MODULE 5

Higher-Order Differential Equations

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Obtain the solution of Homogeneous and Non-Homogeneous Equations using the
most appropriate method.

Showcase on the several methods on finding the solution of a higher order differential
equation.

Compare and distinguish the different methods on finding the solution of a higher
order differential equation.

Let’s discuss the several methods on finding the solution of a higher order differential
equation!

INTRODUCTION
𝑑𝑦
 Aside from the notation 𝑦 ′ = 𝑑𝑥 , we shall define and introduce other notations
for differentiation. We define D as a differential operator

𝑑𝑦
𝐷𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 ; 1st differentiation with respect to x;
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐷2 𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 2 ; 2nd differentiation with respect to x;
𝑑𝑛 𝑦
𝐷𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 ; nth differentiation with respect to x

Illustration
dy
1. (xD + 2)y = xDy + 2y = x dx + 2y
d2 y
2. (D2 − 1)y = D2 y − y = −y
dx2
3. (xD + 3)(D − 2)y = (xD − 2xD + 3D − 6)y
2

= xD2 y − 2xDy + 3Dy − 6y

d2 y dy dy
= x dx2 − 2x dx + 3 dx − 6y

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 I. LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS
dn y dn−1 y dy
Standard Form: a0 dxn + a1 dxn−1 + ⋯ + an−1 dx + an y = 0
may be written in the form
dn
f(D)y = 0; where f(D) is a linear differential operator defined as Dn = dxn
The equation f(m) = 0 is called the auxiliary equation of f(D)

A. The Auxiliary Equation: Distinct Roots

If the roots of the auxiliary equation are 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … 𝑚𝑛 which are all real and distinct,
then the n solutions are as follows:
𝑦1 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚1 𝑥 , 𝑦2 = 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑚2 𝑥 ..., 𝑦𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑛𝑥
and the general solution is
𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 + ⋯ +𝒚𝒏

Examples:

1. 𝐲" + 𝐲′ − 𝟐𝐲 = 𝟎 2. 𝐲 ′′′ − 𝐲" − 𝟐𝐲′ = 𝟎

Solution: Solution:
d2 y dy d3 y d2 y 2dy
+ dx − 2y = 0 − dx2 − dx = 0
dx2 dx3
2
D y + Dy − 2y = 0 D y − D2 y − 2Dy = 0
3

f(D)y = 0 f(D)y = 0
(D2 + D − 2 )y = 0 (D3 − D2 − 2D)y = 0
m2 + m − 2 = 0 m3 − m2 − 2m = 0
(m + 2)(m − 1) = 0 m(m2 − m − 2) = 0
m = −2 , m = 1 m(m − 2)(m + 1) = 0
m1 = 0
𝐲 = 𝐂𝟏 𝐞−𝟐𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐞𝐱 m2 = 2
m3 = −1

y = C1 e(0)x + C2 e2x + C2 e−x

𝐲 = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐞𝟐𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐞−𝐱

B. The Auxiliary Equation: Repeated Roots

If the roots of the auxiliary equation are 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 , … = 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑏 which are all
real, then the n solutions are as follows:
𝑦1 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑏𝑥 , 𝑦2 = 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 𝑏𝑥 ..., 𝑦𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑏𝑥
and the general solution is
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + ⋯ +𝑦𝑛
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑏𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 𝑏𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 𝑏𝑥
𝒚 = (𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒙 + ⋯ + 𝑪𝒏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 )𝒆𝒃𝒙

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 Examples:

1. (𝐃𝟒 − 𝟕𝐃𝟑 + 𝟏𝟖𝐃𝟐 − 𝟐𝟎𝐃 + 𝟖)𝐲 = 𝟎

m4 − 7m3 + 18m2 − 20m + 8 = 0 (auxiliary equation)

- apply synthetic division to determine the roots of m

m1 = 1, m2 = 2, m3 = 2 ; m4 = 2
or
m1 = 1, m2 = 2 (thrice)

y = C1 ex + C2 e2x + C3 xe2x + C4 x 2 e2x

𝐲 = 𝐂𝟏 𝐞𝐱 + ( 𝐂𝟐 + 𝐂𝟑 𝐱 + 𝐂𝟒 𝐱 𝟐 )𝐞𝟐𝐱

𝐝𝟒 𝐲 𝐝𝟑 𝐲 𝐝𝟐 𝐲
2. 𝐝𝐱𝟒 + 𝟐 𝐝𝐱𝟑 + 𝐝𝐱𝟐 = 𝟎

Solution:
f(D)y = 0
(D4 + 2D3 + D2 )y = 0
m4 + 2m3 + m2 = 0(auxiliary equation)
m2 (m2 + 2m + 1) = 0
m = 0 (2x)
m = −1 (2x)

y = ( C1 + C2 x)e(0)x + ( C3 + C4 x)e−x
𝐲 = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐱 + ( 𝐂𝟑 + 𝐂𝟒 𝐱)𝐞−𝐱

C. The Auxiliary Equation: Imaginary Roots

If the roots of the auxiliary equation are 𝑚 = 𝑎 ± 𝑏𝑖 then the general solution is
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 (𝑎+𝑏𝑖)𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑏𝑖)𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥
𝒚 = (𝑪𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒃𝒙 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒃𝒙)𝒆𝒂𝒙

Examples:

1. (𝐃𝟑 − 𝟑𝐃𝟐 + 𝟗𝐃 + 𝟏𝟑)𝐲 = 𝐎 2. (𝐃𝟐 + 𝟏)𝐲 = 𝟎

Solution: Solution:
m − 3m + 9m + 13 = 0(auxiliary equation)
3 2 m2 + 1 = 0 (auxiliary equation)
m1 = −1; m2 = 2 ± 3i (the roots of m) m = 0 ± i(the roots of m)

𝐲 = 𝐂𝟏 𝐞−𝐱 + ( 𝐂𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟑𝐱 + 𝐂𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟑𝐱)𝐞𝟐𝐱 y = ( C1 cosx + C2 sinx)e(0)x

𝐲 = 𝐂𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱

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 D. The Auxiliary Equation: Repeated Imaginary Roots
 Repeated imaginary roots lead to solutions analogous to those of repeated
real roots.
 If the roots of the auxiliary equation are m1 = m2 = a ± bi then the general
solution is
y = (C1 e(a+bi)x + C2 e(a−bi)x ) + (C1 𝑥e(a+bi)x + C2 xe(a−bi)x )
y = (C1 eax cosbx + C2 eax sinbx) + (C1 eax cosbx + C2 eax sinbx)x
𝐲 = (𝐂𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐛𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐛𝐱)𝐞𝐚𝐱 + (𝐂𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐛𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐛𝐱)𝐱𝐞𝐚𝐱

Examples:

1.(𝐃𝟒 + 𝟖𝐃𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔)𝐲 = 𝟎

Solution:

m4 + 8m2 + 16 = 0
(m2 + 4)(m2 + 4) = 0
m = ±2i (twice)
y = ( C1 cos2x + C2 sin2x)e0x + ( C3 cos2x + C4 sin2x)xe0x
𝐲 = ( 𝐂𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝐱) + ( 𝐂𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝐱 + 𝐂𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝐱)𝐱

2. (𝐃𝟒 + 𝟔𝐃𝟐 + 𝟗)𝐲 = 𝟎

Solution:

(m4 + 6m2 + 9) = 0
(m2 + 3)2 = 0
m = ±√3 i (twice)
y = ( C1 cos√3 x + C2 sin√3 x)e0x + (C3 cos√3x + C4 sin√3 x)xe0x
𝐲 = ( 𝐂𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬√𝟑 𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧√𝟑 𝐱) + (𝐂𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬√𝟑𝐱 + 𝐂𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧√𝟑 𝐱)𝐱

II. NONHOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS: UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

dn y dn−1 y dy
Standard Form: b0 dxn + b1 dxn−1 + ⋯ + bn−1 dx + bn y = R(x)
where R(x) is itself a particular solution of some homogeneous linear
equation with constant coefficients

General Solution: y = yc + yp
where yc is the complementary solution obtained from f(D)y = 0
yp is the particular solution obtained from f(D)yp = R(x)

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 For the particular solution:

Case 1. 𝑹(𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕.

Assume a solution of the form:
𝒚𝒑 = 𝑨
Case 2. 𝑹(𝒙) = 𝒑𝒏 (𝒙), an nth-degree polynomial in x.
Assume a solution of the form:
𝒚𝒑 = 𝑨𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝑨𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝑨𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑨𝟎

Case 3. 𝑹(𝒙) = 𝒌𝒆𝜶𝒙 , where k and 𝛼 are known constants.

Assume a solution of the form:
𝒚𝒑 = 𝑨𝒙𝜶𝒙

Case 4. 𝑹(𝒙) = 𝒌𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒙 + 𝒌𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒙, where k1, k2, and β are known constants.
Assume a solution of the form:
𝒚𝒑 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒙 + 𝑩𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒙

NOTE:
a.) If R(x) is the product of terms considered in Cases 2 through 4, take yp to be
the product of the corresponding assumed solutions and algebraically
combine arbitrary constants where possible.
Ex: If 𝑹(𝒙) = 𝒆𝜶𝒙 𝒑𝒏 , then 𝒚𝒑 = 𝒆𝜶𝒙 (𝑨𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝑨𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝑨𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑨𝟎 )

b.) If, instead, R(x) = eαxpnsinβx or R(x) = eαxpncosβx then assume

𝒚𝒑 = 𝒆𝜶𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒙(𝑨𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + ⋯ + 𝑨𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑨𝟎 ) + 𝒆𝜶𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒙(𝑩𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + ⋯ + 𝑩𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑩𝟎 )

c.) If R(x) is the sum (or difference) of terms already considered, then we take yp
to be the sum (or difference) of the corresponding assumed solutions and
algebraically combine arbitrary constants where possible.
Ex: If 𝑹(𝒙) = 𝒆𝜶𝒙 + 𝒑𝒏 , then 𝒚𝒑 = 𝑨𝒆𝜶𝒙 + (𝑩𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝑩𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝑩𝟏 𝒙 + 𝑩𝟎 )

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 Examples:

1. (D2 + D)y = −cosx 2. (D2 + 9)y = 5ex − 162x

Solution: Solution:

𝐲𝐜 : 𝐟(𝐃)𝐲 = 𝟎 𝐲𝐜 : 𝐟(𝐃)𝐲 = 𝟎
(D2 + D)y = 0 (D2 + 9)y = 0
m2 + m = 0 m2 + 9 = 0
m(m + 1) = 0 m = ±3i
m = 0, − 1 𝐲𝐜 = 𝐂𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟑𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟑𝐱
yc = C1 e(0)x + C2 e−x
𝐲𝐜 = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐞−𝐱 𝐲𝐩 : 𝐑(𝐱) = 5ex − 162x (𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟑 + 𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟐)
x
yp = Ae + (B1 x + B0 )
𝐲𝐩 : 𝐑(𝐱) = −𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐱 (𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟒) Dyp = Aex + B1
yp = C1 cosx + C2 sinx D2 yp = Aex
Dyp = −Asinx + Bcosx
D2 yp = −Acosx − Bsinx (D2 + 9)yp = 5ex − 162x
Aex + 9Aex + 9B1 x + 9𝐵0 = 5ex − 162x
(D2 + D) yp = −cosx 10Aex + 9B1 x + 9𝐵0 = 5ex − 162x
D2 yp + D yp = − cos x
−Acosx − Bsinx − Asinx + Bcosx = −cosx Equate the coefficients
1
ex : 10A = 5 ;A =
Equate the coefficients 2
cosx: −A + B = −1 → 1 x ∶ 9 B1 = −162 ; B1 = −18
sinx : −A − B = 0 → 2 k ∶ 9 B0 = 0 ; B0 = 0
1 1
A = ;B = − 𝟏 𝐱
2 2 𝐲𝐩 = 𝐞 − 𝟏𝟖𝐱
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝐲𝐩 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐱 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱
𝟐 𝟐
y = yc + yp
y = yc + yp 𝟏
𝐲 = 𝐂𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟑𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟑𝐱 + 𝐞𝐱 − 𝟏𝟖𝐱
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝐲 = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐞−𝐱 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐱 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱
𝟐 𝟐

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 3. D2 y + 2Dy + y = 7 + 75sin2x 4. (D2 − 4)y = e2x + 2

Solution: Solution:
𝐲𝐜 : 𝐟(𝐃)𝐲 = 𝟎
(D2 + 2D + 1)y = 7 + 75sin2x (D2 − 4)y = 0
m2 − 4 = 0
𝐲𝐜 : 𝐟(𝐃)𝐲 = 𝟎 m = ±2
(D2 + 2D + 1)y = 0 𝐲𝐜 = 𝐂𝟏 𝐞𝟐𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐞−𝟐𝐱
m2 + 2m + 1 = 0
(m + 1)2 = 0 𝐲𝐩 : 𝐑(𝐱) = 𝐞𝟐𝐱 + 𝟐 (𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟑 + 𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟏)
m = −1 (twice)
𝐲𝐜 = ( 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐱)𝐞−𝐱 Note: A member of a family of the
nonhomogeneous term (e2x family in
𝐑(𝐱) = 𝟕 + 𝟕𝟓𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝐱 (𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟏 + 𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟒) R(x)) happens to be a solution of the
yp = A + (Bcos2x + Csin2x) corresponding homogeneous
D yp = −2Bsin2x + 2Ccos2x equation, yc. If we follow the form yp =
D2 yp = −4Bcos2x − 4Csin2x Ae2x + B, it will be inconsistent (B = e2x +
2). Therefore, we must modify yp.
(D2 + 2D + 1) yp = 7 + 75sin2x Multiplying the family of e2x (Case 3
−4Bcos2x − 4Csin2x − 4Bsin2x + 4Ccos2x part only) by xm where m = 1 (m is the
+ A + Bcos2x + Csin2x smallest integer so that no term in the
= 7 + 75sin2x modified particular solution is same to
−3Bcos2x − 3Csin2x − 4Bsin2x + 4Ccos2x the complementary solution), we
+ A = 7 + 75sin2x obtain
yp = Axe2x + B
Equate the coefficients D yP = A(2xe2x + e2x )
cos2x ∶ −3B + 4C = 0 → (1) D2 yp = 2A(2xe2x + e2x ) + 2Ae2x
sin2x ∶ −4B − 3C = 75 → (2) D2 yp = 4Axe2x + 4Ae2x
k ∶A=7
(D2 − 4)y = e2x + 2
4Axe2x + 4Ae2x − (4Axe2x + 4B) = e2x + 2
Using eq′ ns(1)& (2):
4Axe2x + 4Ae2x − 4Axe2x − 4B = e2x + 2
B = −12, C=9
4Ae2x − 4B = e2x + 2
𝐲𝐩 = 𝟕 − 𝟏𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝐱 + 𝟗𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝐱
Equate the coefficients
1
y = yc + yp e2x ∶ 4A = 1 ;A =
4
−1
𝒚 = (𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒙)𝒆−𝒙 + 𝟕 − 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒙 k ∶ −4B = 2 ; B =
2
+ 𝟗𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒙 𝟏 𝟐𝐱 𝟏
𝐲𝐩 = 𝐱𝐞 −
𝟒 𝟐

y = yc + yp
1 1
𝐲 = C1 e2x + C2 e−2x + xe2x −
4 2

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 5. Find the complete solution of the differential equation 𝑦" − 2𝑦′ = 6𝑥 2 − 3𝑒 𝑥/2 .

Solution:
𝐲𝐜 : 𝐟(𝐃)𝐲 = 𝟎
(D2 − 2D)y = 0
m2 − 2m = 0
m1 = 0, 𝑚2 = 2
𝐲𝐜 = 𝐂𝟏 𝐞𝟎𝐱 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐞𝟐𝐱 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒆𝟐𝒙
𝑥
𝐲𝐩 : 𝐑(𝐱) = 6𝑥 2 − 3𝑒 2 (𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟐 − 𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟑)
Note: The family for the 6x2 term is {A2x2 + A1x + A0}, and the family for the −3ex/2
term is simply {Bex/2}. This latter family does not contain a solution of the
corresponding homogeneous equation (yc), but the family {A2x2 + A1x + A0}
does (it contains the constant function). This entire family (not just the
“offending” member) must therefore be modified; multiplying (Case 2) by
x, we have:
𝑦𝑝 = (𝐴2 𝑥 2 + 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐴0 )𝑥 − 𝐵𝑒 𝑥/2
𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴2 𝑥 3 + 𝐴1 𝑥 2 + 𝐴0 𝑥 − 𝐵𝑒 𝑥/2
1
𝑦𝑝 ′ = 3𝐴2 𝑥 2 + 2𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐴0 − 𝐵𝑒 𝑥/2
2
1 𝑥/2
𝑦𝑝 ′′ = 6𝐴2 𝑥 + 2𝐴1 − 𝐵𝑒
4

(D2 − 2D)y𝑝 = R(x)

1 𝑥 1 𝑥
6𝐴2 𝑥 + 2𝐴1 − 𝐵𝑒 2 − 2 (3𝐴2 𝑥 2 + 2𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐴0 − 𝐵𝑒 2 ) = 6𝑥 2 − 3𝑒 𝑥/2
4 2
3 𝑥
−6𝐴2 𝑥 2 + (6𝐴2 − 4𝐴1 )𝑥 + (2𝐴1 − 2𝐴0 ) + 𝐵𝑒 2 = 6𝑥 2 − 3𝑒 𝑥/2
4

Equate the coefficients:

𝑥 2 : − 6𝐴2 = 6, 𝐴2 = −1
3
𝑥: 6𝐴2 − 4𝐴1 = 0, 𝐴1 = −
2
3
𝑘: 2𝐴1 − 2𝐴0 = 0, 𝐴0 = −
𝑥
2
3
𝑒 : 4 𝐵 = −3,
2 𝐵 = −4

3 3
𝑦𝑝 = −𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + − 𝑥 + 4𝑒 𝑥/2
2 2

Therefore:
𝟑 𝟑
𝒚 = 𝒚𝒄 + 𝒚𝒑 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒆𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + − 𝒙 + 𝟒𝒆𝒙/𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

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 6. Solve 𝑦’'' - 6y" + 11𝑦’ − 6𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 .

𝐲𝐜 : 𝐟(𝐃)𝐲 = 𝟎
(D3 − 6D2 + 11D − 6)y = 0
m3 − 6m2 + 11m − 6 = 0
𝑚1 = 1, 𝑚2 = 2, 𝑚3 = 3

𝒚𝒄 = 𝑪𝟏 𝒆𝒙 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒆𝟐𝒙 + 𝑪𝟑 𝒆𝟑𝒙

𝐲𝐩 : 𝐑(𝐱) = 𝟐𝐱𝐞−𝒙 (𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟐 × 𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟑)

yp = (𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐴0 )(𝑒 −𝑥 ) → 𝑆𝑒𝑒 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 "a" on page 5.
yp = 𝐴1 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝑥
yp′ = −𝐴1 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝑥
yp′′ = 𝐴1 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 − 2𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝑥
yp′′′ = −𝐴1 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + 3𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝐴0 𝑒 −𝑥

Substituting these results into the differential equation and simplifying, we obtain
−24𝐴1 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + (26𝐴1 − 24𝐴0 )𝑒 −𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥
Equating coefficients of like terms, we have
𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 : −24𝐴1 = 2, 𝐴1 = −1/12
𝑒 −𝑥 : 26𝐴1 − 24𝐴0 = 0, 𝐴0 = −13/144
1 13 1 13 −𝑥
yp = (− 𝑥− ) (𝑒 −𝑥 ) = − 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒
12 144 12 144
Therefore:
𝒚 = 𝒚𝒄 + 𝒚𝒑
𝟏 𝟏𝟑 −𝒙
𝒚 = 𝑪𝟏 𝒆𝒙 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒆𝟐𝒙 + 𝑪𝟑 𝒆𝟑𝒙 − 𝒙𝒆−𝒙 − 𝒆
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟒𝟒

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 III. VARIATION OF PARAMETERS
dn y dn−1 y dy
Standard Form: b0 dxn + b1 dxn−1 + ⋯ + bn−1 dx + bn y = R(x)
General Solution: y = yc + yp
If yc = C1 y1 + C2 y2 then let yp = Ay1 + By2 where A and B are both fucntions
of x.
Let A′y1 + B′y2 = 0

Examples:

1. (D2 + 1)y = cscx

Solution:
𝐲𝐜 : 𝐟(𝐃)𝐲 = 0
(D2 + 1)y = 0
m2 + 1 = 0
m = ±i
yc = C1 cosx + C2 sinx

𝐲𝐩 = 𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐱 + 𝐁𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱
(D2 + 1) yp = cscx

D yp = −Asinx + A′ cosx + Bcosx + B′ sinx

A′ cosx + B′ sinx = 0
B′ sinx
A′ = − cosx → (1)
D yp = −Asinx + Bcosx
D2 yp = −Acosx − A′ sinx − Bsinx + B′ cosx
(D2 yp + yp ) = cscx
−Acosx − A′ sinx − Bsinx + B′ cosx + Acosx + Bsinx = cscx
−A′ sinx + B′ cosx = cscx → (2)

Substitute (1) in (2) Substitute 𝐵 ′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 in (1)

B′ sinx 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
− (− ) sinx + B′ cosx = cscx 𝐴′ = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 ( )
cosx 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
sin2 x
B′ cosx + B′ cosx = cscx 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝐴′ = − ( )
B′ sin2 x+B′ cos2 x 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
= cscx 𝐴′ = −1
cosx
2 2
B′(sin x + cos x) = cscx cosx
1 𝐴 = ∫ −1𝑑𝑥
B′ = sinx cosx
𝐴 = −𝑥
B′ = cotx
B = ∫ cotxdx
𝑦𝑝 = −𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + (𝑙𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
B = lnsinx
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + (𝑙𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝒚 = ( 𝑪𝟏 − 𝒙)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 + ( 𝑪𝟐 + 𝒍𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
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 2. (𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1)𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−2

Solution:
𝒚𝒄 : 𝒇(𝑫)𝒚 = 𝟎
(𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1)𝑦 = 0
𝑚2 − 2𝑚 + 1 = 0
(𝑚 − 1)2 = 0
𝑚 = 1(𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑐𝑒)
𝒚𝒄 = ( 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒙)𝒆𝒙

𝒚𝒑 = (𝑨 + 𝑩𝒙)𝒆𝒙
(𝐷2 − 2𝐷 + 1) 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−2
𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥𝑒 𝑥
D𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐴′ 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )+𝐵 ′ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝐴′ 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵 ′ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 = 0
𝐵 ′ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝐴′ = − 𝑥 = −𝐵 ′ 𝑥 → (1)
𝑒
𝐷 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑥
𝐷2 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐴′ 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) + 𝐵 ′ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵 ′ 𝑒 𝑥
= 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐴′ 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝐵𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵 ′ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵 ′ 𝑒 𝑥
(𝐷 − 2𝐷 + 1) 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−2
2

𝐴𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐴′ 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝐵𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵′ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵′ 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝐴𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝐵𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝐵𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−2

𝐴′ 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵 ′ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵 ′ 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−2 → (2)

Substitute (1) in (2) Substitute 𝐵 ′ = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−2 in (1)

−𝐵 ′ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵 ′ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵 ′ 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−2 𝐴′ = −(𝑒 𝑥 )(𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−2 𝑥
′
𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−2 𝐴′ = − ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−2 𝑑𝑥
𝐵 =
𝑒𝑥
′
𝐵 =𝑒 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥
+ 1)−2 𝑢 =𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = −(𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−1
𝐵 = ∫(𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1
𝐴 = −[− 𝑥 +∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
𝑒 +1 𝑒 +1
𝑢 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴= 𝑥
𝑒 +1
−∫ 𝑥
𝑒 +1
𝑑𝑥 . −𝑥
𝑒
1 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐵 = −(𝑒 𝑥 + 1)−1 = − 𝐴= 𝑥 −∫
𝑒𝑥 +1 𝑒 +1 1 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑢 = 1 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝐴= 𝑥 + ln(1 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )
𝑒 +1
𝑥 1
𝑦𝑝 = [ 𝑥 + ln(1 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )] 𝑒 𝑥 − ( 𝑥 ) 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝑒 +1 𝑒 +1

𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝
𝑥 1
𝑦 = ( 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑥)𝑒 𝑥 + [ + ln(1 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )] 𝑒 𝑥 − ( 𝑥 ) 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +1 𝑒 +1
𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝑦 = ( 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑥)𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 +1
+ 𝑒 𝑥 ln(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) − 𝑒 𝑥 +1
𝒚 = ( 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝒙)𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆 [𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝒆 𝒙 −𝒙 )]
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 Watch Video for Module 5 for more detailed explanations.

Now let’s have some practice! Answer the problems below.

Obtain the general solution unless otherwise instructed

A. LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

1. (9D4 + 6D3 + D2 )y = 0
d3 x d2 x dx
2. − 2 dt2 − 3 dt = 0
dt3
3. (D2 − 2D − 3)y = 0 when x = 0, y = 0, y ′ = −4

B. NONHOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS: UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

1. D2 (D − 1)y = 3ex + sinx
2. (D2 + D − 2)y = 2x − 40cos2x

C. VARIATION OF PARAMETERS
1. (D2 + 1)y = secx tanx
1
2. (D2 − 3D + 2)y = 1+e−x

At the end of this module, you will have graded quiz.

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