirdar, the v i l l a g e is becoming weaker; but
belongs to a p a r t i c u l a r caste. The often w i t h coercive m o b i l i s a t i o n of that of belonging to the caste is
o n l y festival w h i c h is now being l a b o u r and other resources (Begar). not becoming weaker and is in fact
celebrated by a l l the villagers to- A f t e r the a b o l i t i o n of J a g i r d a r i , the becoming stronger in some ways.
gether is the J a l j h o o l n i Gyaras, o n l y w o r k of village-wide benefit f o r The feeling for the v i l l a g e even
w h i c h comes in September-October. w h i c h c o m m u n i t y effort has been though it is local, is secular in
On the other hand the i n s t i t u t i o n of mobilised has been the school b u i l d - character inasmuch as it trans-
caste-wise kirtans has g r o w n . For- i n g . M o n e t a r y contributions for i t cends caste, k i n or other groups,
m e r l y , k i r t a n was confined to t w o were collected on behalf of the w h i l e that for the caste is essential-
or three temples of the h i g h castes Panchayat by the revenue agency. ly sectarian.
and was l a r g e l y the concern of There has been no other instance of
B r a h m i n s . But d u r i n g the last ten m o b i l i s a t i o n of resources on a com- ( i i ) The v i l l a g e is being trans-
years, k i r t a n parties have sprung up m u n i t y - w i d e basis. T w o works, formed f r o m an integrated socio-
i n a l l temples i n c l u d i n g that o f the pavement of bazaar and construction economic u n i t to w h i c h a l l residents
Chamars and a l l these parties are of c o m m u n i t y centre, are l y i n g i n - had a strong attachment and a feel-
organised caste-wise. complete because the requisite con- i n g of belonging, to a habitation
Associations l i k e Y o u t h C l u b and tributions are not f o r t h c o m i n g f r o m containing a collection of competing
C o m m u n i t y Recreation Centre orga- the villagers. A l l the v i l l a g e leaders castes. This latter stage has by no
nised under the c o m m u n i t y devel- a d m i t that m o b i l i s a t i o n of contribu- means been reached; but the trend
opment programme h a w not be- tions for a w o r k of v i l l a g e - w i d e is in this direction.
come popular. The o n l y institution
where members of different castes
do meet d a i l y , associate and p l a y
together is the school. But the
school-children are young, and the
influence of the school on the asso-
ciation and recreation patterns of
adults w i l l be seen o n l y after 10-15
years when the school c h i l d r e n of
today grow up.
No Voluntary Community Action
T h e Panchayat and Cooperative
are other institutions where persons
of different castes come together.
But these are not institutions of so-
c i a l intercourse or recreation. They
are designed for specific adminis-
trative, developmental and economic
functions. The institutions have
been f a i r l y successful in p e r f o r m i n g
their specific functions. Thus, the
panchayat carries out its adminis-
trative functions f a i r l y w e l l ; and
has in the past completed a number
of development works l i k e the
school b u i l d i n g , a d r i n k i n g water
w e l l and the Panchayat b u i l d i n g .
The cooperative is one of the most
successful in the district, h a v i n g a
large and successful business in
credit and d i s t r i b u t i o n of a g r i c u l -

1882