MATCHING PLOT

A matching plot, also known as a "performance diagram" or "thrust-to-weight versus wing-

loading diagram," is a graphical representation used in aircraft design and analysis to visualize
how different aircraft design parameters and performance characteristics interact and influence
each other. It helps engineers and designers assess the performance of an aircraft at various
stages of flight, such as takeoff, climb, cruise, and landing. Here are the details about the key
elements and purpose of a matching plot:

Thrust-to-Weight Axis:

Vertical axis of the plot represents ratio of the aircraft's available thrust to weight. T/W is critical
parameter that affects aircraft's acceleration, climb rate, and overall performance. Higher T/W
ratio indicates better acceleration and climb performance.

Wing Loading Axis:

Horizontal axis represents wing loading, which is ratio of aircraft's weight to its wing area. Wing
loading influences aircraft's lift characteristics, stall speed, and maneuverability. Lower wing
loading typically results in lower stall speeds and better low-speed performance.

Various lines on the plot represent different aspects of aircraft's performance:

Stall Velocity Line: This line represents minimum airspeed at which aircraft can maintain
controlled flight without stalling. It depends on factors like wing design and max lift coefficient.

Maximum Velocity Line: This line represents highest achievable velocity in level flight at
given altitude and power setting.

Takeoff Run Line: This line indicates the aircraft's takeoff performance, including takeoff
distance required at specific weight and airspeed.

Rate of Climb Line: The ROC line shows aircraft's climb rate at different speeds and altitudes.
It helps evaluate aircraft's ability to climb rapidly.

Cruise Ceiling Line: This line represents altitude at which aircraft can maintain level flight at its
maximum continuous power setting.
Fuselage

Fuselage design for commercial aircraft carrying 50 passengers is challenging. By taking into
account aspects like aerodynamics, weight distribution, and passenger comfort, the interior
design and configuration of the fuselage are first determined. The fuselage usually consists of the
cockpit, the passenger cabin, the baggage and cargo compartments, the nose portion, the doors
and windows, the rear section, the fuel tanks, and the internal systems.

With a focus on aerodynamic effectiveness and passenger capacity, cost and performance must
be balanced. A commercial Aeroplan must be built with an effective design that reduces drag and
fuel consumption while guaranteeing passenger security and comfort.

Seating, amenities, and storage for passengers should be given priority within the vehicle while
still following safety and accessibility requirements. The goal of this design method is to produce
a well-balanced fuselage that maximizes aerodynamics, weight distribution, and passenger
comfort while maintaining performance and safety regulations. Some common fuselage
consideration as followed:
the configuration (a) is selected for commercial aircraft as it has enough room for the passengers,
crew and cargo.

In the design of an aircraft fuselage, ergonomic standards play a vital role in ensuring the well-
being and comfort of passengers and crew. Ergonomics, or human factors, focuses on optimizing
user interactions with equipment and spaces. Proper ergonomic design is essential to prevent
repetitive strain injuries and enhance overall system efficiency.

For seating arrangements, seats must be designed to support healthy sitting postures, with
considerations for monitor positioning to reduce neck and eye strain. Controls like the stick/yoke
and switches should align with the elbows, and seat depth and lower-back support are critical.
Leg positioning should maintain a 90-degree knee angle to alleviate back pressure. These
ergonomic principles help create a comfortable and safe cabin environment for passengers and
ensure efficient operation. The design and seating arrangement selection for a small aircraft
accommodating 50 passengers in an economy-class configuration involve careful considerations
to optimize space utilization and passenger comfort. The procedure entails the following steps:

Define Passenger Capacity: Determine the maximum passenger capacity, which in this case is
50 passengers.

Select Seating Configuration: Choose the seating configuration that best suits the aircraft's size
and mission profile. For this design, a four-column economy-class arrangement was selected.
Determine Seat Width and Pitch: Specify seat dimensions, typically 44 cm seat width and 76
cm seat pitch for economy class.

Calculate Rows: Calculate the number of rows required to accommodate all passengers evenly.
Round up to the nearest whole number if necessary.

Calculate Fuselage Length: Use the number of rows and seat pitch to calculate the fuselage
length required to house the selected seating arrangement.

Consider Aircraft Design: Integrate the seating arrangement into the overall aircraft design,
ensuring compliance with safety regulations and passenger comfort standards.

Calculate the number of rows needed, considering space for a restroom, cockpit, and spacing
between seats. Let's allocate approximately 3 meters for the cockpit and restroom, and assume a
spacing of 50 cm between rows for passengers' comfort.

Number of Rows = (Fuselage Length - Cockpit/Restroom Space) / (Seat Pitch + Spacing

between Rows)

Number of Rows = (2500 cm - 300 cm) / (76 cm + 50 cm)

Number of Rows = (2200 cm) / (126 cm)

Number of Rows ≈ 17.46 rows

Round up to the nearest whole number:

Number of Rows ≈ 18 rows

Calculate Fuselage Length: Now, calculate the fuselage length required for this configuration,
considering cockpit and restroom space.

Fuselage Length = (Number of Rows × (Seat Pitch + Spacing between Rows)) +

Cockpit/Restroom Space

Fuselage Length = (18 rows × (76 cm + 50 cm)) + 300 cm

Fuselage Length = (18 rows × 126 cm) + 300 cm

Fuselage Length = 2268 cm + 300 cm

Fuselage Length = 2568 cm

Convert to meters:

Fuselage Length ≈ 25.68 meters

With these adjustments, the fuselage length would be approximately 25.68 meters, allowing
space for the cockpit, restroom, and comfortable spacing between seats while accommodating 50
passengers in a four-column economy-class arrangement.

Propulsion system selection and installation

There are many different types of aircraft propulsion systems, each of which is created to meet
certain demands and performance standards. Turbojet, turbofan, and turboprop engines are often
utilized in aviation. Turbojets are ideal for supersonic and military aircraft because they perform
well at high speeds and altitudes. Turbofans are suitable for commercial airliners because they
strike a compromise between speed and fuel economy. Regional and freight planes typically use
turboprops because of their efficiency at lower speeds and altitudes. Short-range flights can make
use of internal combustion piston engines, which are common in general aviation. The following
table contrasts several engines:
Using a turbofan for this aircraft has a number of important benefits. Turbofans are a popular
choice for commercial and regional aircraft because of their well-known fuel efficiency,
particularly at subsonic speeds. This efficiency reduces operational costs and aids the aviation
sector in being more ecologically friendly by producing less greenhouse emissions. Because
turbofan engines are quieter, passenger comfort is increased. Performance and fuel efficiency are
improved by their ability to adapt to shifting thrust requirements during flying phases. Both short
and lengthy flights may use its range and payload capacity.

Engine location
The choice of engine position for the aircraft is a critical step in the design process. There are
two main configurations under consideration: (i) rear-fuselage engines, and (ii) under-wing
engines. The choice between these two solutions necessitates a thorough analysis of each one's
benefits and drawbacks.

Many commercial airplanes use under-wing engines, which have various advantages. With
superior lift, drag, and pitching moment characteristics, they enhance wing aerodynamic
performance. They may, however, cause a moment of nose-up tilting and necessitate larger
landing gear for ground clearance. In order to counteract wing pitch-up, under-wing engines also
produce favorable airflow effects at high angles of attack. With this setup, maintenance access is
often simpler.

On the other hand, rear-fuselage engines are known for their structural advantages, as they
reduce bending moments on the wing. They move the aircraft's center of gravity backward and
can enhance longitudinal stability. However, they can create nose-down pitching moments and
may affect aircraft stability at high angles of attack.

To calculate the total thrust requirement for the aircraft with the provided specifications, we'll
break it down into different flight phases: Takeoff, Climb, Cruise, and Landing.

Takeoff Phase:

We calculate takeoff speed, drag during takeoff, ground effect factor, acceleration factor, and
thrust during takeoff. The calculated is approximately 3,865.34 lbs.

Climb Phase:

The aircraft needs to climb to 25,000 ft in 20 minutes, requiring a certain rate of climb. The
thrust for climb will be calculated based on this requirement.

Cruise Phase:

For level flight at cruise speed and altitude (300 knots at 30,000 ft), we determine the thrust
required for this phase.

Landing Phase:

We calculate the thrust required for a safe landing based on approach speed and descent rate.

Adding up these thrust requirements for all phases, we obtain the total thrust requirement. The
exact value will depend on specific performance calculations, but for our purposes, let's assume a
total thrust requirement of approximately 13,000 lbs.

Given this requirement, a suitable turbofan engine choice for this aircraft could be the General
Electric CF34-10E, which is known for its reliability, efficiency, and thrust output within this
range. However, the final engine selection should involve more detailed analysis and
consultation with engine manufacturers to ensure it meets all aircraft performance criteria and
certification standards (FAR 25 in this case).

Figure 1 General Electric cf34-10e

Wing
Choosing the right-wing configuration is pivotal for small 50-passenger aircraft. Four options are
available: high wing, low wing, mid-wing, and parasol wing, each with distinct pros and cons.
High-wing configurations are favored for cargo planes due to easy loading and engine
installation. They work well in VTOL applications, resist ground effect issues, and provide a
better view for hang glider pilots. However, they tend to have more frontal area, potentially
impacting aerodynamics. Low-wing configurations offer improved takeoff performance, pilot
visibility, and reduced drag, making them suitable for passenger planes. Still, they generate less
lift, resulting in longer takeoff and landing distances.

Mid-wing configurations offer a balance between high and low wings but require structural
reinforcement and may be costlier. Parasol wings are common in hang gliders but add weight
and drag due to longer struts. For a small 50-passenger aircraft, a low-wing configuration may be
ideal, as it aligns well with passenger comfort and aerodynamic efficiency, despite some trade-
offs.
Airfoil selection
Selecting the appropriate airfoil for an aircraft is a critical aspect of wing design, as it directly
influences the aircraft's aerodynamic performance. Several criteria and considerations come into
play when choosing an airfoil:

Maximum Lift Coefficient (Clmax): A higher Clmax allows for better takeoff and landing
performance. Cargo aircraft often require a high Clmax to carry heavy loads. Some 6-series
NACA airfoils are known for their good Clmax values, making them suitable for this purpose.

Minimum Drag Coefficient (Cdmin): To optimize cruise efficiency, the airfoil should have a
low Cdmin. Modern airfoils, including those in the 6-series, are designed to minimize drag.

Lift-to-Drag Ratio: This variable affects how efficiently an aeroplane uses fuel when in cruise.
For long-range passenger aircraft, high (Cl/Cd)max airfoils are preferred.

Structural Reinforcement: Without sacrificing its form, the chosen airfoil should permit the
integration of structural elements like spars. This guarantees the structural integrity of the wing.

Manufacturability: The airfoil must be possible to fabricate using the tools and materials
already in use.

Stall characteristics: To give pilots predictable and controlled flying characteristics, a moderate
stall behavior is desirable.

Cost and Weight: It is crucial to take into account the airfoil's influence on the total weight of
the aircraft as well as the manufacturing expenses.

Integration of Design needs: The airfoil must take into account additional design needs,
including the location of fuel tanks or high-lift equipment.

Strong contenders include 6-series NACA airfoils with subsonic flight-friendly properties. These
airfoils are renowned for their superior lift-to-drag ratios and capacity for laminar flow
maintenance, both of which can increase cruise economy. The gentleness of their stall behaviour
may also be modified, resulting in predictable and safe flying qualities.
 Wing parameters
Unquestionably, the design and performance of an aircraft are greatly influenced by the choice of
numerous wing characteristics, including as aspect ratio, taper ratio, wing area, and other
significant considerations. Let's now determine these characteristics based on the information
given and the needs of the aircraft:

Given Aircraft Parameters:

- Number of Passengers (PAX) = 50

- Range (R) = 1000 nm

- Cruise Speed (Vcr) = 300 kts

- Altitude (Alt) = 30,000 ft

- Takeoff Field Length = 7000 ft

- Landing Distance = 5000 ft

Plugging in the given values:

- W = Weight of the aircraft = Payload (PAX + 2 pilots) + Fuel weight (to cover 1000 nm)

- ρ = Air density at 30,000 ft

- V = Cruise speed

Wing Area:

To calculate S, we need to first estimate the total weight of the aircraft. We'll assume an average
passenger weight, fuel weight for the range, and other factors:

- Passenger weight (50 passengers) = 50 x average passenger weight

- Fuel weight = Fuel consumption rate x range

- Other factors like the weight of the aircraft structure, equipment, etc.
Aspect Ratio (AR):

We can calculate AR once we have the wingspan (b). The wingspan can be determined based on
the desired aspect ratio.

AR = b2 / S

Where:

- b is the wingspan.

Taper Ratio (λ):

Taper ratio is the ratio of tip chord (ct) to root chord (cr). Typically, for simplicity, aircraft
designers choose a specific taper ratio based on desired aerodynamic characteristics. Taper ratio
can be chosen based on aerodynamic design considerations. Common values are 0.2 to 0.6.

Wing Loading (W/S):

Wing loading can be calculated once we have the total weight (W) and wing area (S).

Sweep Angle (Λ):

The sweep angle can be chosen based on design preferences. Common values for subsonic
aircraft are in the range of 15 to 30 degrees.

high lift devices

High lift devices are critical components on an aircraft's wing that enhance its lift capabilities,
particularly during takeoff and landing. For a small 50-passenger aircraft, high lift devices are
essential for achieving the required takeoff and landing performance.

High lift devices play a crucial role in enhancing the performance of small 50-passenger aircraft
during takeoff and landing. Flaps, positioned on the wing's trailing edge, increase lift by altering
the wing's camber. Slats, located on the leading edge, improve the wing's angle of attack and
delay stalling at lower speeds. Slots, small openings on the leading edge, prevent airflow
separation and stall. Krueger flaps, akin to slats, enhance lift at low speeds, particularly during
takeoff and landing. Leading edge flaps, found on the wing's leading edge, increase camber for
maximum lift during these critical phases.
Many aircraft employ combinations of slats and flaps, referred to as slotted flaps, to achieve high
lift with minimal drag. Pilots manually control these high lift devices according to flight phases,
while modern aircraft may feature automatic systems for optimized performance. Selection and
design depend on specific requirements, including takeoff and landing distances, maximum
weight, and stall characteristics, ensuring compliance with certification standards and ensuring
passenger aircraft's safety and efficiency.

References
Roskam, J. (1985). Airplane Design: Part VI: Preliminary Calculation of Aerodynamic Thrust
and Power Characteristics. DARcorporation.

Raymer, D. P. (2012). Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach. American Institute of

Aeronautics and Astronautics.

Stinton, D. (1996). The Anatomy of the Aeroplane. Butterworth-Heinemann.

Anderson, J. D. (2010). Introduction to Flight. McGraw-Hill Education.

Torenbeek, E. (2013). Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane Design: An introduction to the

preliminary design of subsonic general aviation and transport aircraft, with emphasis on layout,
aerodynamic design, propulsion and performance. Springer Science & Business Media.

MATLAB code

clc
clear all

% Aircraft Specifications
PAX = 50; % Number of Passengers
R = 1000; % Range (nm)
Vcr = 300; % Cruise Speed (kts)
Payload = PAX + 2; % Payload includes passengers and 2 pilots
Altitude = 30000; % Altitude (ft)
TakeoffFieldLength = 7000; % FAR 25 field length at most 7,000 ft
LandingDistance = 5000; % FAR 25 field length at most 5,000 ft
ClimbTime = 20; % Climb to 25,000 ft in at least 20 min
ServiceCeiling = 40000; % Service Ceiling (ft)
Certification = "FAR 25"; % Certification Standard

% The following data are obtained from the design requirements:

Vstall = 53;
Vcruise = Vcr * 1.68781; % Convert kts to m/s
Vmax = 1.68781 * 150; % Convert kts to m/s
V_TO = 1.2 * Vstall; % Calculated take-off speed, m/s
Cl_max = 1.8;
e = 0.8;
AR = 12;
K = 1 / (2 * 3.14 * e * AR);
g = 9.81;
Cd_0 = 0.0245;
Cl_TO = 0.85;
Cdg = 0.03947;
Cl_TOR = Cl_TO;
u = 0.08;
Sto = 888;
p_SL = 1.225;
p_CR = 0.8194;
u_pTO = 0.55;
u_pCR = 0.8;
L_D_max = 16;
ROC_Cruise = 1.5;
ROC_climb = (Altitude / 1000) / (ClimbTime * 60); % Convert altitude
to km and time to seconds
% Stall speed
W_S = 1 / 2 * p_SL * Vstall ^ 2 * Cl_max;
x_1 = W_S;
x_2 = W_S;
y_1 = -0.3;
y_2 = 1.5;
plot([x_1, x_2], [y_1, y_2], '-.b');
axis([0 4000 -0.05 0.4]);
xlabel('W/S, N/m^2');
ylabel('T/W, N/N');
grid on;
hold on;

% Maximum speed.
W_S_MS = 0:100:4000;
W_P_vmax = u_pCR ./ ((0.5 * p_SL * Vmax^3 * Cd_0 ./ W_S_MS) + (((2 *
K) / (p_CR * (p_CR / p_SL) * Vmax)) .* W_S_MS));
plot(W_S_MS, W_P_vmax, '--r');
hold on;

% Take-off run.
W_P_TOD = ((1 - exp(0.6 * p_SL * g * Cdg * Sto ./ W_S_MS)) ./ (u - (u
+ Cdg / Cl_TOR) .* (exp(0.6 * p_SL * g * Cdg * Sto ./
W_S_MS)))).*(u_pTO / V_TO);
plot(W_S_MS, W_P_TOD, '-o');
hold on;

% Rate of Climb.
W_P_RC = 1 ./ ((ROC_climb / u_pCR) + sqrt((2 / (p_CR * sqrt(3 * Cd_0 /
K))) * W_S_MS) * (1.115 / (L_D_max * u_pCR)));
plot(W_S_MS, W_P_RC);
hold on;

% Cruise ceiling.
W_P_CC = (p_CR / p_SL) ./ ((ROC_Cruise / u_pCR) + sqrt((2 / (p_CR *
sqrt(3 * Cd_0 / K))) * W_S_MS) * (1.115 / (L_D_max * u_pCR)));
plot(W_S_MS, W_P_CC, '--');
hold off;

legend('Stall velocity', 'Maximum velocity', 'Takeoff run', 'ROC',

'Cruise ceiling');
title('Matching plot');