CAD Darshan

Contents
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................1.2

1.2 Reason for Implementing a CAD System ...........................................................................................1.3
1.3 Conventional Design Process ..............................................................................................................1.4
1.4 Conventional Design vs CAD ................................................................................................................1.6
1.5 Benefits of CAD......................................................................................................................................1.7
1.6 Limitations of CAD ................................................................................................................................1.7
1.7 CAD/CAM Systems Evaluation Criteria...............................................................................................1.7
1.8 CAD Hardware........................................................................................................................................1.9
1.9 CAD Softwares .................................................................................................................................... 1.21
1.10 Coordinate Systems ........................................................................................................................... 1.21
1.11 DDA (Digital Differential Analyser) Line Algorithm ......................................................................... 1.23
1.12 Bresenham’s Line Algorithm ............................................................................................................. 1.25
1.13 Database Management System (DBMS) ......................................................................................... 1.29
1.14 Graphics Exchange Standards .......................................................................................................... 1.30
1.15 References .......................................................................................................................................... 1.33
1.1 Introduction
In engineering practice, CAD/CAM has been utilized in different ways by different people. Some utilize it
to produce drawings and document designs. Others may employ it as a visual tool by generating shaded
images and animated displays. A third group may perform engineering analysis of some sort on geometric
models such as finite element analysis.
A fourth group may use it to perform process planning and generate NC part programs. In order to
establish the scope and definition of CAD/CAM in an engineering environment and identify existing and
future related tools, a study of a typical product cycle is necessary. Fig.1.1 shows a flowchart of such a
cycle.
Fig.1.1 – Typical product cycle
CAD tools can be defined as the intersection of three sets: geometrical modeling, computer graphics and
the design tools. Fig.1.2 shows such definition. As can be perceived from this figure, the abstracted
concepts of geometric modeling and computer graphics must be applied innovatively to serve the design
process.
Based on implementation in a design environment, CAD tools can be defined as the design tools (analysis
codes, heuristic procedures, design practices, etc.) being improved by computer hardware and software
throughout its various phases to achieve the design goal efficiently and competitively as shown in Fig.1.2.
The level of improvement determines the design capabilities of the various CAD/CAM systems and the
effectiveness of the CAD tools they provide. Designers will always require tools that provide them with
fast and reliable solutions to design situations that involve iterations and testings of more than one
alternative.
CAD tools can vary from geometric tools, such as manipulations of graphics entities and interference
checking, on one extreme, to customized applications programs, such as developing analysis and
optimization routines, on the other extreme. In between these two extremes, typical tools currently
available include tolerance analysis, mass property calculations and finite element modeling and analysis.
Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.2
Computer Aided Design (3161903) | Unit-1 Introduction
Fig.1.2 – Definition of CAD tools based on their constituents
Fig.1.3 – Definition of CAD tools based on their implementation in a design environment
• CAD tools, as defined above, resemble guidance to the user of CAD technology.
• The definition should not and is not intended to, represent a restriction on utilizing it in engineering
design and applications. The principal purposes of this definition are the following:
1. To extend the utilization of current CAD/CAM systems beyond just drafting and
visualization.
2. To customize current CAD/CAM systems to meet special design and analysis needs.
3. To influence the development of the next generation of CAD/CAM systems to better serve
the design and manufacturing processes.
1.2 Reason for Implementing a CAD System

1. To increase in the productivity of the designer
 The CAD improves the productivity of the designer to visualize the product and its
components, parts and reduces time required in synthesizing, analyzing and documenting
the design.
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2. To improve the quality of design
 CAD system permits a more detailed engineering analysis and a large no. of design
alternatives can be investigated.
 The design errors are also reduced because of the greater accuracy provided by system.
3. To improve communication in design
 The use of a CAD system provides better engineering drawings, more standardization in
drawing, better documentation of design, few drawing errors.
4. To create a data base for manufacturing
 In the process of creating the documentation for the product design, much of the required
data base to manufacture the product can be created.
5. Improves the efficiency of design
 It improves the efficiency of design process and the wastages at the design stage can be
reduced.
1.3 Conventional Design Process
Fig.1.4 – Conventional Design Process
There are six steps involved in the conventional design process as discussed below:

1.4
1. Recognition of need
• First step in the designing process is to recognize necessity of that particular design.
• The condition under which the part is going to operate and the operation of part in that particular
environment.
• The real problem is identified by knowing the history and difficulties faced in system.
2. Definition of problem
• The design involves type of shape of part, its space requirement, the material restrictions and the
condition under which the part has to operate.
• The basic purpose of design process has to be known before starting the design.
• A problem may be design of a simple part or complex part.
• It may be problem on optimizing certain parameters.
3. Synthesis of design
• In this, it may be necessary to prepare a rough drawing of design part.
• The type of loading conditions imposed on the parts.
• The type of shapes which the part section can require and approximate dimension at which the
different forces are located has to be provided on the sketch of part.
• The stresses to which the part is likely to be subjected must be analyzed and relevant formulas
should be prepared.
• A mathematical model of design may be prepared to synthesize the parts of design.
4. Analysis and optimization
• The design can be analyzed for the type of loading condition as well as the geometric shape of the
part.
• In the first stage it will be necessary to check the design of the part for safe stresses.
• If it is not satisfactory, then the dimensions of the part can be recalculated.
• The part can further be optimized for acquiring minimum dimensions, weight, volume, efficiency
of the material and cost.
• The optimization depends on definition of problem and importance of a parameter.
• It may be sometimes necessary to optimize the parts for certain operating parameters like
efficiency, torque, etc.
5. Evaluation
• It is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications established in the problem
definition phase.
• The evaluation often requires the fabrication and testing of model to assess operating
performance, quality and reliability.
6. Presentation
• The design of component must be presented along with necessary drawings in an attractive
format.
• The presentation of the design can be made by use of colors and attractive presentation.

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1.4 Conventional Design vs CAD
Fig.1.5 – Conventional design vs Computer Aided Design
1. Geometric modeling
• Geometric modeling is concerned with the computer compatible mathematical description of the
geometry of an object.
• The mathematical description allows the image of the object to be displayed and manipulated on
a graphics terminal through signals from the CPU of CAD system.
• The software that provides geometric modeling capabilities must be designed for efficient use
both by the computer and human designer.
• The basic form uses wire frames to represent the object.
• The most advanced method of geometric modeling is solid modeling in three dimensions.
2. Engineering Analysis
• The analysis may involve stress-strain calculations, heat transfer computation etc.
• The analysis of mass properties is the analysis feature of CAD system that has probably the widest
application.
• It provides properties of solid object being analyzed, such as surface area, weight, volume, center
of gravity and moment of inertia.
• The most powerful analysis feature of CAD system is the finite element method.

1.6
3. Design Review & Analysis
• A procedure for design review is interference checking.
• This involves the analysis of an assembled structure in which there is a risk that the components
of the assembly may occupy same space.
• Most interesting evaluation features available on some CAD systems is kinematics.
• The available kinematics packages provide the capabilities to animate the motion of simple
designed mechanisms such as hinged components and linkages.
4. Automated Drafting
• This feature includes automatic dimensioning, generation of cross-hatched areas, scaling of the
drawing and the capability to develop sectional views and enlarged views of particular part details.
1.5 Benefits of CAD

• Improved engineering productivity
• Reduced manpower required
• More efficient operation
• Customer modification are easier to make
• Low wastages
• Improved accuracy of design
• Better design can be evolved
• Saving of materials and machining time by optimization
• Colors can be used to customize the product
1.6 Limitations of CAD

• The system requires large memory and speed.
• The size of the software package is large.
• It requires highly skilled personal to perform the work.
• It has huge investment.
1.7 CAD/CAM Systems Evaluation Criteria

The various types of CAD/CAM systems are Mainframe-Based Systems, Minicomputer-Based Systems,
Microcomputer-Based Systems and Workstation-Based Systems. The implementation of these types by
various vendors, software developers and hardware manufacturers result in a wide variety of systems,
thus making the selection process of one rather difficult. CAD/CAM selection committees find themselves
developing long lists of guidelines to screen available choices.
These lists typically begin with cost criteria and end with sample models or benchmarks chosen to test
system performance and capabilities. In between comes other factors such as compatibility requirements
with in-house existing computers, prospective departments that plan to use the systems and credibility of
CAD/CAM systems' suppliers. In contrast to many selection guidelines that may vary sharply from one

1.7
organization to another, the technical evaluation criteria are largely the same. They are usually based on
and are limited by the existing CAD/CAM theory and technology. These criteria can be listed as follows.
1.7.1 System Considerations

(i) Hardware
• Each workstation is connected to a central computer, called the server, which has enough large
disk and memory to store users' files and applications programs as well as executing these
programs.
(ii) Software
• Three major contributing factors are the type of operating system the software runs under, the type
of user interface (syntax) and the quality of documentation.
(iii) Maintenance
• Repair of hardware components and software updates comprise the majority of typical
maintenance contracts. The annual cost of these contracts is substantial (about 5 to 10 percent
of the initial system cost) and should be considered in deciding on the cost of a system in addition
to the initial capital investment.
(iv) Vendor Support and Service
• Vendor support typically includes training, field services and technical support. Most vendors
provide training courses, sometimes on-site if necessary.
1.7.2 Geometric Modeling Capabilities

a) Representation Techniques
• The geometric modeling module of a CAD/CAM system is its heart. The applications module of
the system is directly related to and limited by the various representations it supports. Wireframes,
surfaces and solids are the three types of modeling available.
b) Coordinate Systems and Inputs
• In order to provide the designer with the proper flexibility to generate geometric models, various
types of coordinate systems and coordinate inputs ought to be provided. Coordinate inputs can
take the form of cartesian (x, y, z), cylindrical (r, θ, z) and spherical (θ, φ, z).
c) Modeling Entities
• The fact that a system supports a representation scheme is not enough. It is important to know
the specific entities provided by the scheme. The ease to generate, verify and edit these entities
should be considered during evaluation.
d) Geometric Editing and Manipulation
• It is essential to ensure that these geometric functions exist for the three types of representations.
Editing functions include intersection, trimming and projection and manipulations include
translation, rotation, copy, mirror, offset, scaling and changing attributes.
e) Graphics Standards Support
• If geometric models' databases are to be transferred from one system to another, both systems
must support exchange standards.

1.8
1.7.3 Design Documentation
(i) Generation of Engineering Drawings
• After a geometric model is created, standard drafting practices are usually applied to it to generate
the engineering drawings or the blueprints. Various views (usually top, front and right side) are
generated in the proper drawing layout. Then dimensions are added, hidden lines are eliminated
and/or dashed, tolerances are specified, general notes and labels are added, etc.
1.7.4 Applications
(i) Assemblies or Model Merging
• Generating assemblies and assembly drawings from individual parts is an essential process.
(ii) Design Applications
• There are design packages available to perform applications such as mass property calculations,
tolerance analysis, finite element modeling and analysis, injection modeling analysis and
mechanism analysis and simulation.
(iii) Manufacturing Applications
• The common packages available are tool path generation and verification, NC part programming,
postprocessing, computer aided process planning, group technology, CIM applications and robot
simulation.
(iv) Programming Languages Supported
• It is vital to look into the various levels of programming languages a system supports. Attention
should be paid to the syntax of graphics commands when they are used inside and outside the
programming languages. If this syntax changes significantly between the two cases, user
confusion and panic should be expected.
1.8 CAD Hardware

The hardware of CAD system consists of following:
• CPU
• Secondary memory
• Workstation
• Input unit
• Output unit
• Graphics display terminal
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is the brain of the entire system.
Functions of CPU
 To receive information from the work station and display the output on the CRT screen.
 To read the data stored in the secondary memory storage unit.

1.9
Fig.1.6 – Components of CPU
Functions of secondary memory

 To store files related to engineering drawing
 To store programs required to give instruction to output devices like plotters.
 To store CAD software
 The secondary storage unit consists of magnetic tapes and discs.
2. Work Station
Fig.1.7 – Design workstation
 The work station is a visible part of the CAD system which provides interaction between the
operator and the system.
 Among these advantages offered by work station are their availability, portability, the availability to
dedicate them to a single task without affecting other users and their consistency of time
response.
 A work station can be defined as a station of work with its own computing power to support major
software packages, multitasking capabilities demanded by increased usage, complex tasks and
networking potential with other computing environments.
1.10
Technical specifications of CAD workstation
CAD applications require workstations with reasonably enhanced processing speed, graphic capability,
and storage capacity. Typical workstation specifications of some of the currently available models are
given below.
Processor: Intel Pentium 4 at 2.4 GHz
RAM: 2 GB to 16 GB
PCI bus width: 64 – bit
Hard drive: 500 GB to 1 TB
CD-ROM: CD-RW/DVD Combo
Standard I/O ports: 1 Serial port, 1 Parallel port, 4 USB ports
Graphics: NVIDIA 512 MB
Graphics resolution: 2018 x 1536 (Max)
Operating system: Windows XP, Windows 7
Monitor: 21” Flat Panel TFT display
Keyboard: Enhanced Multimedia USB
Mouse: Optical Mouse Two-button Scroll Mouse
3. Input devices
• A no. of input devices is available. These devices are used to input two possible types of
information: text and graphics.
• Text-input devices and the alphanumeric keyboards.
• There are two classes of graphics input devices: Locating devices and image-input devices.
• Locating devices, or locators, provide a position or location on the screen.
• These include lightpens, mouse, digitizing tablets, joysticks, trackballs, thumbwheels,
touchscreen and touchpads.
• Locating devices typically operate by controlling the position of a cursor on screen. Thus,
they are also referred to as cursor-control devices.
I. Scanners
• Scanners comprise other class of graphics-input device.
• There are four relevant parameters to measure the performance of graphics input devices.
These are resolution, accuracy, repeatability and linearity.
• Some may be more significant to some devices than others.
II. Keyboards
• Keyboards are typically employed to create/edit programs or to perform word processing
functions.
• CAD/CAM systems, information entered through keyboards should be displayed back to
the user on a screen for verification.

1.11
III. Digitizing tablets
Fig.1.8 – Digitizer
• A digitizing tablet is considered to be a locating as well as pointing device. It is a small, low-

resolution digitizing board often used in conjunction with a graphics display.
• The tablet is a flat surface over which a stylus can be moved by the user.
• A tablet’s typical resolution is 200 dots per inch
• The tablet operation is based on sensitizing its surface area to be able to track the pointing
element motion on the surface.
• Several sensing methods and technologies are used in tablets. The most common sensing
technology is electromagnetic, where the pointing element generates an out of phase
magnetic field sensed by wire grid in tablet surface.
IV. Mouse
Fig.1.9 – Mouse
• There are two basic types of mouse available mechanical and optical.
• The mechanical mouse has roller in order to record the mouse motion in X and Y directions.
• In optical mouse, movements over the surface are measured by a light beam modulation
techniques.
• The light source is located at the bottom and the mouse must be in contact with the surface
for screen cursor to follow its movement.
V. Joy sticks & Trackballs
• The joystick works by pushing its stick backwards or forward or to left or right. The extreme
positions of these directions correspond to the four corner of the screen.

1.12
Fig.1.10 – Joy Stick and Track ball
• A trackball is similar in principal to a joystick but allows more precise fingertip control. The
ball rotates freely within its mount.
• Both the joystick and trackball are used to navigate the screen display cursor. The user of
a trackball can learn quickly how to adjust to any nonlinearity in its performance.
Fig.1.11 – (a) Cursor Control Devices (b) Thumbwheels as input device with a work station
VI. Thumbwheels
• Two thumbwheels are usually required to control the screen cursor, one for its horizontal
position and other for its vertical position. Each position is indicated on screen by cross-
hair.

1.13
4. Output devices
CAD/CAM applications require output devices such as displays and hardcopy printers.
I. Graphics displays
• The operation of CRT is based on concept of energizing an electron beam that strikes the phosphor
coating at very high speed.
• The energy transfer from the electron to the phosphor due to the impact causes it to illuminate and
glow.
• The electrons are generated via the electron gun that contains the cathode and are focused into a
beam via the focusing unit shown in Fig.1.12.
• By controlling the beam direction and intensity in a way related to the graphics information
generated in the computer, meaningful and desired graphics can be displayed on the screen.
Fig.1.12 – Principle of CRT
• The deflection system of the CRT controls the x and y, or the horizontal and vertical, positions of
the beam which in turn are related to the graphics information through the display controller, which
typically sits between the computer and the CRT. The controller receives the information from the
computer and converts it into signals acceptable to the CRT.
Refresh vector display
• Early displays in 1960s were refresh vector displays.
• The refresh buffer stores the display file or program, which contains points, lines, characters and
other attributes of picture to be drawn.
• These commands are interpreted & processed by display processor.
• The electron beam accordingly excites the phosphor, which glows for a short period.
• To maintain a steady flicker- free image, the screen must be refreshed or redrawn at least 30 to 60
times per second, that is at a rate of 30 to 60 Hz.
• The principal advantages of refresh display is its high resolution (4096 x 4096) and thus its
generation of high quality picture.

1.14
Fig.1.13 – Refresh display
Direct View Storage Tube (DVST)
Fig.1.14 – Direct view storage tube

1.15
• Refresh displays were very expensive in the 1960s, due to the required refresh buffer memory and
fast display processer.
• At the end of 1960s DVST was introduced by Tektronix as an alternative and inexpensive solution.
• It uses a special type of phosphor that has long-lasting glowing effect.
• In the DVST, the picture is stored as a charge in the phosphor mesh located behind the screen’s
surface. Therefore, complex pictures could be drawn without flicker at high resolution.
• Once displayed, the picture remains on the screen until it is erased. New picture items can be added
& displayed rapidly.
• However, if a displayed item is erased, the entire screen must be cleared and new picture displayed
to reflect removal of item.
Raster display
• The inability of the DVST to meet the increasing demands by various CAD/CAM applications for
colors, shaded images and animation motivated hardware designers to continue searching for
solution.
• In raster displays, display screen area is divided horizontally and vertically into a matrix of small
element called pixel.
• An N x M resolution defines a screen with N rows and M columns.
Fig.1.15 – Typical pixel matrix of a raster display
• Images are displayed by converting geometric information into pixel values which are then
converted into electron beam deflection through display processors and deflection system.
• The creation of raster-format data from geometric information is known as scan conversion.
• The values of the pixels of a display screen that results from scan-conversion processes are stored
in an area or memory called frame buffer or bit map.
• Each pixel value determines its brightness (gray level) or most often its color on the screen.
• 8 bits/pixel are needed to produce satisfactory continuous shades of gray for monochrome
display.
• For color displays, 24 bits/pixel would be needed: 8 bits for each primary color red, blue and green.
• This would provide 224 different colors, which are far more than needed in real application.
1.16
Fig.1.16 – Color raster display with eight planes
• The bit map memory is arranged conceptually as a series of planes, one for each bit in the pixel
value. Thus an eight-plane memory provides 8 bits/pixel, as shown in Fig.1.16. This provides 28
different gray levels or different colors that can be displayed simultaneously in one image. The
number of bits per pixel directly affects the quality of its display and consequently its price.
• The value of a pixel in the bit map memory is translated to a gray level or a color through a lookup
table (also called a color table or color map for a color display).
• Fig.1.17 shows how the pixel value is related to the lookup table in an eight plane display. If cell P
in the bit map corresponds to pixel P at the location P(x, y) on the screen, then the gray level of this
pixel is 50 (00110010) or its corresponding color is 50.
• For color displays this may imply that the number of bits per pixel must be increased to increase
the number of entries in the color map and therefore increase available number of colors to user.
• This, however, is not true and leads to increasing the size of the bit map memory and the cost of
the display. Thus, how can the number of color indexes in the color map increase while keeping
the pixel definition (number of bits per pixel) in the bit map to a minimum?
• For example, how can a display have 4 bits/pixel with 24 bits of color output (224 different colors)?
This is achieved by designing a color map with 224 (16.7 million) available color indexes. The 4
bits/pixel provides 16 (24 simultaneous colors, in an image, which can be chosen from color map.
• A pixel value (0 to 15) can be used to set the value of the color index which corresponds to the
proper color to be displayed. This scheme, in this example, provides 16 simultaneous colors from
a palette of 16.7 million.
• To the user, the color map is made available where colors are chosen and the application program
relates the chosen color to the proper pixel value. For example, if the user chooses the color purple
for an image element, corresponding program sets the corresponding pixels to reflect color purple.

1.17
Fig.1.17 – Relationship between pixel value and a lookup table for monochrome display
Fig.1.18 – Relationship between pixel value and a lookup table for color display
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

• Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a emissive device. The emissive displays (or emitters) are devices
that convert electrical energy into light.
• A matrix of diodes is arranged to form the pixel positions in the display, and picture definition is
stored in a refresh buffer.
• As in scan – line refreshing of a CRT, information is read from the refresh buffer and convert to
voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light pattern display.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
• Liquid crystals exist in a state between liquid and solid. The molecules of liquid crystal are all
aligned in the same direction, as in a solid, but are free to move around slightly in relation to one
another, as in a liquid.
• Liquid crystal is actually closer to a liquid state than a solid state, which is one reason why it is
rather sensitive to temperature.
• The array of liquid crystals become opaque when the electric field is applied, for displaying the
image. Their use as display devices has been made popular by their widespread use in portable
calculators and in the lap top or portable computers.

1.18
• Their full screen size with reasonably low power consumption has made them suitable for
portability. Another advantage is that they occupy very small desktop space while reducing the
power consumption.
• The price of these displays is falling rapidly, and are thus becoming popular for desk top
applications as well. Also large screen size LCD monitors are available currently at reasonable
price.
II. Hardcopy printers and plotters
Output devices of both printers and plotters are available for producing final drawings and documentation
on paper.
Pen Plotters
• There are two types of conventional pen plotters flat bed and drum.
Fig.1.19 – Drum plotter
• In the flat-bed plotter, the paper is stationary and pen holding mechanism can move in two axes.
Fig.1.20 – Flat bed plotter

1.19
Inkjet plotters
• They utilize dot matrix method of plotting.
• Each dot is, however, created by impelling a tiny jet of ink on the surface of the paper.
• Typical applications include color plots of solid models, shaded images and contour plots.
Black and white printers
• There are major two types of black and white printers are dot matrix and laser printers.
• Dot matrix printers are inexpensive but slow.
• Their resolution is typically 75 dpi.
• Laser printers are more expensive but faster and better than dot matrix printer.
• Their typical resolution is 300 dpi.
Fig.1.21 – Dot matrix printer
Laser printer
• A semiconductor laser beam scans the electro statically charged drum with a rotating mirror.
• This writes on the drum a no. of points which are similar to pixels.
• When the beam strikes the drum in the wrong way round for printing a positive charge, reversing it,
then toner powder is released. The toner powder sticks to the charged positions of the drum, which
is then transformed to a sheet of paper.
• Though it is relatively expansive compared to the dot matrix printer, the quality of the output is
extremely good and it works very fast.
Fig.1.22 – Working of laser printer

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1.9 CAD Softwares
• Softwares can be defined as an interpreter or translator which allows the user to perform specific
type of application or job related to CAD.
• The user may utilize the software for drafting or designing of machine parts or components
subjected to stresses or analysis of any type of system.
• The CAD application software can be prepared in variety of languages such as BASIC (Beginner's
All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), FORTRAN, Java, PASCAL & C-Language.
• C- Language has been preferred for CAD software development because of no. of advantages as
compared to other languages.
• The Java language has the capacity to operate with high level graphics and animation.
1.10 Coordinate Systems

 Three types of coordinate systems are needed to input, store and display model geometry and
graphics. They are the world coordinate system (WCS), user coordinate system (UCS) and screen
coordinate system (SCS).
Fig.1.23 – Typical component to model
Fig.1.24 – Coordinate systems

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(i) World Coordinate System (WCS)
 The world coordinate system is the reference space of the model with respect to which all the
model geometrical data is stored. Fig.1.23 shows a typical model, which is to be modelled.
 Fig.1.24 (a) illustrates the model with its associated world coordinate system x, y, and z. It is also
called the model coordinate system. It is the default coordinate system.
 The WCS is the only coordinate system that the software recognises when storing or retrieving
geometrical information.
(ii) User Coordinate System (UCS)
 If the model has complex geometry the desired feature of construction can be easily defined with
respect to the world coordinate system.
 It is often convenient in the development of geometric models and the input of data with respect
to an auxiliary coordinate system instead of WCS.
 The user can define a Cartesian coordinate system whose xy plane is coincident with the desired
plane of construction. This coordinate system is called the user coordinate system.
 The UCS can be positioned at any position and orientation in the space that the user desires. The
user coordinate system is shown in Fig.1.24(b).
(iii) Screen Coordinate System (SCS)
 The screen coordinate system is a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system whose origin is
located at the lower left corner of the graphics display (Fig.1.25). It is a device-dependent
coordinate system.
 For raster graphics displays, the pixel grid is the screen coordinate system. A 1024 x 1024 display
as a range of (0, 0) to (1024, 1024). The centre of the screen is at (512, 512).
 The SCS is used to display graphics by converting from WCS coordinates to SCS coordinates. The
transformation from WCS coordinates to SCS coordinates is performed by the software before
displaying the model views and graphics.
Fig.1.25 – Screen coordinate system.

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1.11 DDA (Digital Differential Analyser) Line Algorithm
• DDA is one of the first algorithms developed for rasterizing the vectorial information. The equation
of a straight line is given by Eq. (1.1)
𝑌=𝑚𝑋+𝐶 Eq. (1.1)
• Using this equation for direct computing of the pixel positions involves a large amount of
computational effort.
• Hence it is necessary to simplify the procedure of calculating the individual pixel positions by a
simple algorithm.
• For this purpose consider drawing a line on the screen as shown in Fig.1.26, from (x1, y1) to (x2, y2),
Fig.1.26 – A straight line drawing by DDA algorithm

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 Eq. (1.2)
𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝐶 = 𝑦1 − 𝑚𝑥1 Eq. (1.3)
• The line drawing method would have to make use of the above three equations in order to develop
a suitable algorithm.
• Eq. (1.1), for small increments can also be written as,
∆𝑌 = 𝑚∆𝑋 Eq. (1.4)
• By taking a small step for ∆X, ∆Y can be computed using Eq. (1.4). However, the computations
become unnecessarily long for arbitrary values of ∆X. Let us now workout a procedure to simplify
the calculation method.
• Let us consider a case of line drawing where m  1. Choose an increment for ∆X as unit pixel. Hence
∆X = 1.
• Then from Eq. (1.4),
𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑚 Eq. (1.5)
• The subscript i takes the values starting from 1 for the starting point till the end point is reached.
• Hence it is possible to calculate the total pixel positions for completely drawing the line on the
display screen. This is called DDA (Digital Differential Analyser) algorithm.
• If m > 1, then the roles of x and y would have to be reversed.
• Choose ∆Y = 1
Then from Eq. (1.4), we get
1 Eq. (1.6)
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 +
𝑚
1.23
• The following is the flow chart showing the complete process for the implementation of the above
procedure.
Fig.1.27 – Flow chart for line calculation procedure by DDA algorithm
Ex. 1.1 [GTU; Dec-2018; 7 Marks]

Indicate which raster locations would be chosen by DDA algorithm when scan converting a
line from screen coordinate (19, 38) to screen coordinate (38, 52).
Solution: ∆𝑌
𝑚=
∆𝑋
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
52 − 38
=
38 − 19
14
=
19
= 0.737
So, 𝑚 ≤ 1
∆𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑚

1.24
Table 1.1 - Calculation of pixel positions by DDA algorithm
X Y Calculated Y Rounded
19 38 38
20 38.737 39
21 39.474 39
22 40.211 40
23 40.948 41
24 41.685 42
25 42.422 42
26 43.159 43
27 43.896 44
28 44.633 45
29 45.370 45
30 46.107 46
31 46.844 47
32 47.581 48
33 48.318 48
34 49.055 49
35 49.792 50
36 50.529 51
37 51.266 51
38 52.003 52
1.12 Bresenham’s Line Algorithm

• The above DDA algorithm is certainly an improvement over the direct use of the line equation since
it eliminates many of the complicated calculations.
• However, still it requires some amount of floating point arithmetic for each of the pixel positions.
• This is still more expensive in terms of the total computation time since a large number of points
need to be calculated for each of the line segments as shown in Example 1.1.

1.25
• Bresenham's method is an improvement over DDA since it completely eliminates the floating point
arithmetic except for the initial computations. All other computations are fully integer arithmetic
and hence it is more efficient for raster conversion.
• As for the DDA algorithm, start from the same line equation and the same parameters. The basic
argument for positioning the pixel here is the amount of deviation by which the calculated position
is from the actual position obtained by the line equation in terms of d1 and d2 as shown in Fig.1.28.
• Let the current position be (Xi, Yi) at the ith position as shown in Fig.1.28. Each of the circles in
Fig.1.28 represents the pixels in the successive positions.
Fig.1.28 – Position of individual pixels for calculation using Bresenham procedure
Then
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1 Eq. (1.7)
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥𝑖 + 𝐶 Eq. (1.8)
𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝐶 Eq. (1.9)
• These are shown in Fig.1.28. Let d1 and d2 be two parameters, which indicate where the next pixel
is to be located. If d1 is greater than d2, then the y pixel is to be located at the +1 position else, it
remains at the same position as previous location.
𝑑1 = 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝐶 − 𝑦𝑖 Eq. (1.10)
𝑑2 = 𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) − 𝐶 Eq. (1.11)
From Eq. (1.10) and Eq. (1.11)
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝐶 − 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖+1 + 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝐶 Eq. (1.12)
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 2𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 2𝐶 − 2𝑦𝑖 − 1 Eq. (1.13)
• Eq. (1.13) still contains more computations and hence we would now define another parameter P
which would define the relative position in terms of d1 – d2.
𝑃𝑖 = (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 )∆𝑥 Eq. (1.14)
= {2𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 2𝐶 − 2𝑦𝑖 − 1}∆𝑥

= 2𝑚𝑥𝑖 ∆𝑥 + 2𝑚∆𝑥 + 2𝐶∆𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑖 ∆𝑥 − ∆𝑥

1.26
∆𝑦 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑦
=2 𝑥𝑖 ∆𝑥 + 2 ∆𝑥 + 2𝐶∆𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑖 ∆𝑥 − ∆𝑥 (∵ 𝑚 = )
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
𝑃𝑖 = 2𝑥𝑖 ∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑦 + 2𝐶∆𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑖 ∆𝑥 − ∆𝑥 Eq. (1.15)
𝑃𝑖 = 2𝑥𝑖 ∆𝑦 − 2𝑦𝑖 ∆𝑥 + 𝑏 Eq. (1.16)
Where, 𝑏 = 2∆𝑦 + 2𝐶∆𝑥 − ∆𝑥

• Similarly, we can write,
𝑃𝑖+1 = 2∆𝑦(𝑥𝑖 + 1) − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑖+1 + 𝑏 Eq. (1.17)
• Taking the difference of two successive parameters, we can eliminate the constant terms from Eq.
(1.17).
𝑃𝑖+1 − 𝑃𝑖 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑖 + 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑖+1 − 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑖 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑖

𝑃𝑖+1 − 𝑃𝑖 = 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥(𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑦𝑖 ) Eq. (1.18)
• The same can also be written as
𝑃𝑖+1 = 𝑃𝑖 + 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥(𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑦𝑖 ) Eq. (1.19)
• The same can also be written as
𝑃𝑖+1 = 𝑃𝑖 + 2∆𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖 Eq. (1.20)
𝑃𝑖+1 = 𝑃𝑖 + 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖 + 1 Eq. (1.21)
• From the start point (x1, y1)

𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑥1 + 𝐶
∆𝑦
𝐶 = 𝑦1 − 𝑥
∆𝑥 1
• Substituting this in Eq. (1.15) and simplifying, we get
∆𝑦
𝑃1 = 2𝑥1 ∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑦 + 2 (𝑦1 − 𝑥 ) ∆𝑥 − 2𝑦1 ∆𝑥 − ∆𝑥
∆𝑥 1
𝑃1 = 2𝑥1 ∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑦 + 2𝑦1 ∆𝑥 − 2𝑥1 ∆𝑦 − 2𝑦1 ∆𝑥 − ∆𝑥
𝑃1 = 2∆𝑦 − ∆𝑥 Eq. (1.22)
• Hence from Eq. (1.18), when Pi is negative, then the next pixel location remains the same as
previous one and Eq. (1.20) becomes valid. Otherwise, Eq. (1.21) becomes valid.
• Using these equations it is now possible to develop the algorithm for drawing the line on the screen
as shown in the flowchart (Fig. 1.29). The procedure just described is for the case when m  1.
• The procedure can be repeated for the case when m > 1 by interchanging X and Y similar to the DDA
algorithm.

1.27
Fig.1.29 – Flow chart for line calculation procedure by Bresenham algorithm
Ex. 1.2 [GTU; May-2017,2018; 7 Marks]

Indicate which raster locations would be chosen by Bresenham’s algorithm when scan
converting a line from screen coordinate (19, 38) to screen coordinate (38, 52).
Solution: ∆𝑌
𝑚=
∆𝑋
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
52 − 38
=
38 − 19
14
=
19
= 0.737

1.28
Table 1.2 - Calculation of pixel positions by Bresenham’s procedure
X P Y
19 P1 = 2∆y - ∆x = 28 – 19 = 9 38
20 P2 = P1 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 9 + 28 -38 = -1 39
21 P3 = P2 + 2∆y = -1 + 28 = 27 39
22 P4 = P3 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 27 + 28 -38 = 17 40
23 P5 = P4 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 17 + 28 -38 = 7 41
24 P6 = P5 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 7 + 28 -38 = -3 42
25 P7 = P6 + 2∆y = -3 + 28 = 25 42
26 P8 = P7 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 25 + 28 -38 = 15 43
27 P9 = P8 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 15 + 28 -38 = 5 44
28 P10 = P9 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 5 + 28 -38 = -5 45
29 P11 = P10 + 2∆y = -5 + 28 = 23 45
30 P12 = P10 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 23 + 28 -38 = 13 46
31 P13 = P12 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 13 + 28 -38 = 3 47
32 P14 = P13 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 3 + 28 -38 = -7 48
33 P15 = P14 + 2∆y = -7 + 28 = 21 48
34 P16 = P15 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 21 + 28 -38 = 11 49
35 P17 = P16 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 1 + 28 -38 = 1 50
36 P18 = P17 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 1 + 28 -38 = -9 51
37 P19 = P18 + 2∆y = -9 + 28 = 19 51
38 P20 = P19 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 19 + 28 -38 = 9 52
1.13 Database Management System (DBMS)

A DBMS is defined as the software that allows access to use and/or modify data stored in a database.
The DBMS forms a layer of software between the physical database itself (i.e., stored data) and the users
of this database as shown in Fig.1.30(a).
DBMS shields users from having to deal with hardware-level details by interpreting their input commands
and requests from the database. For example, a command such as retrieve a line could involve few lower-
level steps to execute.

1.29
In general, a DBMS is responsible for all database-related activities such as creating files, checking for
illegal users of the database and synchronizing user access to the database.
Fig.1.30 – A typical DBMS
DBMSs designed for commercial business systems are too slow for CAD/ CAM. The handling of graphics
data is an area where the conventional DBMSs tend to break down under the shear volume of data and
the demand for quick display.
By contrast, data handled in the commercial realm is mostly alphanumeric and the objects described are
usually not very complex. A DBMS is directly related to the database model it is supposed to manage. For
example, relational DBMSs require relatively large amounts of CPU time for searching and sorting data
stored in the relations or tables.
Therefore, the concept of database machines exists where a DBMS is implemented into hardware that can
lie between the CPU of a computer and its database disks, as shown in Fig.1.30(b).
1.14 Graphics Exchange Standards

• With the proliferation of computers and software in the market, it became necessary to standardize
certain elements at each stage, so that investment made by companies in certain hardware or
software was not totally lost and could be used without much modification on the newer and
different systems.
• Standardization in engineering hardware is well known. Further, it is possible to obtain hardware
and software from a number of vendors and then be integrated into a single system.
• This means that there should be compatibility between various software elements as also between
the hardware and software. This is achieved by maintaining proper interface standards at various
levels.
Both CAD/CAM vendors as well as users identified some needs to have some graphics standards. The
needs are as follows:
i. Software portability: This avoids hardware dependence of the software. If the program is written
originally for random scan display, when the display device is changed to raster scan display the
program should work with minimum effort.

1.30
ii. Image data portability: Information and storage of images should be independent of different
graphics devices.
iii. Text data portability: The text associated with graphics should be independent of different
input/output devices.
iv. Model database portability: Transporting of design and manufacturing data from one application
software to another should simple and economical.
The search for standards began in 1974 to fulfill the above needs both at the USA and International levels.
As a result of worldwide efforts, various standards at different levels of the graphics systems were
developed. The standards are as follows:
1. GKS (Graphics kernel system): It is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute and ISO
(International Standards Organization) standard. It interfaces the application program with
graphics support package.
2. IGES (Initial graphics exchange specification): It is an ANSI standard. It enables an exchange of
model database among CAD/CAM software.
3. PHIGS (Programmer's hierarchical interactive graphics system): It supports workstations and
their related CAD/CAM applications. It supports 3-dimensional modeling of geometry
segmentation and dynamic display.
4. CGM (Computer graphics metafile): It defines functions needed to describe an image. Such
description can be stored or transported from one graphics device to another.
5. CGII (Computer graphics interface): It is designed to interface plotters to GKS or PHIGS. It is the
lowest device independent interface in a graphics system.
6. Drawing Exchange Format (DXF): The DXF format has been developed and supported by Autodesk
for use with the AutoCAD drawing files. It is not an industry standard developed by any standards
organisation, but in view of the widespread use of AutoCAD made it a default standard for use of
a variety of CAD/CAM vendors. A Drawing Interchange File is simply an ASCII text file with a file
extension of .DXF and specially formatted text.
7. Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP), officially the ISO standard 10303,
Product Data Representation and Exchange, is a series of International Standards with the goal of
defining data across the full engineering and manufacturing life cycle. The ability to share data
across applications, across vendor platforms and between contractors, suppliers and customers,
is the main goal of this standard.
8. Parasolid: It is a portable "kernel" that can be used in multiple systems - both high-end and mid-
range. By adopting Parasolid, start-up software companies have eliminated a major barrier to
application development - a high initial investment. This enabled them to effectively market
softwares with strong solid modeling functionality at lower-cost.
9. PDES (Product Data Exchange Specification) is an exchange for product data in support of
industrial automation. "Product data" encompasses data relevant to the entire life cycle of a
product such as design, manufacturing, quality assurance, testing and support. In order to support
industrial automation, PDES files are fully interpretable by computer. For example, tolerance
information would be carried in a form directly interpretable by a computer rather than a
computerized text form which requires human intervention to interpret.

1.31
1.14.1 Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) Graphics Standard
The IGES committee was established in the year 1979. The CAD/CAM Integrated Information Network
(CIIN) of Boeing served as the preliminary basis of IGES. IGES version 1.0 was released ia 1980, version
2.0 in 1983 and version 3.0 in 1986. IGES continues to undergo revisions and a brief revision history is
given in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 - Revision history of IGES
Version Year Features
1.0 1980 Mechanical 2-D and 3-D drawings
2.0 1983 Sculpture surfaces, Rational B-splines Finite elements
3,0 1986 AEC, Piping etc
4.0 1988 Constructive solid geometry
3.0 1990 Rationalization of existing formats
6.0 1991 B-REP solids
A number of vendors have implemented IGES. They include Applicon, Autotrol, CADAM, Calcomp, Calma,
Computervision, Control Data, Gerber, IBM, Intergraph, McAuto, Prime, Summagraphics, Tektronix and
T & W systems.
Fig.1.31 – CAD data transfer using IGES
As mentioned earlier, IGES enables data transfer from one CAD system to another. This is shown in
Fig.1.31. Software which translates data from CAD system to IGES is called pre-processor. Software which
translates IGES data to a CAD system is called postprocessor.
Like most CAD systems IGES is based on the concept of entities which range from simple geometric
objects such, as points, lines and circles, to more sophisticated items like dimensions and sculptured
surfaces.

1.32
Entities in IGES are divided into three categories:
(a). Geometry - lines, circles, surfaces etc. that define an object
(b). Annotation - dimension, notes, title block
(c). Structure - Ways in which CAD systems combine other entities to make
Description of object is easier (BLOCK, CELL or DITTO in CAD systems).
IGES files are divided into six sections:
1. Flag section: This is the optional section. It is not output by the postprocessor and is found only in
compressed ASCII files, never in fixed length ASCII files. It is identified by a "C" in column 73,
indicating that the file is in compressed ASCII format. This section contains information that will
be required, by a postprocessor. A postprocessor is a program such as IGESIN. It translates a file
from IGES format to the database form of a specific CAD.
2. Start section: An “S” in column 73 identifies this section. It contains comments that you can use
to describe the drawing, identity its source, comment on its format, and so forth.
3. Global section: A “G” in column 73 identifies (his section. It contains a series of values that describe
global characteristics of the IGES file, such as the name of the, file the system that created the file,
the parameter and record delimiters, units of measure and precision.
4. Directory Entry section: A “D” in column 73 identifies this section. It describes all the
entities in the drawing. There is one entry for each entity in the file; each entry consists of two lines
organized into 20' eight-character fixed-format fields. This section contains attributes such as
color, view, line style, pointers to transformation matrices, pointers to parameter data for the
entities, and so on. This section also provides an index to the entities in the file. IGES entities are
identified by their typo number (fields 1 and 11) and a form number (Field 15).
5. Parameter Data section: A "P" in column 73 identifies this section. It contains the data to describe
each entity, such as point coordinates, coefficients of curve and surface equations, pointers to
other entities, text characters, and other attributes. The kind of data found in the PD section is
different for each entity type. This section contains at least one record for each entity in the file. It
contains a combination of real numbers, integers, and text.
6. Terminate section: A "T" in column 73 identifies this section. This section is a single record
organized into ten 8-character fields. The first four fields contain the sequence number of the last
line from each of the four preceding sections. The next five fields arc unused, and the fast field is
the sequence number of the terminate section itself; this record must always have a sequence
number of 1.
1.15 References
1) CAD/CAM Principles and Applications by P. N. Rao, Tata McGraw-Hill Publication.
2) Mastering CAD/CAM by Zeid,Ibrahim, Tata McGraw-Hill Publication.
3) CAD/CAM/CIM by Radhakrishnan,P;Subramanyan,S;Raju,V, New Age International (P) Limited.
4) CAD/CAM: Theory and Practice by Zeid,Ibrahim;Subramanian,R, Tata McGraw-Hill Publication.

1.33
Contents
2.1 Curve Representation........................................................................................................................ 2.2

2.2 Classification of Curves .................................................................................................................... 2.3
2.3 Parametric representation of analytical curve ................................................................................ 2.4
2.4 Conics .............................................................................................................................................. 2.15
2.5 Parametric representation of synthetic curve ............................................................................... 2.15
2.6 Surface Modeling ............................................................................................................................ 2.30
2.7 References ....................................................................................................................................... 2.35
2.1 Curve Representation
 Curve is defined as the locus of point moving with one degree freedom.
 A curve can be represented by following two methods either by storing its analytical equation or by
storing an array of co-ordinates of various points
 Curves can be described mathematically by following methods:
(i) Non-parametric form

(a). Explicit form
(b). Implicit form
(ii) Parametric form
2.1.1 Non-parametric form

 In this, the object is described by its co-ordinates with respect to current reference frame in use.
2.1.1.1 Explicit form: (Clearly expressed)

 In this, the co-ordinates of y and z of a point on curve are expressed as two separate functions of
x as independent variable.
P = [x y z]
= [x f(x) g(x)]
2.1.1.2 Implicit form: (Not clearly expressed)

 In this, the co-ordinates of x, y and z of a point on curve are related together by two functions.
F (x, y, z) = 0
G (x, y, z) = 0
Limitation of nonparametric representation of curves are:
1. If the slope of a curve at a point is vertical or near vertical, its value becomes infinity or very large,
a difficult condition to deal with both computationally and programming-wise. Other ill-defined
mathematical conditions may result.
2. Shapes of most engineering objects are intrinsically independent of any coordinate system. What
determines the shape of an object is the relationship between its data points themselves and not
between these points and some arbitrary coordinate system.
3. If the curve is to be displayed as a series of points or straight line segments, the computations
involved could be extensive.
2.1.2 Parametric form:

 In this, a parameter is introduced and the co-ordinates of x, y and z are expressed as functions of
this parameters. This parameter acts as a local co-ordinate for points on curve.
P (u) = [x y z]
= [x (u) y (u) z (u)]

2.2 Computer Aided Design (3161903) |
Unit-2 Curves and Surfaces
2.2 Classification of Curves
Curves can be classified as shown below mainly in two categories:
1. Analytical Curves:
 The curves which are defined by the analytical equations are known as analytical curves.
 Examples: line, circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola etc.
2. Synthetic Curves:
 The curves which are defined by set of data points are known as synthetic curves.
 Combination of polynomial segments to represent a desired curve is called a synthetic curve.
 These curves can be conveniently twisted, shaped or bent by changing the control points.
 Examples: Cubic spline curve, B-spline curve, Bezier curve etc.
 Synthetic curves take up where the analytic curves leave – the latter are not that efficient at
geometric design of mechanical parts.
 Need for synthetic curves arise in two occasions:
 When a curve is represented by a collection of measured data points,

 When an existing curve must change to meet new design requirements the designer needs a
curve representation that is directly related to the data points and is flexible enough to bend,
twist or change the shape by changing one or more data points.
 Some examples of complex geometric design are: Car bodies, Ship hulls, Airplane fuselage and
wings, Propeller blades, Shoe insoles, aesthetically designed bottles etc.
 When the curve pass through all the data points, then the curve is known as Interpolant curve. It
sounds more logical but can be more unstable and ringing.
 When a smooth curve is approximated through the data points, then the curve is known as
approximation curve. It turns out to be convenient.
Fig.2.1 – Interpolant and Approximated Curves
 Synthetic curve pass through defined data points and can thus represented by polynomial
equations.
 The parametric form for any synthetic curve is:
𝑃(𝑢) = 𝐶3 𝑢3 + 𝐶2 𝑢2 + 𝐶1 𝑢 + 𝐶0
where, u = Parameter and Ci = Polynomial coefficients
Computer Aided Design (3161903) | 2.3
2.3 Parametric representation of analytical curve
2.3.1 Lines
 A line can be represented in a parametric form by an input of two endpoints or by one point and a
length and direction. Besides these, modifiers and filters can be used to represent these lines. The
two important methods of establishing equations for lines are considered.
2.3.1.1 A line connecting two endpoints in parametric form, having the values of parameter u as 0 and 1
at the endpoints:
Fig.2.2 – Line between Two Endpoints
 Consider a line between two given endpoints P 1 (x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) as shown in Fig.2.2. The
position vectors for these two points would be P 1 and P2. Consider any point P (x, y, z) on the line
P1 P2 .
 Let a parametric system be introduced such that the point P is represented by the parameter u
such that its values are 0 and 1 at endpoints P1 and P2 respectively.
 From ∆OPP1, we can express the vector between endpoints P 1 and P as P–P1. This vector
represents the parameter u. The mapping between the Cartesian and parametric space can be
done by the following relation :
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃1 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
=
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃1 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑃 − 𝑃1 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
=
𝑢 1
𝑃 − 𝑃1 = 𝑢(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑢(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) where, 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 1
 This equation represents the vector equation of the line in parametric form. In scalar form, it can
be written as:
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑢(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑢(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
𝑧 = 𝑧1 + 𝑢(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) where, 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 1
 Any point on the above line or its extension can be found by substituting the value of parameter u.
The tangent vector of the line would be represented by :
𝑃′ = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
 In scalar form these would have the coordinates expressed by the following equations:
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑦 ′ = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑧 ′ = 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
 It can be seen that the tangent vector is independent of the parameter 𝑢, thus representing the
constant slope of the line. Above equations are sufficient to represent all properties of the line for
CAD/CAM representation. The length L and direction vector 𝑛̂ can be calculated using the following
equations :
𝐿 = |𝐿2 − 𝐿1 |
= √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝑛̂ =
𝐿
2.3.1.2 A line passing through a point and defined by a length and direction:
 Consider a case, where a line is to pass through a point P 1 and has its length L and direction vector
𝑛̂ defined as input as shown in Fig.2.3. The computation of the endpoint of this line needs to be
done based on the above inputs. As seen earlier,
𝑃 − 𝑃1
𝑛̂ =
𝐿
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝐿(𝑛̂) where, −∞ ≤ 𝐿 ≤ ∞
 Once the user inputs P1, L and 𝑛̂, the endpoint can be calculated as per the above equation. The
two endpoints can then be expressed in parametric form with values of parameter u as 0 and 1.
Fig.2.3 – Line passing through a point and defined by a Length and Direction

2.3.1.3 Parallel Lines
Fig.2.4
 Assume that the existing line has the two endpoints P 1 and P2, a length L1, and a direction defined
by the unit vector 𝑛1 The new line has the same direction 𝑛
̂. ̂1 , a length L2 and endpoints P3 and P4.
 The unit vector 𝑛
̂1 is given by
𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝑛
̂1 =
𝐿1
 The unit vector for the parallel line will be same as unit vector for the existing line.
𝑃4 − 𝑃3
𝑛
̂1 =
𝐿2
𝑃4 = 𝑃3 + 𝐿2 (𝑛
̂)
1
 The equation of parallel line becomes,
𝑃 − 𝑃3 = 𝑢(𝑃4 − 𝑃3 )
2.3.1.4 Angle between two lines
Fig.2.5

 Fig.2.5 represents two lines L1 and L2 having endpoints are P1, P2 and P3, P4, the angle measurement
command uses the equation.
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ). (𝑃4 − 𝑃3 )
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ||𝑃4 − 𝑃3 |
cos 𝜃 = 𝐿1 . 𝐿2
2.3.1.5 Distance of a point from line
Fig.2.6
 Fig.2.6 shows the distance D from point P3 to the line whose endpoints are P1 and P2 and direction
is 𝑛̂. Its length is L. D is given by
(𝑃3 − 𝑃1 )
𝐷 = |(𝑃3 − 𝑃1 ) × 𝑛̂| = |(𝑃3 − 𝑃1 ) × |
|𝑃3 − 𝑃1 |
Ex. 2.1 [GTU; 7 Marks]

For the position vectors P1[1 2] and P2[4 3], determine the parametric representation of line
segment between them. Also determine the slope and tangent vector of line segment.
Solution: A parametric representation of line is
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑢(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
= [1 2] + 𝑢([4 3] − [1 2])
= [𝟏 𝟐] + 𝒖[𝟑 𝟏]
Parametric representation of x and y components are
𝑥(𝑢) = 𝑥1 + 𝑢(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
= 1 + 3𝑢
𝑦(𝑢) = 𝑦1 + 𝑢(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
= 2+𝑢
The tangent vector is obtained by differentiating 𝑃(𝑢)
𝑃′(𝑢) = [𝑥′(𝑢) 𝑦′(𝑢)]
= [𝟑 𝟏]
The slope of line segment is
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥⁄
𝑑𝑢
𝑦′
=
𝑥′
𝟏
=
𝟑

The end points of line are P1(1,3,7) and P2(–4,5, –3). Determine
i. Tangent vector of the line
ii. Length of line
iii. Unit vector in the direction of line
Solution: Parametric representation of x, y and z components are

𝑥(𝑢) = 𝑥1 + 𝑢(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
= 1 − 5𝑢
𝑦(𝑢) = 𝑦1 + 𝑢(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
= 3 + 2𝑢
𝑧(𝑢) = 𝑧1 + 𝑢(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
= 7 − 10𝑢
Tangent vector,
𝑃′(𝑢) = [𝑥′(𝑢) 𝑦′(𝑢) 𝑧′(𝑢)]
= [−𝟓 𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎]
= −𝟓𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 − 𝟏𝟎𝒌
Length of line,
𝐿 = |𝑃2 − 𝑃1 |
= √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2
= √(−4 − 1)2 + (5 − 3)2 + (3 − 7)2

= 11.358
Unit vector in the direction of line,
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝑛̂ = =
|𝑃2 − 𝑃1 | 𝐿
1
= [−5 2 − 10]
11.358
= [−𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟔 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖]
= −𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝒊 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟔𝒋 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝒌

Ex. 2.3 [GTU; May-2017; 7 Marks]
A line is represented by the end point P 1(2, 4, 6) and P2(-3, 6, 9). If the value of parameter u
at P1 and P2 is 0 and 1 respectively, determine the tangent vector for the line. Also determine
the coordinate of a point represented by; u equal to 0, 0.25, -0.25, 1 and 1.5. Also find the
length and unit vector of line between two points P1 and P2.
Solution: Parametric representation of x, y and z components are
𝑥(𝑢) = 𝑥1 + 𝑢(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
= 2 − 5𝑢
𝑦(𝑢) = 𝑦1 + 𝑢(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
= 4 + 2𝑢
𝑧(𝑢) = 𝑧1 + 𝑢(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
= 6 − 3𝑢
Tangent vector,
𝑃′(𝑢) = [𝑥′(𝑢) 𝑦′(𝑢) 𝑧′(𝑢)]
= [−𝟓 𝟐 − 𝟑]
= −𝟓𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 − 𝟑𝒌
𝒖 0 0.25 –0.25 1 1.5

𝑥(𝑢) 2 0.75 3.25 –3 –5.5
𝑦(𝑢) 4 4.5 3.5 6 7
𝑧(𝑢) 6 5.25 6.75 3 1.5
Length of line,
𝐿 = |𝑃2 − 𝑃1 |
= √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2
= √(−3 − 2)2 + (6 − 4)2 + (9 − 6)2

= 6.16
Unit vector in the direction of line,
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝑛̂ = =
|𝑃2 − 𝑃1 | 𝐿
1
= [−5 2 − 3]
6.16
= [−𝟎. 𝟖𝟏 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟒 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝟕]
= −𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝒊 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟒𝒋 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝟕𝒌

2.3.2 Circle
Fig.2.7 – Circle in Parametric Form
 A circle is represented in the CAD/CAM database by storing the values of its center and its radius.
In a parametric form, a circle shown in Fig.2.7, can be represented by the following set of equations:
𝑥 = 𝑥𝐶 + 𝑅 cos 𝑢
𝑦 = 𝑦𝐶 + 𝑅 cos 𝑢
𝑧 = 𝑧𝐶 + 𝑅 cos 𝑢
where, 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 2
 In this case the parameter u represents the angle measured from the X axis to any point P on the
circumference of the circle. By incrementing the values of u from 0 to 2, the intermediate points
on the circle can be worked out.
 These points can then be connected by straight lines for the purpose of display. However, this
method of computation is inefficient as it requires trigonometric evaluation of functions.
 A convenient method to determine the different points on the circle is to use the incremental
equations. Consider any point Pn (xn, yn, zn) on the circle.
 Let the subsequent incremental point be Pn+1 (xn+1, yn+1, zn+1). From the above equation, we get:
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥𝐶 + 𝑅 cos 𝑢
𝑅 cos 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥𝐶 Eq. (2.1)
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑦𝐶 + 𝑅 sin 𝑢
𝑅 sin 𝑢 = 𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦𝐶 Eq. (2.2)
Eq. (2.3)
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝐶 + 𝑅 cos(𝑢 + ∆𝑢)

Eq. (2.4)
𝑦𝑛+1 = 𝑦𝐶 + 𝑅 sin(𝑢 + ∆𝑢)
Eq. (2.5)
𝑧𝑛+1 = 𝑧𝑛
From Eq. (2.3), Eq. (2.1) & Eq. (2.2)
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝐶 + 𝑅 cos 𝑢 cos ∆𝑢 − 𝑅 sin 𝑢 sin ∆𝑢
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝐶 + (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥𝐶 ) cos ∆𝑢 − (𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦𝐶 ) sin ∆𝑢 Eq. (2.6)
From Eq. (2.4), Eq. (2.1) & Eq. (2.2)
𝑦𝑛+1 = 𝑦𝐶 + 𝑅 sin 𝑢 cos ∆𝑢 − 𝑅 cos 𝑢 sin ∆𝑢
𝑦𝑛+1 = 𝑦𝐶 + (𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦𝐶 ) cos ∆𝑢 − (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥𝐶 ) sin ∆𝑢 Eq. (2.7)
𝑧𝑛+1 = 𝑧𝑐
 Thus, the circle can start from an arbitrary point and successive points with equal spacing can be
calculated. cos ∆𝑢 & sin ∆𝑢 have to be calculated only once, this eliminates the computations of
trigonometric functions for each point.
 This algorithm is useful for hardware implementation to speed up the circle generation & display.
 If two endpoints of diameter of circle are given, then the center & radius of circle are calculated as
below.
 Let P1 (x1, y1, z1) & P2 (x2, y2, z2) and center point PC (xC, yC, zC)
1
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠, 𝑅 = (√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 )
2
1
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑃𝐶 = (𝑃1 + 𝑃2 )
2
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
[𝑥𝐶 𝑦𝐶 𝑧𝐶 ] = [ ]
2 2 2

The two endpoints of diameter of a circle are P1(13,15,7) and P2(35,40,7). Determine the
centre and radius of circle.
Solution: The centre of a circle,
1
𝑃𝐶 = (𝑃1 + 𝑃2 )
2
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
[𝑥𝐶 𝑦𝐶 𝑧𝐶 ] = [ ]
2 2 2
13 + 35 15 + 40 7+7
[𝑥𝐶 𝑦𝐶 𝑧𝐶 ] = [ ]
2 2 2
[𝑥𝐶 𝑦𝐶 𝑧𝐶 ] = [24 27.5 7]
The radius of circle
1
𝑅 = (√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 )
2
1
𝑅 = (√(35 − 13)2 + (40 − 15)2 + (7 − 7)2 )
2
𝑅 = 16.65

2.3.3 Ellipse
 Mathematically the ellipse is a curve generated by a point moving in space such that at any position
the sum of its distances from two fixed points (foci) is constant and equal to the major diameter.
Each focus is located on the major axis of the ellipse at a distance from its center equal to √𝐴2 + 𝐵2
(A and B are the major and minor radii). Circular holes and forms become ellipses when they are
viewed obliquely relative to their planes.
Fig.2.8 – Ellipse Defined by a Center, Major and Minor Axes
 However, four conditions (points and/or tangent vectors) are required to define the geometric
shape of an ellipse.
 Fig.2.8 shows an ellipse with point Pc as the center and the lengths of half of the major and minor
axes are A and B respectively. The parametric equation of an ellipse can be written as assuming
the plane of the ellipse is the XY plane.
 The parameter u is the angle as in the case of a circle. However, for a point P shown in the figure,
it is not the angle between the line PPc and the major axis of the ellipse. Instead, it is defined as
shown.
 To find point P on the ellipse that corresponds to an angle u, the two concentric circles C 1 and C2
are constructed with centers at Pc and radii of A and B respectively. A radial line is constructed at
the angle u to intersect both circles at points P1 and P2 respectively.
 If a line parallel to the minor axis is drawn from P 1 and a line parallel to the major axis is drawn
from P2, the intersection of these two lines defines the point P.
𝑥 = 𝑥𝐶 + 𝐴 cos 𝑢
𝑦 = 𝑦𝐶 + 𝐵 sin 𝑢 } 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 2𝜋
𝑧 = 𝑧𝐶
 Similar development as in the case of a circle results in the following recursive relationships which
are useful for generating points on the ellipse for display purposes without excessive evaluations
of trigonometric functions:
𝐴
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝐶 + (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥𝐶 ) cos ∆𝑢 − (𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦𝐶 ) sin ∆𝑢
𝐵
𝐴 Eq. (2.8)
𝑦𝑛+1 = 𝑦𝐶 + (𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦𝐶 ) cos ∆𝑢 + (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥𝐶 ) sin ∆𝑢
𝐵
 If the ellipse major axis is inclined with an angle α relative to the x axis as shown in Fig.2.30, the
ellipse equation becomes
𝑥 = 𝑥𝐶 + 𝐴 cos 𝑢 cos 𝛼 − 𝐵 sin 𝑢 sin 𝛼
𝑦 = 𝑦𝐶 + 𝐴 cos 𝑢 sin 𝛼 − 𝐵 sin 𝑢 cos 𝛼 } 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 2𝜋 Eq. (2.9)
𝑧 = 𝑧𝐶
 Eq. (2.9) cannot be reduced to a recursive relationship similar to what is given by Eq. (2.8). Instead
these equations can be written as
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝐶 + 𝐴 cos(𝑢𝑛 + ∆𝑢) cos 𝛼 − 𝐵 sin(𝑢𝑛 + ∆𝑢) sin 𝛼
𝑦𝑛+1 = 𝑦𝐶 + 𝐴 cos(𝑢𝑛 + ∆𝑢) sin 𝛼 + 𝐵 sin(𝑢𝑛 + ∆𝑢) cos 𝛼
2.3.4 Parabola
 The parabola is defined mathematically as a curve generated by a point that moves such that its
distance from a fixed point (the focus PF) is always equal to its distance to a fixed line (the directrix)
as shown in Fig.2.9.
 The vertex Pv is the intersection point of the parabola with its axis of symmetry. It is located midway
between directrix and focus. Focus lies on the axis of symmetry.
 Useful applications of the parabolic curve in engineering design include its use in parabolic sound
and light reflectors, radar antennas and in bridge arches.
 Three conditions are required to define a parabola, a parabolic curve, or a parabolic arc. The default
plane of a parabola is the XY plane of the current WCS at the time of construction.
 The database of a parabola usually stores the coordinates of its vertex, distances y HW and yLW, that
define its endpoints as shown in Fig.2.9 the distance A between the focus and the vertex (the focal
distance) and the orientation angle .
 Unlike the ellipse, the parabola is not a closed curve. Thus, the two endpoints determine the amount
of the parabola to be displayed.
 Assuming the local coordinate system of the parabola as shown in Fig.2.9, its parametric equation
can be written as
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑣 + 𝐴𝑢2
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑣 + 2𝐴𝑢 } 0≤𝑢≤∞
𝑧 = 𝑧𝑣
 If the range of the y coordinate is limited to y HW and yLW for positive and negative values
respectively, the corresponding u values become
𝑦𝐻𝑊
𝑢𝐻 =
2𝐴
𝑦𝐿𝑊
𝑢𝐿 =
2𝐴
Fig.2.9 – Basic geometry of Parabola
 The recursive relationships to generate points on the parabola are obtained by substituting
𝑢𝑛 + ∆𝑢 for points 𝑛 + 1. This gives
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 + (𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦𝑣 )∆𝑢 + 𝐴(∆𝑢)2
𝑦𝑛+1 = 𝑦𝑛 + 2𝐴∆𝑢
2.3.5 Hyperbolas
 A hyperbola is described mathematically as a curve generated by a point moving such that at any
position the difference of its distances from the fixed points (foci) F and F’ is a constant and equal
to the transverse axis of the hyperbola.
 Fig.2.10 shows the geometry of a hyperbola.
 The parametric equation of a hyperbola is given by
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑣 + 𝐴 cosh 𝑢
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑣 + 𝐵 sinh 𝑢
𝑧 = 𝑧𝑣
 This equation is based on the nonparametric implicit equation of the hyperbola which can be
written as
(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑣 )2 (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑣 )2
− =1
𝐴2 𝐵2
by utilizing the identity cosh2 𝑢 − sinh2 𝑢 = 1.
Fig.2.10 – Hyperbola Geometry
2.4 Conics
 Conic curves or conic sections form the most general form of quadratic curves. Lines, circles,
ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas are all special forms of conic curves. They all can be generated
when a right circular cone of revolution is cut by planes at different angles relative to the cone axis-
thus the derivation of the name conics.
 Straight lines result from intersecting a cone with a plane parallel to its axis and passing through
its vertex. Circles results when the cone is sectioned by a plane perpendicular to its axis while
ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas are generated when the plane is inclined to the axis by various
angles.
2.5 Parametric representation of synthetic curve

 Analytic curves, are usually not sufficient to meet geometric design requirements of mechanical
parts. Products such as car bodies, ship hulls, airplane fuselage and wings, propeller blades, shoe
insoles and bottles are a few examples that require free-form, or synthetic, curves and surfaces.
 The need for synthetic curves in design arises on two occasions: when a curve is represented by a
collection of measured data points and when an existing curve must change to meet new design
requirements.
 In the latter occasion, the designer would need a curve representation that is directly related to the
data points and is flexible enough to bend, twist, or change the curve shape by changing one or
more data points.
 Data points are usually called control points and the curve itself is called an interpolant if it passes
through all the data points.
 Mathematically, synthetic curves represent a curve-fitting problem to construct a smooth curve
that passes through given data points. Therefore, polynomials are the typical form of these curves.
Fig.2.11 – Various Orders of Continuity of Curves
 Various continuity requirements can be specified at the data points to impose various degrees of
smoothness of the resulting curve. The order of continuity becomes important when a complex
curve is modeled by several curve segments pieced together end to end.
 Zero-order continuity (C0) yields a position continuous curve. First (C1)- and second (C2)-order
continuities imply slope and curvature continuous curves respectively.
 A C1 curve is the minimum acceptable curve for engineering design. Fig.2.11 shows a geometrical
interpretation of these orders of continuity.
 A cubic polynomial is the minimum order polynomial that can guarantee the generation of C 0, C1,
or C2 curves. In addition, the cubic polynomial is the lowest-degree polynomial that permits
inflection within a curve segment and that allows representation of nonplanar (twisted) three
dimensional curves in space.
 Higher-order polynomials are not commonly used in CAD/CAM because they tend to oscillate
about control points, are computationally inconvenient and are uneconomical of storing curve and
surface representations in the computer.
 The type of input data and its influence on the control of the resulting synthetic curve determine
the use and effectiveness of the curve in design.
 For example, curve segments that require positions of control points and/or tangent vectors at
these points are easier to deal with and gather data for than those that might require curvature
information.
 Also, the designer may prefer to control the shape of the curve locally instead of globally by
changing the control point(s). If changing a control point results in changing the curve locally in the
vicinity of that point, local control of the curve is achieved; otherwise global control results.
 Major CAD/CAM systems provide three types of synthetic curves: Hermite cubic spline, Bezier and
B-spline curves. The cubic spline curve passes through the data points and therefore is an
interpolant.
 Bezier and B-spline curves in general approximate the data points, that is, they do not pass through
them. Under certain conditions, the B-spline curve can be an interpolant. Both the cubic spline and
Bezier curves have a first-order continuity and the B-spline curve has a second-order continuity.
2.5.1 Hermite Cubic Spline Curve

 They are used to interpolate the given data but not to design free-form curves. Splines derive their
name from “French curves or splines”
 It connects two data (end) points and utilizes a cubic equation.
 Four conditions are required to determine the coefficients of the equation – two end points and
the two tangent vectors at these two points.
 It passes through the control points and therefore it is an Interpolant. It has only up to C 1 continuity.
Fig.2.12 – Hermite Cubic Spline Curve
 The curve cannot be modified locally, i.e., when a data point is moved, the entire curve is affected,
resulting in a global control.
 The order of the curve is always constant (cubic), regardless of the number of data points. Increase
in the number of data points increases shape flexibility, however, this requires more data points,
creating more splines that are joined together (only two data points and slopes are utilized for each
spline).
 A cubic spline curve utilizes a cubic equation of the following form:
𝑃(𝑢) = 𝐶3 𝑢3 + 𝐶2 𝑢2 + 𝐶1 𝑢 + 𝐶0 Eq. (2.10)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 0≤𝑢≤1
 The cubic spline is defined by the two endpoints P 0, P1 and the tangent vectors at these points. The
tangent vector can be found by differentiating Eq. (2.10).
𝑃′(𝑢) = 3𝐶3 𝑢2 + 2𝐶2 𝑢 + 𝐶1 Eq. (2.11)
 To determine the coefficients of the curve, consider the two endpoints P 0, P1 and the tangent
vectors as shown in Fig.2.12.
 Applying conditions at 𝑢 = 0, in Eq. (2.10) and Eq. (2.11).
𝑃0 = 𝐶0 Eq. (2.12)
𝑃′0 = 𝐶1 Eq. (2.13)
 Applying conditions at 𝑢 = 1, in Eq. (2.10) and Eq. (2.11).

Eq. (2.14)
𝑃1 = 𝐶3 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 + 𝐶0
Eq. (2.15)
𝑃′1 = 3𝐶3 + 2𝐶2 + 𝐶1
 Substituting Eq. (2.12) and Eq. (2.13) in Eq. (2.14) and Eq. (2.15), we get:
Eq. (2.16)
𝑃1 = 𝐶3 + 𝐶2 + 𝑃′0 + 𝑃0
Eq. (2.17)
𝑃′1 = 3𝐶3 + 2𝐶2 + 𝑃′0
 By solving simultaneous Eq. (2.16) and Eq. (2.17), we get
3𝑃1 − 𝑃′1 = 𝐶2 + 2𝑃′0 + 3𝑃0

𝐶2 = 3𝑃1 − 𝑃′1 − 2𝑃′ 0 − 3𝑃0 Eq. (2.18)
 Similarly again by solving simultaneous Eq. (2.16) and Eq. (2.17), we get
𝑃′1 − 2𝑃1 = 𝐶3 − 𝑃′ 0 − 2𝑃0

𝐶3 = 𝑃′1 − 2𝑃1 + 𝑃′ 0 + 2𝑃0 Eq. (2.19)
 Substituting Eq. (2.12), Eq. (2.13), Eq. (2.18) and Eq. (2.19) in Eq. (2.10), we get:
𝑃(𝑢) = (𝑃′1 − 2𝑃1 + 𝑃′ 0 + 2𝑃0 )𝑢3 + (3𝑃1 − 𝑃′1 − 2𝑃′ 0 − 3𝑃0 )𝑢2 + 𝑃′0 𝑢 + 𝑃0
𝑃(𝑢) = 𝑃′1 𝑢3 − 2𝑃1 𝑢3 + 𝑃′ 0 𝑢3 + 2𝑃0 𝑢3 + 3𝑃1 𝑢2 − 𝑃′1 𝑢2 − 2𝑃′ 0 𝑢2 − 3𝑃0 𝑢2 + 𝑃′0 𝑢 + 𝑃0
𝑃(𝑢) = 2𝑃0 𝑢3 − 3𝑃0 𝑢2 + 𝑃0 − 2𝑃1 𝑢3 + 3𝑃1 𝑢2 + 𝑃′ 0 𝑢3 − 2𝑃′ 0 𝑢2 + 𝑃′0 𝑢 + 𝑃′1 𝑢3 − 𝑃′1 𝑢2
𝑃(𝑢) = 𝑃0 (2𝑢3 − 3𝑢2 + 1) + 𝑃1 (−2𝑢3 + 3𝑢2 ) + 𝑃′ 0 (𝑢3 − 2𝑢2 + 𝑢) + 𝑃′1 (𝑢3 − 𝑢2 ) Eq. (2.20)
 The expression can be written in matrix form as under:
2𝑢3 − 3𝑢2 + 1
3
𝑃(𝑢) = [𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃′ 0 𝑃′1 ] [ −2𝑢 + 3𝑢2 ]
𝑢 − 2𝑢2 + 𝑢
3
𝑢3 − 𝑢2
2 −3 0 1 𝑢3
−2 3 0 0 𝑢2
𝑃(𝑢) = [𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃′ 0 𝑃′1 ] [ ][ ]
1 −2 1 0 𝑢
1 −1 0 0 1
 On similar lines, the tangent vector equation can be determined by differentiating Eq. (2.20).
𝑃′(𝑢) = 𝑃0 (6𝑢2 − 6𝑢) + 𝑃1 (−6𝑢2 + 6𝑢) + 𝑃′ 0 (3𝑢2 − 4𝑢 + 1) + 𝑃′1 (3𝑢2 − 2𝑢)

6𝑢2 − 6𝑢
2
𝑃′(𝑢) = [𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃′ 0 𝑃′1 ] [ −6𝑢
2
+ 6𝑢 ]
3𝑢 − 4𝑢 + 1
3𝑢2 − 2𝑢
0 6 −6 0 𝑢3
0 −6 6 0 𝑢2
𝑃′(𝑢) = [𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃′ 0 𝑃′1 ] [ ][ ]
0 3 −4 1 𝑢
0 3 −2 0 1
 Changing the values of endpoints or tangent vectors would modify the shape of the curve.

A cubic spline curve has start point P 0(16,0) and end point P1(3,1). The tangent vector for
end point P0 is given by line joining P0 and point P2(14,8). Tangent vector for end P1 is given
by line joining P2 and point P1.
(a). Determine the parametric equation of hermite cubic curve.
(b). Plot the hermite cubic curve.
Solution: P0 = [16 0]
P1 = [3 1]
P’0 = P2 – P0 = [14 8] – [16 0]
= [–2 8]
P’1 = P1 – P2 = [3 1] – [14 8]
= [–11 –7]
Parametric equation
For any point on curve
2 −3 0 1 𝑢3
−2 3 0 0 𝑢2
𝑃(𝑢) = [𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃′ 0 ′
𝑃 1] [ ][ ]
1 −2 1 0 𝑢
1 −1 0 0 1
X coordinate of a point on curve
2 −3 0 1 𝑢3
−2 3 0 0 𝑢2
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = [𝑃0𝑥 𝑃1𝑥 𝑃′ 0𝑥 𝑃′1𝑥 ] [ ][ ]
1 −2 1 0 𝑢
1 −1 0 0 1
2 −3 0 1 𝑢3
−2 3 0 0 𝑢2
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = [16 3 − 2 − 11] [ ][ ]
1 −2 1 0 𝑢
1 −1 0 0 1
𝑢3
2
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = [13 − 24 − 2 16] [𝑢 ]
𝑢
1
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = 13𝑢3 − 24𝑢2 − 2𝑢 + 16
Y coordinate of a point on curve
2 −3 0 1 𝑢3
−2 3 0 0 𝑢2
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = [𝑃0𝑦 𝑃1𝑦 𝑃′ 0𝑦 ′
𝑃 1𝑦 ] [ ][ ]
1 −2 1 0 𝑢
1 −1 0 0 1
2 −3 0 1 𝑢3
−2 3 0 0 𝑢2
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = [0 1 8 − 7] [ ][ ]
1 −2 1 0 𝑢
1 −1 0 0 1

𝑢3
2
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = [−1 − 6 8 0] [𝑢 ]
𝑢
1
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = −𝑢3 − 6𝑢2 + 8𝑢
Thus, parametric equation of parametric curve is

𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = 13𝑢3 − 24𝑢2 − 2𝑢 + 16
Eq. (2.21)
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = −𝑢3 − 6𝑢2 + 8𝑢
Curve plot
The point on curve obtained by varying value of 𝑢 from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.1 in Eq. (2.21) are
shown in below table
Point 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No.
U 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x (u) 16 15.57 14.74 13.59 12.19 10.63 8.97 7.30 5.70 4.24 3.00
y (u) 0 0.74 1.35 1.83 2.18 2.38 2.42 2.32 2.05 1.61 1.00
The Hermite cubic curve plotted using the above coordinates is shown in Fig.2.13.
Fig.2.13

The end point of a cubic spline curve are P 0(1,2) and P1(7,1). The tangent vector for end P0
is given by line joining P0 and point P2(-2,1). The tangent vector for end P0 is given by line
joining P3(9,-2) and point P1.
(a). Determine the parametric equation of hermite cubic curve.
(b). Determine the parametric equation for tangent vector.
(c). Plot the hermite cubic curve.
P1 = [7 1]
P’0 = P2 – P0 = [–2 1] – [1 2] = [–3 –1]
P’1 = P1 – P3 = [7 1] – [9 –2] = [–2 3]
Parametric equation of curve
For any point on curve
2 −3 0 1 𝑢3
−2 3 0 0 𝑢2
𝑃(𝑢) = [𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃′ 0 ′
𝑃 1] [ ][ ]
1 −2 1 0 𝑢
1 −1 0 0 1
X coordinate of a point on curve
2 −3 0 1 𝑢3
−2 3 0 0 𝑢2
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = [𝑃0𝑥 𝑃1𝑥 𝑃′ 0𝑥 𝑃′1𝑥 ] [ ][ ]
1 −2 1 0 𝑢
1 −1 0 0 1
2 −3 0 1 𝑢3
−2 3 0 0 𝑢2
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = [1 7 − 3 − 2] [ ][ ]
1 −2 1 0 𝑢
1 −1 0 0 1
𝑢3
2
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = [−17 26 − 3 1] [𝑢 ]
𝑢
1
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = −17𝑢3 + 26𝑢2 − 3𝑢 + 1
Y coordinate of a point on curve
2 −3 0 1 𝑢3
−2 3 0 0 𝑢2
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = [𝑃0𝑦 𝑃1𝑦 𝑃′ 0𝑦 𝑃′1𝑦 ] [ ][ ]
1 −2 1 0 𝑢
1 −1 0 0 1
2 −3 0 1 𝑢3
−2 3 0 0 𝑢2
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = [2 1 − 1 3] [ ][ ]
1 −2 1 0 𝑢
1 −1 0 0 1
𝑢3
2
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = [4 − 4 − 1 2] [𝑢 ]
𝑢
1
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = 4𝑢3 − 4𝑢2 − 𝑢 + 2
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = −17𝑢3 + 26𝑢2 − 3𝑢 + 1
Eq. (2.22)
3 2
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = 4𝑢 − 4𝑢 − 𝑢 + 2
Parametric equation of tangent vector

0 6 −6 0 𝑢3
0 −6 6 0 𝑢2
𝑃′(𝑢) = [𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃′ 0 𝑃′1 ] [ ][ ]
0 3 −4 1 𝑢
0 3 −2 0 1
X coordinate of tangent vector
0 6 −6 0 𝑢3
0 −6 6 0 𝑢2
𝑃′𝑥 (𝑢) = [1 7 − 3 − 2] [ ][ ]
0 3 −4 1 𝑢
0 3 −2 0 1
𝑢3
2
𝑃′𝑥 (𝑢) = [0 51 52 − 3] [𝑢 ]
𝑢
1
𝑃′𝑥 (𝑢) = 51𝑢2 + 52𝑢 − 3
Y coordinate of tangent vector
0 6 −6 0 𝑢3
0 −6 6 0 𝑢2
𝑃′𝑦 (𝑢) = [2 1 − 1 3] [ ][ ]
0 3 −4 1 𝑢
0 3 −2 0 1
𝑢3
2
𝑃′ 𝑦 (𝑢) = [0 12 − 8 − 1] [𝑢 ]
𝑢
1
𝑃′𝑦 (𝑢) = 12𝑢2 − 8𝑢 − 1

𝑃′𝑥 (𝑢) = 51𝑢2 + 52𝑢 − 3
𝑃′𝑦 (𝑢) = 12𝑢2 − 8𝑢 − 1
Curve plot
The point on curve obtained by varying the value of u from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.1 in Eq. (2.22)
are shown in below table
Point 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No.
U 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x (u) 1 0.94 1.30 1.98 2.87 3.88 4.89 5.81 6.54 6.97 7.00
y (u) 2 1.86 1.67 1.45 1.22 1.00 0.82 0.71 0.69 0.78 1.00

The Hermite cubic curve plotted using the above coordinates is shown in Fig.2.14.
Fig.2.14
2.5.2 Bezier Curve

 Cubic splines are based on interpolation techniques. Curves resulting from these techniques pass
through the given points.
 Another alternative to create curves is to use approximation techniques which produce curves that
do not pass through the given data points. Instead, these points are used to control the shape of
the resulting curves.
 Most often, approximation techniques are preferred over interpolation techniques in curve design
due to the added flexibility and the additional intuitive feel provided by the former. Bezier and B-
spline curves are examples based on approximation techniques.
 As its mathematics show shortly, the major differences between the Bezier curve and the cubic
spline curve are:
1. The shape of Bezier curve is controlled by its defining points only. First derivatives are not used in
the curve development as in the case of the cubic spline. This allows the designer a much better
feel for the relationship between input (points) and output (curve).
2. The order or the degree of Bezier curve is variable and is related to the number of points defining
it; n + 1 points define an nth degree curve which permits higher-order continuity. This is not the case
for cubic splines where the degree is always cubic for a spline segment.
3. The Bezier curve is smoother than the cubic spline because it has higher order derivatives.

Fig.2.15 – Bezier curve
 The Bezier curve is defined in terms of (n+1) points. This points are called as control points, where
n is the degree of the curve.
 If n=3 control points are 4, as shown in the Fig.2.15.
 These control points form the vertices of the control polygon or Bezier characteristic polygon.
 The control or Bezier characteristic polygon uniquely defines the curve.
Properties of Beizer Curve:

 The degree of polynomial defining the curve segment is one less than the no. of defining polygon
points (n-1).
 The curve follows the shape of the defining polygon.
 Only the first and last control points or vertices of polygon actually lie on curve.
 The other vertices define order & shape of the curve. (see Fig.2.16)
Fig.2.16 – Same data points but different orders for Bezier Curve
 The curve is also always tangent to first and last segments of polygon.
 The same Beizer curve would be generated, if the sequence of the points is changed from P 0 – P1
– P2 – P3 to P3 – P2 – P1 – P0.
 The flexibility of the shape would increase with increase in number of vertices of the polygon.
 It is having global control on the shape of the curve.

Fig.2.17 – Some Typical Examples of Bezier Curve
 Mathematically, for n + 1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by the following polynomial of
degree n:
𝑛
Eq. (2.23)
𝑃(𝑢) = ∑ 𝑃𝑖 𝐵𝑖,𝑛 (𝑢), 0≤𝑢≤1
𝑖=0
 where 𝑃(𝑢) is any point on the curve and 𝑃𝑖 is a control point. 𝐵𝑖,𝑛 are the Bernstein polynomials.
Thus, the Bezier curve has a Bernstein basis. The Bernstein polynomial serves as the blending or
basis function for the Bezier curve and is given by
𝐵𝑖,𝑛 = 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑖)𝑢𝑖 (1 − 𝑢)𝑛−𝑖 Eq. (2.24)
where 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑖) is the binomial coefficient

𝑛! Eq. (2.25)
𝐶(𝑛, 𝑖) =
𝑖! (𝑛 − 𝑖)!
 Utilizing Eq. (2.24) and Eq. (2.25) and observing that 𝐶(𝑛, 0) = 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑛) = 1,
 Eq. (2.23) can be expanded to give
𝑃(𝑢) = 𝑃0 (1 − 𝑢)𝑛 + 𝑃1 𝐶(𝑛, 1)𝑢(1 − 𝑢)𝑛−1 + 𝑃2 𝐶(𝑛, 2)𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢)𝑛−2

+ ⋯ + 𝑃2 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑛 − 1)𝑢𝑛−1 (1 − 𝑢) + 𝑃𝑛 𝑢𝑛 0≤𝑢≤1
 Bezier curve with 3 control points
𝑃(𝑢) = 𝑃0 (1 − 𝑢)2 + 𝑃1 𝐶(2,1)𝑢(1 − 𝑢)2−1 + 𝑃2 𝐶(2,2)𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢)2−2

𝑃(𝑢) = (1 − 𝑢)2 𝑃0 + 2𝑢(1 − 𝑢)𝑃1 + 𝑢2 𝑃2
 Bezier curve with 4 vertices
𝑃(𝑢) = 𝑃0 (1 − 𝑢)3 + 𝑃1 𝐶(3,1)𝑢(1 − 𝑢)3−1 + 𝑃2 𝐶(3,2)𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢)3−2 + 𝑃3 𝐶(3,3)𝑢3 (1 − 𝑢)3−3

𝑃(𝑢) = (1 − 𝑢)3 𝑃0 + 3𝑢(1 − 𝑢)2 𝑃1 + 3𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢)𝑃2 + 𝑢3 𝑃3
 Bezier curve with 5 vertices
𝑃(𝑢) = 𝑃0 (1 − 𝑢)4 + 𝑃1 𝐶(4,1)𝑢(1 − 𝑢)4−1 + 𝑃2 𝐶(4,2)𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢)4−2 + 𝑃3 𝐶(4,3)𝑢3 (1 − 𝑢)4−3

+ 𝑃4 𝐶(4,4)𝑢4 (1 − 𝑢)4−4
𝑃(𝑢) = (1 − 𝑢)4 𝑃0 + 4𝑢(1 − 𝑢)3 𝑃1 + 6𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢)2 𝑃2 + 4𝑢3 (1 − 𝑢)𝑃3 + 𝑢4 𝑃4

Ex. 2.7 [GTU; May-2016; 7 Marks]
A Bezier curve is to be constructed using control points P 0(35,30), P1(25,0), P2(15,25) and
P3(5,10). The Bezier curve is anchored at P 0 and P3. Find the equation of the Bezier curve
and plot the curve for u = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.
P1 = [25 0]
P2 = [15 25]
P3 = [5 10]
n=3
 The parametric equation of Bezier curve
𝑃(𝑢) = (1 − 𝑢)3 𝑃0 + 3𝑢(1 − 𝑢)2 𝑃1 + 3𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢)𝑃2 + 𝑢3 𝑃3

X-coordinate of a point on curve
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = (1 − 𝑢)3 𝑃0𝑥 + 3𝑢(1 − 𝑢)2 𝑃1𝑥 + 3𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢)𝑃2𝑥 + 𝑢3 𝑃3𝑥
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = 35(1 − 𝑢)3 + 75𝑢(1 − 𝑢)2 + 45𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢) + 5𝑢3
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = 35(1 − 3𝑢 + 3𝑢2 − 𝑢3 ) + 75𝑢(1 − 2𝑢 + 𝑢2 ) + 45𝑢2 − 45𝑢3 + 5𝑢3
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = 35 − 105𝑢 + 105𝑢2 − 35𝑢3 + 75𝑢 − 105𝑢2 + 75𝑢3 + 45𝑢2 − 45𝑢3 + 5𝑢3
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = 35 − 30𝑢
Y-coordinate of a point on curve
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = (1 − 𝑢)3 𝑃0𝑦 + 3𝑢(1 − 𝑢)2 𝑃1𝑦 + 3𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢)𝑃2𝑦 + 𝑢3 𝑃3𝑦
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = 30(1 − 𝑢)3 + 75𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢) + 10𝑢3
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = 30(1 − 3𝑢 + 3𝑢2 − 𝑢3 ) + 75𝑢2 − 75𝑢3 + 10𝑢3
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = 30 − 90𝑢 + 165𝑢2 − 95𝑢3
The parametric equation of Bezier curve

Eq. (2.26)
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = 35 − 30𝑢
𝑃𝑦 (𝑢) = 30 − 90𝑢 + 165𝑢2 − 95𝑢3
The points on curve obtained by varying the value of 𝑢 = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1 in Eq. (2.26)
are shown in below table
Point 0 2 4 6 8 10
No.
u 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Px (u) 35.0 29.0 23.0 17.0 11.0 5.00
Py (u) 30.0 17.84 14.32 14.88 14.96 10.00
The Bezier curve plotted using the above coordinates is shown in Fig.2.18.

Fig.2.18
Ex. 2.8 [GTU; Nov-2012; 7 Marks]

Plot a Bezier curve using the following control points.
(2,0), (4,3), (5,2), (4,-2), (5,-3) and (6,-2).
Solution: P0 = [2 0] P1 = [4 3]
P2 = [5 2] P3 = [4 -2]
P4 = [5 -3] P5 = [6 -2]
n=5
The parametric equation for Bezier curve with 6 control points
𝑃(𝑢) = (1 − 𝑢)5 𝑃0 + 5𝑢(1 − 𝑢)4 𝑃1 + 10𝑢2 (1 − 𝑢)3 𝑃2 + 10𝑢3 (1 − 𝑢)2 𝑃3 + 5𝑢4 (1 − 𝑢)𝑃4 + 𝑢5 𝑃5
𝑃(𝑢) = (1 − 5𝑢 + 10𝑢2 − 10𝑢3 + 5𝑢4 − 𝑢5 )𝑃0 + 5𝑢(1 − 4𝑢 + 6𝑢2 − 4𝑢3 + 𝑢4 )𝑃1
+ 10𝑢2 (1 − 3𝑢 + 3𝑢2 − 𝑢3 )𝑃2 + 10𝑢3 (1 − 2𝑢 + 𝑢2 )𝑃3 + 5𝑢4 (1 − 𝑢)𝑃4 + 𝑢5 𝑃5
𝑃(𝑢) = (1 − 5𝑢 + 10𝑢2 − 10𝑢3 + 5𝑢4 − 𝑢5 )𝑃0 + (5𝑢 − 20𝑢2 + 30𝑢3 − 20𝑢4 + 5𝑢5 )𝑃1
+ (10𝑢2 − 30𝑢3 + 30𝑢4 − 10𝑢5 )𝑃2 + (10𝑢3 − 20𝑢4 + 10𝑢5 )𝑃3 + (5𝑢4 − 5𝑢5 )𝑃4 + 𝑢5 𝑃5
𝑃(𝑢) = 𝑃0 + (−5𝑃0 + 5𝑃1 )𝑢 + (10𝑃0 − 20𝑃1 + 10𝑃2 )𝑢2 + (−10𝑃0 + 30𝑃1 − 30𝑃2 + 10𝑃3 )𝑢3
+ (5𝑃0 − 20𝑃1 + 30𝑃2 − 20𝑃3 + 5𝑃4 )𝑢4 + (−𝑃0 + 5𝑃1 − 10𝑃2 + 10𝑃3 − 5𝑃4 + 𝑃5 )𝑢5
X-coordinate of a point on a curve

𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = 𝑃0𝑥 + (−5𝑃0𝑥 + 5𝑃1𝑥 )𝑢 + (10𝑃0𝑥 − 20𝑃1𝑥 + 10𝑃2𝑥 )𝑢2 + (−10𝑃0𝑥 + 30𝑃1𝑥 − 30𝑃2𝑥 + 10𝑃3𝑥 )𝑢3
+ (5𝑃0𝑥 − 20𝑃1𝑥 + 30𝑃2𝑥 − 20𝑃3𝑥 + 5𝑃4𝑥 )𝑢4 + (−𝑃0𝑥 + 5𝑃1𝑥 − 10𝑃2𝑥 + 10𝑃3𝑥 − 5𝑃4𝑥 + 𝑃5𝑥 )𝑢5
𝑃𝑥 (𝑢) = 2 + (−5(2) + 5(4)𝑢 + (10(2) − 20(4) + 10(5))𝑢2 + (−10(2) + 30(4) − 30(5) + 10(4))𝑢3
+ (5(2) − 20(4) + 30(5) − 20(4) + 5(5))𝑢4 + (−(2) + 5(4) − 10(5) + 10(4) − 5(5) + (6))𝑢5
P𝑥 (𝑢) = 2 + 10𝑢 − 10𝑢2 − 10𝑢3 + 25𝑢4 − 11𝑢5
Y-coordinate of a point on a curve
P𝑦 (𝑢) = P0𝑦 + (−5P0𝑦 + 5P1𝑦 )𝑢 + (10P0𝑦 − 20P1𝑦 + 10P2𝑦 )𝑢2 + (−10P0𝑦 + 30P1𝑦 − 30P2𝑦 + 10P3𝑦 )𝑢3
+ (5P0𝑦 − 20P1𝑦 + 30P2𝑦 − 20P3𝑦 + 5P4𝑦 )𝑢4 + (−P0𝑦 + 5P1𝑦 − 10P2𝑦 + 10P3𝑦 − 5P4𝑦 + P5𝑦 )𝑢5
P𝑦 (𝑢) = 0 + (−5(0) + 5(3))𝑢 + (10(0) − 20(3) + 10(2))𝑢2 + (−10(0) + 30(3) − 30(2) + 10(−2))𝑢3
+ (5(0) − 20(3) + 30(2) − 20(−2) + 5(−3))𝑢4 + (−(0) + 5(3) − 10(2) + 10(2) − 5(−3) + (−2))𝑢5
P𝑦 (𝑢) = 15𝑢 − 40𝑢2 + 10𝑢3 + 25𝑢4 − 12𝑢5
The parametric equation of Bezier curve

Eq. (2.27)
P𝑥 (𝑢) = 2 + 10𝑢 − 10𝑢2 − 10𝑢3 + 25𝑢4 − 11𝑢5
P𝑦 (𝑢) = 15𝑢 − 40𝑢2 + 10𝑢3 + 25𝑢4 − 12𝑢5
The points on curve obtained by varying the value of u from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.1 in Eq. (2.27) are shown
in below table
Point No. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
u 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Px (u) 2 2.89 3.56 4.01 4.29 4.47 4.62 4.82 5.12 5.52 6.00
Py (u) 0 1.11 1.52 1.34 0.76 -0.06 -0.93 -1.68 -2.17 -2.29 -2.00
Fig.2.19

2.5.3 B-Spline Curve
 B-Spline curves are proper and powerful generalization of Bezier curve.
 They are very similar to Bezier curve and are also defined with the help of characteristic polygon.
 The major advantage of B-Spline curve is due to its ability to control the curve shape locally, as
opposed to global control. (see Fig.2.20).
Fig.2.20 – Local Control of a B-Spline Curve
 B-Spline curves allow a local control over the shape of the spline curve.
 B-Spline curves allow us to vary the control points without changing the degree of the polynomial
(i.e. number of control points can be added or subtracted).
 The degree of the curve is independent of the number of control points (i.e. four control points can
generate a linear, quadratic or cubic curve).
 It gives better control over the shape of curve.
 They are more complex compared to Bezier curves.
 B-spline curve defined by n + 1 control points P i is given by

𝑛
Eq. (2.28)
𝑃(𝑢) = ∑ 𝑃𝑖 𝑁𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢), 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑖=0
𝑁𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢) are the B-spline functions. Thus, the B-spline curves have a B-spline basis.

2.5.4 Rational curves
 A rational curve is defined by the algebraic ratio of two polynomials while a nonrational curve is
defined by one polynomial.
 The formulation of rational curves requires the introduction of homogeneous space and the
homogeneous coordinates. The homogeneous space is four-dimensional space. A point in three
dimensional with coordinates (x, y, z) is represented in the homogeneous space by the coordinates
(x*, y*, z*, h),where h is a scalar factor. The relationship between the two types of coordinates is
𝑥∗ 𝑦∗ 𝑧∗
𝑥= 𝑦= 𝑧=
ℎ ℎ ℎ
 A rational B-spline curve defined by n + 1 control points P i is given by
𝑛
Eq. (2.29)
𝑃(𝑢) = ∑ 𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢), 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑖=0
 𝑅𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢) are the rational B-spline functions and are given by
ℎ𝑖 𝑁𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢)
𝑅𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢) = 𝑛
∑𝑖=0 ℎ𝑖 𝑁𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢)
 The above equation shows that 𝑅𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢) are a generalization of the nonrational basis functions
𝑁𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢). If we substitute ℎ𝑖 = 1 in the equation, 𝑅𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢) = 𝑁𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢). The rational basis functions
𝑅𝑖,𝑘 (𝑢) have nearly all the analytic and geometric characteristics of their nonrational B-spline
counterparts.
 The main difference between rational and nonrational B-spline curves is the ability to use hi at each
control point to control the behavior of the rational B-splines (or rational curves in general).
 Thus, similarly to the knot vector, one can define a homogeneous coordinate vector H = [h 0 h1 h2 h3
. . . hn]T at the control points P0, P1, . . ., Pn of the rational B-spline curve. The choice of the H vector
controls the behavior of the curve.
 A rational B-spline is considered a unified representation that can define a variety of curves and
surfaces. The premise is that it can represent all wireframe, surface and solid entities. This allows
unification and conversion from one modeling technique to another. Such an approach has some
drawbacks, including the loss of information on simple shapes.
 For example, if a circular cylinder (hole) is represented by a B-spline, some data on the specific
curve type may be lost unless it is carried along. Data including the fact that the part feature was a
cylinder would be useful to manufacturing to identify it as a hole to be drilled or bored rather than
a surface to be milled.
2.6 Surface Modeling

 The surface model is an extension of wire frame model which involves providing a surface
representation making the object look solid to the viewer.
 Surface systems were in fact the first CAD systems to raise the possibility of integrating the whole
industrial process of design and analysis through to the next stages of production and quality
control, using the computer as an intermediary.
 Shape design and representation of complex objects such as car, ship, aircraft and castings cannot
be achieved by a wire frame model. In such cases, surface models are preferred for representing
the objects with precision and accuracy.
 These models also find widespread applications in companies manufacturing forgings, castings
and molded products. Such articles are characterized by smoothly curved shapes with blended
edges which are not easily represented by conventional engineering drawings.
 Another difficulty for designers with wire frame modelers is to obtain good visualization of their
ideas. The surface modeler is ideal for such products as the entire surface is represented; allowing
the computer to generate very realistic shaded surface pictures.
 Most surface modelers come equipped with rendering features. In this, the model once created is
then provided with surface properties. For example, the surface may be given a property which may
make the object appear corroded or made of brass or any such effects.
 A huge material library is generally made available to select the desired surface effect. One can
also define different kinds of lights, such as spot lights, ambient lights, etc. in a 3D space and
generate a photorealistic image of the object. This feature is highly used in automobile and styling
industries for determining the aesthetic appeal of the object being designed.
 Advanced surface modelers go beyond representation and to some extent can be used for property
calculations as well. The surface model can be used for generating NC tool paths for continuous
path machining, making it an ideal mode for integrating CAD / CAM. A surface modeler can be
considered as an extension of a wire frame.
 A wire frame model can be easily extracted from a surface model. It should be remembered that
surface models only store the geometry of their corresponding objects and not the topology of
these objects. To generate a surface model, a user typically starts with a wire frame model and
then connects them with the desired surfaces.
 Once the product has been surface modeled, its geometry may be used directly in the design of the
mould or die which is to be made. Essential calculations can usually be performed automatically
by the computer such as for example the determination of the volume enclosed by a mould. This
gives an immediate idea of the volume of raw material needed to make the product.
Kinds of Surfaces
Fig.2.21 – Effect of Mesh Size on Object Visualization
 To create a surface, data related to the desired shape is required. The choice of the surface is
dependent on the application. In order to visualize surfaces, a mesh of m x n in size is displayed.
The mesh size is controllable and is in the form of criss-cross on the surface. The mesh size plays
an important role in proper visualization as can be seen in the objects shown in Fig.2.21. However,
it should be noted that finer the mesh size of surface entities, longer is the time required by the
software to construct and modify the entities.
 A system may need two boundaries to create a ruled surface or might require one entity to create
a surface of revolution. Surfaces provided by CAD / CAM software are either analytical or synthetic.
The following are descriptions of major surface entities provided by CAD/CAM systems:
1. Plane Surface: This is the simplest surface. It requires three noncoincident points to define an
infinite plane. The plane surface can be used to generate cross-sectional views by intersecting a
surface model with it, generate cross sections for mass property calculations, or other similar
applications where a plane is needed. Fig.2.22 shows a plane surface.
Fig.2.22 – Plane Surface
2. Ruled (lofted) Surface: This is a linear surface. It interpolates linearly between two boundary
curves that define the surface (rails). Rails can be any wireframe entity. This entity is ideal to
represent surfaces that do not have any twists or kinks. Fig.2.23 gives some examples.
Fig.2.23 – Ruled Surface

3. Surface of Revolution: This is an axisymmetric surface that can model axisymmetric objects. It is
generated by rotating a planar wireframe entity in space about the axis of symmetry a certain angle
(Fig.2.24).
Fig.2.24 – Surface of Revolution
4. Tabulated Cylinder: This is a surface generated by translating a planar curve a certain distance
along a specified direction (axis of the cylinder) as shown in Fig.2.25. The plane of the curve is
perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. It is used to generate surfaces that have identical curved
cross sections. The word "tabulated" is borrowed from the APT language terminology.
Fig.2.25 – Tabulated Cylinder
5. Bezier surface: This is a surface that approximates given input data. It is different from the
previous surfaces in that it is a synthetic surface. Similarly to the Bezier curve, it does not pass
through all given data points. It is a general surface that permits twists and kinks ( Fig.2.26). The
Bezier surface allows only global control of the surface.

Fig.2.26 – Bezier Surface
6. B-spline surface: This is a surface that can approximate or interpolate given input data ( Fig.2.27).
It is a synthetic surface. It is a general surface like the Bezier surface but with the advantage of
permitting local control of the surface.
Fig.2.27 – B-spline Surface
7. Coons Patch: The above surfaces are used with either open boundaries or given data points. The
Coons patch is used to create a surface using curves that form closed boundaries ( Fig.2.28).
Fig.2.28 – Coons Patch

8. Fillet surface: This is a B-spline surface that blends two surfaces together ( Fig.2.29). The two
original surfaces may or may not be trimmed.
Fig.2.29 – Fillet Surface
9. Offset surface: Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones identical in shape but may have
different dimensions. It is a useful surface to use to speed up surface construction. For example,
to create a hollow cylinder, the outer or inner cylinder can be created using a cylinder command
and the other one can be created by an offset command. Offset surface command becomes very
efficient to use if the original surface is a composite one. Fig.2.30 shows an offset surface.
Fig.2.30 – Offset Surface
2.7 References

Contents
3.1 Wire Frame Modeling ........................................................................................................................ 3.2

3.2 Solid Modeling ................................................................................................................................... 3.2
3.3 Geometry and Topology ................................................................................................................... 3.3
3.4 Properties of Solid Model ................................................................................................................. 3.4
3.5 Properties of Representation Scheme ............................................................................................. 3.5
3.6 Half Spaces...................................................................................................................................... 3.15
3.7 References ....................................................................................................................................... 3.16
3.1 Wire Frame Modeling
 A geometric model of an object is created by using the two-dimensional geometric entities such
as: points, lines, curves, circles etc.
 Very often, designers build physical models to help in the visualization of a design. This may require
the construction of skeleton model using wires to represent the edges of an object or component.
 Wire frame modeling is used in computer aided engineering techniques and also to facilitate the
production of various projected views to aid visualization.
 The model appears like a frame constructed out of wire hence it is called as WIRE FRAME model.
 It is simple to construct.
 It requires less computer memory for storage compare to other types of geometric models.
 The time required to retrieve, edit or update is less for wire-frame models compare to other types
of geometric models.
 It is more ambiguous to interpret the wire-frame model (see Fig.3.1).
Fig.3.1 – Ambiguity in Wire frame Model
 Calculation of the properties, such as mass, volume, moment of inertia etc., is not possible.
 It is difficult and time consuming to generate wire-frame model for complicated objects.
 It requires more input data compare to others as it requires co-ordinates of each node and their
connectivity.
3.2 Solid Modeling

 To eliminate all kinds of ambiguities in representation and manipulations of the objects, the solid
modeler was developed. Out of the various approaches developed, one of them was an approach
to the design of mechanical parts by treating them as combinations of simple building blocks like
cylinders and cuboids.

Unit-3 Mathematical Representation of Solids
 Such solid modelers or volume modelers can hold complete unambiguous representations of the
geometry of a wide range of solid objects. The completeness of the information contained in a
solid model allows the automatic production of realistic images of a shape and automation of the
process of interference checking.
 Furthermore, interfaces can interrogate the model and extract lot of useful data. The model can
also serve as a means of geometric input for finite element analysis or even manufacturing tasks
such as the generation of instructions for numerically controlled machining.
 Solid modelers store more information (geometry and topology) than wireframe or surface
modelers (geometry only). Both wireframe and surface models are incapable of handling spatial
addressability as well as verifying that the model is well formed, the latter meaning that these
models cannot verify whether two objects occupy the same space.
 Surface models provide a precise definition of surfaces and can handle complex geometries, they
are slow to render, are computationally intensive and do not further CAD/CAM automation and
integration goals. A shaded surface model is by no means considered a solid model.
 On the other hand, solid modeling produces accurate designs, provides complete three-
dimensional definition, improves the quality of design, improves visualization and has potential for
functional automation and integration.
 However solid modeling has some limitations. For example, it cannot automatically create other
models from the solid definition and neither can it automatically use data created in other models
to create a solid. In addition, solid modeling has not been proven for large-scale production
applications.
 Other limitations such as slow rendering and computations as well as poor user interface are
fading away with the rapid enhancement of both hardware and software.
3.3 Geometry and Topology
Fig.3.2 – Difference between Geometry and Topology of an Object

 The difference between geometry and topology is illustrated in Fig.3.2. Geometry (sometimes
called metric information) is the actual dimensions that define the entities of the object.
 The geometry that defines the object shown in Fig.3.2 is the lengths of lines L1, L2 and L3, angles
between the lines and the radius R and the center P 1 of the half-circle.
 Topology (sometimes called combinatorial structure), on the other hand, is the connectivity and
associativity of the object entities.
 It has to do with the notion of neighborhood; that is, it determines the relational information
between object entities.
 The topology of the object shown in Fig.3.2(b) can be stated as follows: L1 shares a vertex (point)
with L2 and C1, L2 shares a vertex with L1 and L3, L3 shares a vertex with L2 and C1, L1 and L3 do not
overlap and P1 lies outside the object. Based on these definitions, neither geometry nor topology
alone can completely model objects.
 Wireframe and surface models deal only with geometrical information of objects and are therefore
considered incomplete and ambiguous. From a user point of view, geometry is visible and topology
is considered to be nongraphical relational information that is stored in solid model databases and
are not visible to users.
3.4 Properties of Solid Model
Fig.3.3
 The properties that a solid model or an abstract solid should capture mathematically can be stated
as follows:
1. Rigidity This implies that the shape of a solid model is invariant and does not depend on
the model location or orientation in space.
2. Homogeneous three-dimensionality Solid boundaries must be in contact with the interior.
No isolated or dangling boundaries (see Fig.3.3) should be permitted.
3. Finiteness and finite describability The former property means that the size of the solid is
not infinite while the latter ensures that a limited amount of information can describe the

solid. The latter property is needed in order to be able to store solid models into computers
whose storage space is always limited. It should be noted that the former property does
not include the latter and vice versa. For example, a cylinder which may have a finite radius
and length may be described by an infinite number of planar faces.
4. Closure under rigid motion and regularized boolean operations This property ensures that
manipulation of solids by moving them in space or changing them via boolean operations
must produce other valid solids.
5. Boundary determinism The boundary of a solid must contain the solid and hence must
determine distinctively the interior of the solid.
3.5 Properties of Representation Scheme

The formal properties of representation schemes which determine their usefulness in geometric
modeling can be stated as follows:
(1) Domain: The domain of a representation scheme is the class of objects that the scheme can
represent or it is the geometric coverage of the scheme.
(2) Validity: The validity of a representation scheme is determined by its range, that is, the set of valid
representations or models it can produce. If a scheme produces an invalid model, the CAD/CAM
system in use may crash or the model database may be lost or corrupted if an algorithm is invoked
on the model database. Validity checks can be achieved in three ways: test the resulting databases
via a given algorithm, build checks into the scheme generator itself, or design scheme elements
(such as primitives) that can be manipulated via a given syntax.
(3) Completeness or Unambiguousness: This property determines the ability of the scheme to support
analysis and other engineering applications. A complete scheme must provide models with
sufficient data for any geometric calculation to be performed on them.
(4) Uniqueness This property is useful to determine object equality. It is a custom in algebra to check
for uniqueness but it is rare to do so in geometry. This is because it is difficult to develop algorithms
to detect the equivalence of two objects and it is computationally expensive to implement these
algorithms if they exist. Positional and permutational nonuniqueness are two simple cases shown
in Fig.3.4. Fig.3.4(a) shows a two dimensional rectangular solid (of side lengths a and b) in two
different positions and orientations. The two-dimensional solid S shown in Fig.3.4(b) is divided into
three blocks A, B and C that can be unioned in a different order.
Fig.3.4

The informal properties of representation schemes for solid models
The primary considerations for storing the model in a computer are:
i. Conciseness (i.e. how much computer memory is occupied by the model of a shape).
ii. Efficiency (i.e. how much computer time is used in creating, interrogating or modifying the model
of a shape.
 In general, there is a trade-off between the usage of memory and usage of time. For example, if we
use up storage for 'remembering' the properties of a shape, then we do not need to spend a lot of
time recalculating these properties every time one needs the information.
 Representation schemes where the elements of a shape are explicitly held in the model are termed
as evaluated representations. Conversely, those where the elements must be calculated from
implicit instructions for construction of the shape are known as unevaluated representations.
 Depending on the application, either of the above approaches can be used. Representation of solid
in a computer can be divided into 6 general classes as follows:
1. Pure Primitive Instancing
 This technique is used to define numerous families of objects, each defined parametrically
as shown in Fig.3.5. A particular solid is specified completely by giving the family to which
it belongs, together with a limited set of parameter values. However, such systems can only
define a restricted range of objects which have been predefined in the system.
Pin parameters (D, T, and L)

Fig.3.5 – Pure Primitive Instancing
2. Generalized Sweeps
 A solid is defined in terms of volumes swept out by 2D or 3D lamina as they move along a
curve. Some of the typical objects generated by this method are shown in Fig.3.6.
(a) Translational Sweep

(b) Translational Sweep over Path
(c) Rotational Sweep

Fig.3.6 – Generalised Sweep
3. Spatial Occupancy Enumeration

 Under this technique 3D objects are divided up into cubical cells at a particular resolution
and objects are modeled by listing the cells that they occupy as shown in Fig.3.7 (a) to (c).
 Smaller the size of the cube, more accurate would be the representation. This
representation scheme requires large amounts of storage for reasonable resolution and
thus has not been favored in practical systems.
 However, this problem has been reduced in a development of a scheme known as Octree
decomposition [Refer Fig.3.7 (d) & (e)]. In this scheme only those cells that are occupied at
each level are stored and sub-division is only necessary for partially occupied cells.
(a) First Level (b) Second Level

(c) Third Level (d) Fourth Level (e) Fifth Level
Fig.3.7 – Spatial Occupancy Enumeration and Octree Decomposition
4. Cellular Decomposition
 An object is represented in this scheme by a list of cells it occupies, but the cells are not
necessarily cubes, nor are they necessarily identical (see Fig.3.8).
Fig.3.8 – Cellular Decomposition (9 Cell Decomposition)
5. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG or C-rep)

 This method is also called as the Building Block Approach. The CSG system allows the user
to build the model out of solid graphic primitives, such as rectangular blocks, spheres,
cylinders, cones, wedges and torus. These shapes and the mathematical representation of
these blocks are shown below in Fig.3.9.
 This is one of the most popular method of representing and building complex solids. ACSG
model is based on the principle that any physical object can be divided into a set of bounded
primitives which can be combined in a certain manner to form the physical object.

Fig.3.9 – Solid Primitives
 Structuring and combining the primitives of the solid model in the graphics database, is
achieved by the use of Boolean operations. Consider two solids A and B, sharing a common
volume of space as shown in Fig.3.10 (a). The Boolean operations that can be performed
on them and the resultant solid are shown in Fig.3.10 (b) to (d).
Fig.3.10 – Boolean Operations
 CSG method has a procedural advantage in the initial formulation of the model. It is
relatively easy to construct a precise solid model out of regular solid primitives by adding,
subtracting and intersecting the components. CSG uses the unevaluated representation
format which results in compact file of the model in the database. However, this results in
more computations to evaluate the model.
 The data representation of CSG objects is represented by a binary tree. The binary tree gives
the complete information of how individual primitives are combined to represent the object.
The number of primitives thus decides the number of Boolean operations required to
construct the binary tree.
 The balanced distribution of the tree is desired to achieve minimum computations while
modifying or interrogating a model. A balanced tree can be defined as a tree whose left and
right subtrees have almost an equal number of nodes.
 The creation of balanced or an unbalanced tree is solely dependent on the user and is
related to how the primitives are combined. Ideally the model should be built from an almost
central position and branch out in two opposite directions.
 For example, while doing a union operation, it is preferred to combine all the unions
together, rather than achieving unions of objects two at a time. A balanced and an
unbalanced method of building the same object is shown in Fig.3.11.
(a) Unbalanced Tree
(b) Balanced Tree

Fig.3.11 – CSG Tree
 The CSG tree is organized upside down, with the root representing the composite object at
the top and primitives called as leaves at the bottom.
6. Boundary Representation (B-rep)
 The boundary representation approach or B-rep is a popular method of solid representation.
It can be considered as an extension of the wire frame model with additional face
information added.
 In a B-rep, the solid is considered to be bounded by its surface and has its interior and
exterior. The surface consists of a set of well organized faces. The two important areas for
B-rep models are the topological and geometrical information.
 Topological information provides the relationship about vertices, edges and faces similar
to that used in a wire frame model. In addition to connectivity, topological information also
includes orientation of edges and faces. Geometric information is usually in terms of
equations of the edges and the faces.
 In a B-rep model, the information related to the orientation of the face is important.
Generally external vertices of the face are numbered in anti-clockwise fashion. The normal
vector of the face as determined by the right hand rule must point to the exterior of the
surface.
 Consider the three faces as shown in Fig.3.12. One of the methods to describe the top face
would be 4-3-5-6. On similar lines the other two faces could be described as 1-2-3-4 and 1-
4-6-3.
Fig.3.12 – Orientation of External Face
 However, not all surfaces can be oriented in this way. If the surface of the solid can be
oriented, it is called orientable; otherwise it is non-orientable.
 The CSG and the B-rep information of the same solid are shown in Fig.3.13. The CSG model
is achieved by the union of the two primitives whereas the facial information for B-rep is as
shown.
 It is seen that B-rep systems store only the bounding surfaces of the solid, however it is still
possible to compute geometrical and mass properties by virtue of numerical methods such
as Gauss Divergence Theorem, which relates volume integrals to surface ones. The speed
and accuracy of computations vary as per the kind of surfaces used.

 B-rep systems are extremely useful when unusual shapes are encountered, which would
not be possible with CSG. This kind of situation occurs in aircraft fuselage, wing shapes
and in automobile body styling. Such shapes would be extremely difficult to build by CSG.
 In B-rep models, the solid is represented as an evaluated data structure. This requires more
storage space but does not demand nearly the same computation as would be required for
CSG to reconstruct the image. This makes it more efficient.
(a) CSG Information (b) B-rep Information

Fig.3.13 – Comparison of CSG and B-rep Information
 Another advantage of B-rep is that, it is relatively simple to convert back and forth between
a boundary representation and a corresponding wire-frame model. The reason is that the
model’s boundary definition is similar to the wire-frame definition which facilitates
conversion of one form to another.
Table 3.1 - Comparison of C-rep and B-rep
C-rep B-rep
It does not store only the bounding surfaces of the It stores only the bounding surfaces of the solid.
solid.
It is easy to create precise solid model using standard It does not use standard primitives.
primitives.
It is difficult to create unusual shapes. It is easy to create unusual shapes.
Less storage space. More storage space.
More computation time required. Less computation time required.
It is relatively difficult to convert back and forth It is relatively simple to convert back and forth
between a C-rep and a corresponding wire-frame between a boundary representation and a
model. corresponding wire-frame model.

7. Skinning or Lofting
 This method is uses a number of two dimensional profiles for generating a three
dimensional object. The two dimensional profiles are arranged as desired and a three
dimensional space curve is made to pass through these profiles.
 A skinning operation is then done for generating a solid. A typical example is shown in
Fig.3.14. This method is useful in modeling turbine blades, aerofoil shapes, manifolds,
volute chambers and other such surfaces.
Fig.3.14 – Skinning
8. Miscellaneous Modeling Techniques:

 A complete modeler should have certain additional features which would simplify the
modeling procedures. A few of them are described below:
(a) Tweaking :
 A model can be created by using a combination of methods as described previously. The
ability available to the user to modify or move a vertex or a face and to see the effect of that
on the model is referred to as tweaking. This feature is useful in styling automobile bodies
and other consumer products.
(b) Filleting :
 Most engineering and consumer components are provided with smooth edges or generous
fillets. This not only improves the stress distribution, but also prevents injury while handling
them.
 If filleting procedure is done through CSG method, it would require a lot of data input for
achieving it. Instead direct procedures which allow the user to input the properties of a fillet
are necessary. This would result in a quick filleting operation, without a large database.
 A typical filleting operation in wire frame and rendered modes are shown in Fig.3.15.

 Each of the solid modeling representation discussed above has its advantages and
disadvantages. The CSG and B-rep approaches are widely used in major CAD softwares.
 In a single representation modeler, the representation is usually B-rep, with certain
commands such as sweep and a few CSG like inputs are accepted. However, the storing of
data is in B-rep format only.
 As compared to this, a dual representation modeler has a primary representation scheme
as CSG. (e. g. PADL-2). Here the modeler has both B-rep and CSG representations. However,
in this case, B-rep is derived internally and the user has no control over it.
 In a truly hybrid modeler there are two independent internal representations of CSG and B-
rep. With these systems, the users have the capability to construct the geometric model by
either approach (CSG or B-rep), whichever is more appropriate to the particular problem.
Fig.3.15 – Filleting Operation

3.6 Half Spaces
 Half-spaces form a basic representation scheme for bounded solids. By combining half-spaces
(using set operations) in a building block fashion, various solids can be constructed. Half-spaces
are usually unbounded geometric entities; each one of them divides the representation space into
two infinite portions, one filled with material and the other empty. Surfaces can be considered half-
space boundaries and half-spaces can be considered directed surfaces.
 A half-space is defined as a regular point set in three dimensional coordinate system (E3) as
follows:
H = {P: P Є E3 and f(P) < 0}
 where P is a point in E3 and f(P) = 0 defines the surface equation of the half-space boundaries.
Half-spaces can be combined together using set operations to create complex objects.
 The most used half spaces are:
 Planar half-space: H={(x, y, z): z < 0}
 Cylindrical half-space: H={x, y, z): x2 + y2 < R2}
 Spherical half-space: H = {(x, y, z): x2 + y2 + z2 < R2}
 Conical half-space: H = {(x, y, z): x2 + y2 < [(tan /2)z]2]}
 Toroidal half-space: H = {(x, y, z): (x2 + y2 + z2 – R22 – R12)2 < 4 R22(R12– z2)}
Fig.3.16

3.7 References

Contents
4.1 Geometric Transformations ............................................................................................................. 4.2

4.2 Homogeneous Representation ........................................................................................................ 4.5
4.3 Shearing ............................................................................................................................................. 4.8
4.4 Projections of Geometric Models .................................................................................................. 4.10
4.5 Window to View-port transformation............................................................................................. 4.13
4.6 References ....................................................................................................................................... 4.20
4.1 Geometric Transformations
• All changes performed on the graphic image are done by changing the database of the original
picture. These changes are called as transformations.
• Transformations allow the user to uniformly change the entire picture. An object created by the
user is stored in the form of a database. If the database, which represents the object, is changed,
the object also would change. This method is used to alter the orientation, scale, position of the
drawing.
• In general, geometric transformations can be defined as the change done to the database by
performing certain mathematical operations on it, so as to produce the desired change in the
image.
4.1.1 Translation
Fig.4.1 – Translation
• When every entity of a geometric model remains parallel to its initial position, the transformation
is called as translation.
• Translating a model therefore implies that every point on it moves by an equal given distance in a
given direction. A translation involves moving of an element from one location to another.
𝑃⋆ = [𝑥 ⋆ + 𝑦 ⋆ ]
𝑥 ⋆ = 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 ⋆ = 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦
𝑥⋆
[𝑃⋆ ] = [ ]
𝑦⋆
𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
=[ ]
𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= [𝑦] + [ ]
𝑑𝑦

Unit-4 Geometric Transformations
4.1.2 Scaling
• Scaling transformation alters the size of an object. Scaling can be uniform (i.e. equal in both X and
Y directions) or non-uniform (i.e. different in X and Y directions).
• To achieve scaling, the original coordinates would be multiplied by scaling factor.
Fig.4.2 – Scaling
𝑃 ⋆ = [𝑥 ⋆ , 𝑦 ⋆ ]
= [𝑆𝑥 × 𝑥, 𝑆𝑦 × 𝑦]
• This equation can also be represented in a matrix form as follow:

𝑆𝑥 0 𝑥
[𝑃⋆ ] = [
0 𝑆𝑦 ] [𝑦]
= [𝑇𝑆 ][𝑃]
𝑆𝑥 0
Where scalling transformation, [𝑇𝑆 ] = [ 0 𝑆𝑦 ]
4.1.3 Reflection or Mirror

• Reflection is the process of obtaining a mirror of the original shape.
• This is an important transformation and is used quite often as many engineered products are
symmetrical.
• The following transformation matrices as shown in Fig.4.3 when multiplied to the original point
produce a Reflection or Mirror.
• Thus, in general,
P'  PM

Fig.4.3 – Reflection
4.1.4 Rotation
• Rotation is an important transformation and allows the user to view the objects from different
angles.
• It can also be used to create entities arranged in circular arrays, by creating the entity once and
then rotating / copying it to the desired positions on the circumference. This would allow the user
to create an array of objects.

Fig.4.4 – Rotation
• Let point P (x, y) be rotated by an angle θ about the origin O.

𝑃 = [𝑥 𝑦] = [𝑟 cos ∅ 𝑟 sin ∅]
• Let the rotated point be represented as :
𝑃′ = [𝑥′ 𝑦′] = [𝑟 cos(𝜃 + ∅) 𝑟 sin(𝜃 + ∅)]
𝑃′ = [𝑟 (cos 𝜃 cos ∅ − sin 𝜃 sin ∅) 𝑟(sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + cos 𝜃 sin ∅)]
𝑃′ = [(𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑦 sin 𝜃) (𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃)]
• This can be expressed as:
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑃′ = [𝑥 𝑦] [ ]
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4.2 Homogeneous Representation

• Many a times it becomes necessary to combine the above mentioned individual transformations
in order to achieve the required results. In such cases the combined transformation matrix can be
obtained by multiplying the respective transformation matrices.
• However, care should to be taken that the order of the matrix multiplication be done in the same
way as that of the transformations as follows.
[𝑃⋆ ] = [𝑇𝑛 ][𝑇𝑛−1 ][𝑇𝑛−2 ] … . . [𝑇3 ][𝑇2 ][𝑇1 ] Eq. (4.1)
• In Eq. (4.1) all the transformation matrices should be multiplicative type.

• The following form should be used to convert the translation into a multiplication form.
𝑃⋆ = [𝑥 ⋆ 𝑦⋆ 1]
1 0 0
=[0 1 0] [𝑥 𝑦 1]
𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑌 1

• Hence the translation matrix in multiplication form can be given as
1 0 0
[𝑀𝑇 ] = [ 0 1 0]
𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑌 1
• This is termed as homogeneous representation. In homogeneous representation, an n-dimensional
space is mapped into (n+1) dimensional space. Thus a 2 dimensional point [x y] is represented by
3 dimensions as [x y 1]. Homogeneous representation can be experienced in the following
situations.
4.2.1 Rotation about an arbitrary Point

• The transformation given earlier for rotation is about the origin of the axes system. It may
sometimes be necessary to get the rotation about any arbitrary base point as shown in Fig.4.5. To
derive the necessary transformation matrix, the following complex procedure comprising the
following three points would be required.
(i) Translate the point A to O, the origin of the axes system.
(ii) Rotate the object by the given angle.
(iii) Translate the point back to its original position.
• The transformation matrices for the above operations in the given sequence are the following.
Fig.4.5 – Rotation about an arbitrary Point
1 0 0
[𝑇1 ] = [ 0 1 0]
𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑌 1
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 0
[𝑇2 ] = [− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0]
0 0 1
1 0 0
[𝑇3 ] = [ 0 1 0]
−𝑑𝑋 −𝑑𝑌 1
• The required transformation matrix is given by
[T] = [T3] [T2] [T1]
1 0 0 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 0 1 0 0
[𝑇] = [ 0 1 0] [− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0] [ 0 1 0]
−𝑑𝑋 −𝑑𝑌 1 0 0 1 𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑌 1
4.2.2 Reflection about an arbitrary line
• Similar to the above, there are times when the reflection is to be taken about an arbitrary line as
shown in Fig.4.6.
1. Translate the mirror line along Y axis such that line passes through the origin, O.
2. Rotate the mirror line such that it coincides with the X axis.
3. Mirror the object through the X axis.
4. Rotate the mirror line back to the original angle with X axis.
5. Translate the mirror line along the Y axis back to the original position.
Following are the transformation matrices for the above operations in the given sequence.
Fig.4.6 – Reflection Transformation about on arbitrary Line
1 0 0
[𝑇1 ] = [0 1 0]
0 𝐶 1
cos 𝜃 −sin 𝜃 0
[𝑇2 ] = [ sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0]
0 0 1
1 0 0
[𝑇3 ] = [0 −1 0]
0 0 1
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 0
[𝑇4 ] = [− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0]
0 0 1
1 0 0
[𝑇5 ] = [0 1 0]
0 −𝐶 1
• The required transformation matrix is given by
[T] = [T5] [T4] [T3] [T2] [T1]
1 0 0 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 0 1 0 0 cos 𝜃 −sin 𝜃 0 1 0 0
[𝑇] = [0 1 0] [− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0] [0 −1 0] [ sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0] [0 1 0]
0 −𝐶 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 𝐶 1

4.3 Shearing
• A transformation that distorts the shape of an object such that the transformed shape appears as
if the object were composed of internal layers that had been caused to slide over each other is
called a shear.
4.3.1 2D Shearing
• Two common shearing transformations are those that shift coordinate x values and those that
shift y values.
• An x-direction shear relative to the x axis is produced with the transformation matrix
1 𝑆ℎ𝑥 0 Eq. (4.2)
[0 1 0]
0 0 1
• which transforms coordinate positions as
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 + 𝑆ℎ𝑥 . 𝑦 𝑦′ = 𝑦 Eq. (4.3)
• Any real number can be assigned to the shear parameter shx. A coordinate position (x, y) is then
shifted horizontally by an amount proportional to its distance (y value) from the x axis (y = 0).
• Setting shx to 2, for example, changes the square in Fig.4.7 into a parallelogram. Negative values
for shx shift coordinate positions to the left.
Fig.4.7 – A unit square (a) is converted to a parallelogram (b) using the x direction shear matrix Eq.
(4.2) with shx = 2.
• We can generate x-direction shears relative to other reference lines with

1 𝑆ℎ𝑥 −𝑆ℎ𝑥 . 𝑦𝑟𝑒𝑓 Eq. (4.4)
[0 1 0 ]
0 0 1
• with coordinate positions transformed as
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 + 𝑆ℎ𝑥 (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) 𝑦′ = 𝑦 Eq. (4.5)
• An example of this shearing transformation is given in Fig.4.8 for a shear parameter value of 1/2
relative to the line yref = –1.

Fig.4.8 – A unit square (a) is transformed to a shifted parallelogram (b) with shx = 1/2 and yref = –1 in
the shear matrix Eq. (4.4).
• A y-direction shear relative to line x = xref is generated with transformation matrix

1 0 0 Eq. (4.6)
[𝑆ℎ𝑦 1 −𝑆ℎ𝑦 . 𝑥𝑟𝑒𝑓 ]
0 0 1
• which generates transformed coordinate positions
𝑥′ = 𝑥 𝑦′ = 𝑦 + 𝑆ℎ𝑦 (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) Eq. (4.7)
Fig.4.9 – A unit square (a) is turned into a shifted parallelogram (b) with parameter values shy = 1/2
and xref = –1 in the y direction using shearing transformation Eq. (4.6).
• This transformation shifts a coordinate position vertically by an amount proportional to its distance
from the reference line x = xref. Fig.4.9 illustrates the conversion of a square into a parallelogram
with shy = 1/2 and xref = –1.
• Shearing operations can be expressed as sequences of basic transformations. The x-direction
shear matrix Eq. (4.2), for example, can be written as a composite transformation involving a series
of rotation and scaling matrices that would scale the unit square of Fig.4.9 along its diagonal, while
maintaining the original lengths and orientations of edges parallel to the x axis.
• Shifts in the positions of objects relative to shearing reference lines are equivalent to translations.
4.3.2 3D Shearing
• In two dimensions, transformations relative to the x or y axes to produce distortions in the shapes
of objects. In three dimensions, we can also generate shears relative to the z axis.
Fig.4.10
• As an example of three-dimensional shearing, the following transformation produces a z-axis

shear:
1 0 0 0
[𝑆𝐻𝑍 ] = [0 1 0 0
]
𝑎 𝑏 1 0
0 0 0 1
• Parameters a and b can be assigned any real values. The effect of this transformation matrix is to
alter x- and y-coordinate values by an amount that is proportional to the z value, while leaving the
z coordinate unchanged.
• Boundaries of planes that are perpendicular to the z axis are thus shifted by an amount proportional
to z. An example of the effect of this shearing matrix on a unit cube is shown in Fig.4.10, for shearing
values a=b=1. Shearing matrices for the x axis and y axis are defined similarly.
4.4 Projections of Geometric Models

• Databases of geometric models can only be viewed and examined if they can be displayed in
various views on a display device or screen. Viewing a three dimensional model is a rather complex
process due to the fact that display devices can only display graphics on two-dimensional screens.
• This mismatch between three-dimensional models and two-dimensional screens can be resolved
by utilizing projections that transform three-dimensional models onto a two-dimensional
projection plane. Various views of a model can be generated using various projection planes.
• To define a projection, a center of projection and a projection plane must be defined as shown in
Fig.4.11. To obtain the projection of an entity (a line connecting points P 1 and P2 in the figure),
projection rays (called projectors) are constructed by connecting the center of projection with each
point of the entity.

Fig.4.11 – Projection Definition
• The intersections of these projectors with the projection plane define the projected points which
are connected to produce the projected entity. There are two different types of projections based
on the location of the center of projection relative to the projection plane.
• If the center is at a finite distance from the plane, perspective projection results and all the
projectors meet at the center. If, on the other hand, the center is at an infinite distance, all the
projectors become parallel (meet at infinity) and parallel projection results. Perspective projection
is usually a part of perspective, or projective, geometry.
• Such geometry does not preserve parallelism, that is, no two lines are parallel. Parallel projection
is a part of affine geometry which is identical to Euclidean geometry. In affine geometry, parallelism
is an important concept and therefore is preserved.
4.4.1 Perspective projection

• Perspective projection creates an artistic effect that adds some realism to perspective views. As
can be seen from Fig.4.11(a), the size of an entity is inversely proportional to its distance from the
center of projection; that is, the closer the entity to the center, the larger its size is.
• Perspective views are not popular among engineers and draftsmen because actual dimensions
and angles of objects and therefore shapes, cannot be preserved, which implies that
measurements cannot be taken from perspective views directly. In addition, perspective projection
does not preserve parallelism.
• In order to define perspective projection, a centre of projection and a projection plane are required.
The centre of projection is placed along the z-axis and the image is projected onto z = 0 or xy plane.
• The transformation of perspective projection is given by:
P* = Po P
where
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
𝑃𝑂 = [ ]
𝑎 𝑏 0 0
0 0 −1/𝑑 1
P is the given point.
P* is the reflected point.
d is the distance between the centre of projection to the projection plane.

4.4.2 Orthographic Projection
• Unlike perspective projection, parallel projection preserves actual dimensions and shapes of
objects. It also preserves parallelism. Angles are preserved only on faces of the object which are
parallel to the projection plane.
• There are two types of parallel projections based on the relation between the direction of projection
and the projection plane. If this direction is normal to the projection plane, orthographic projection
and views result.
• The orthographic projection system is to include a total of six projecting planes in any direction
required for complete description.
• A typical example is shown in Fig.4.12 where the object is enclosed in a box such that there are 6
mutually perpendicular projecting planes on which all possible 6 views of the object can be
projected.
• This would help in obtaining all the details of the object as shown in Fig.4.13. The visible lines are
shown with the help of continuous lines while those that are not visible are shown by means of
broken lines.
Fig.4.12 – An object Enclosed in a Cube for Obtaining Various Parallel Projections
• Obtaining the orthographic projections is relatively straight forward because of the parallel
projections involved. The top view can be obtained by setting z = 0. The transformation matrix will
then be
1 0 0 0
[𝑀𝑇𝑂𝑃 ] = [0 1 0 0
]
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
• For obtaining the front view, y = 0 and then the resulting coordinates (x, z) will be rotated by 90 0
such that the Z axis coincides with the Y axis. The transformation matrix will then be
1 0 0 0
[𝑀𝐹𝑅𝑂𝑁𝑇 ] = [0 0 −1 0
]
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1

Fig.4.13 – Orthographic Projection of an Object.
• Similarly for obtaining the right side view, x = 0 and then the coordinate system is rotated such that
Y axis coincides with the X axis and the Z axis coincides with the Y axis. The transformation matrix
will then be
0 0 −1 0
[𝑀𝑅𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇 ] = [0 1 0 0
]
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
4.5 Window to View-port transformation

• A world-coordinate area selected for display is called a window. An area on a display device to
which a window is mapped is called a viewport. The window defines what is to be viewed; the
viewport defines where it is to be displayed.
• Often, windows and viewports are rectangles in standard position, with the rectangle edges parallel
to the coordinate axes. Other window or viewport geometries, such as general polygon shapes and
circles, are used in some applications, but these shapes take longer to process.
Fig.4.14 – A viewing transformation using standard rectangles for the window and viewport

• In general, the mapping of a part of a world-coordinate scene to device coordinates is referred to
as a viewing transformation. Sometimes the two-dimensional viewing transformation is simply
referred to as the window-to-viewport transformation or the windowing transformation.
• Fig.4.14 illustrates the mapping of a picture section that falls within a rectangular window onto a
designated rectangular viewport.
• Fig.4.15 illustrates the window-to-viewport mapping. A point at position (xw, yw) in the window is
mapped into position (xv,yv) in the associated viewport. To maintain the same relative placement
in the viewport as in the window, we require that
𝑥𝑣 − 𝑥𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑤 − 𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛
=
𝑥𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑦𝑣 − 𝑦𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑤 − 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛 Eq. (4.8)
=
𝑦𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛
• Solving these expressions for the viewport position (xv, yv), we have
𝑥𝑣 = 𝑥𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 + (𝑥𝑤 − 𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛 )𝑠𝑥 Eq. (4.9)

𝑦𝑣 = 𝑦𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 + (𝑦𝑤 − 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛 )𝑠𝑦
• Where the scaling factors are
𝑥𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 Eq. (4.10)
𝑠𝑥 =
𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑦𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑦 =
𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Eq. (4.9) can also be derived with a set of transformations that converts the window area into the
viewport area. This conversion is performed with the following sequence of transformations:
1. Perform a scaling transformation using a fixed-point position of (xwmin, ywmin) that scales the
window area to the size of the viewport.
2. Translate the scaled window area to the position of the viewport.
Fig.4.15 – A point at position (xw, yw) in a designated window is mapped to viewport coordinates (xv,yv)
so that relative positions in the two areas are the same.

• Relative proportions of objects are maintained if the scaling factors are the same (sx = sy).
Otherwise, world objects will be stretched or contracted in either the x or y direction when displayed
on the output device.
• Character strings can be handled in two ways when they are mapped to a viewport. The simplest
mapping maintains a constant character size, even though the viewport area may be enlarged or
reduced relative to the window.
• This method would be employed when text is formed with standard character fonts that cannot be
changed. In systems that allow for changes in character size, string definitions can be windowed
the same as other primitives. For characters formed with line segments, the mapping to the
viewport can be carried out as a sequence of line transformations.
• From normalized coordinates, object descriptions are mapped to the various display devices. Any
number of output devices can be open in a particular application, and another window-to-viewport
transformation can be performed for each open output device.
• This mapping, called the workstation transformation, is accomplished by selecting a window area
in normalized space and a viewport area in the coordinates of the display device.
• With the workstation transformation, we gain some additional control over the positioning of a
scene on individual output devices. As illustrated in Fig.4.16, we can use workstation
transformations to partition a view so that different parts of normalized space can be displayed on
different output devices.
Fig.4.16 – Mapping selected parts of a scene in normalized coordinates to different video monitors with
workstation transformations.

A triangle ABC with vertices A (32, 22), B (88, 20) and C (32, 82) is to be scaled by a factor
of 0.6 about a point X (50, 42). Determine the co-ordinates of the vertices for the scaled
triangle.
Solution: Data given:
Sx = Sy = 0.6
Scaling about a point X (50, 42)
So, first translate the object to origin then scale the object and then translate back the scaled
object to the given point X (50, 42).
∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶. 𝑇. 𝑆. 𝑇 −1
32 22 1 1 0 0 0.6 0 0 1 0 0
∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = [88 20 1] [ 0 1 0] [ 0 0.6 0] [ 0 1 0]
32 82 1 −50 −42 1 0 0 1 50 42 1
32 22 1 1 0 0 0.6 0 0
∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = [88 20 1] [ 0 1 0] [ 0 0.6 0]
32 82 1 −50 −42 1 50 42 1
32 22 1 0.6 0 0
∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = [88 20 1] [ 0 0.6 0]
32 82 1 20 16.8 1
39.2 30 1
∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = [72.8 28.8 1]
39.2 66 1
Answer: New vertices are A’ (39.2, 30), B’ (72.8, 28.8) and C’ (39.2, 66).

Using transformation matrix, determine the new co-ordinates of triangle ABC with vertices
A (0, 0), B (3, 2) and C (2, 3) after it is rotated by 45° clockwise about origin.
Rotation about origin 45° clockwise
Hence, θ = –45°

∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶. 𝑅
0 0 1 𝐶𝑜𝑠(−45°) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(−45°) 0
∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = [3 2 1] [−𝑆𝑖𝑛(−45°) 𝐶𝑜𝑠(−45°) 0]
2 3 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0.707 −0.707 0
∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = [3 2 1] [0.707 0.707 0]
2 3 1 0 0 1
0 0 1
∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = [3.536 −0.707 1]
3.536 0.707 1
Answer: New vertices are A’ (0, 0), B’ (3.536, –0.707) and C’ (3.536, 0.707).

A rectangle ABCD has vertices A (1, 1), B (2, 1), C (2, 3) and D (1, 3). It has to be rotated by
30° counter clockwise about a point P (3, 2). Determine the new co-ordinates of the vertices
for the rectangle.
Rotation about a point 45° counter clockwise
Hence, θ = –45°
Rotation about a point P (3, 2), so, first translate the object to origin then rotate the object
and then translate back the rotated object to the given point P (3, 2).
∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶. 𝑇. 𝑅. 𝑇 −1
1 1 1
1 0 0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 30° 𝑆𝑖𝑛 30° 0 1 0 0
2 1 1
∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = [ ][ 0 1 0] [−𝑆𝑖𝑛 30 𝐶𝑜𝑠 30° 0] [0 1 0]
2 3 1
−3 −2 1 0 0 1 3 2 1
1 3 1
1 1 1
1 0 0 0.866 0.5 0 1 0 0
′ ′ ′ 2 1 1
∆𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 = [ ][ 0 1 0] [ −0.5 0.866 0] [0 1 0]
2 3 1
−3 −2 1 0 0 1 3 2 1
1 3 1
1 1 1
1 0 0 0.866 0.5 0
′ ′ ′ 2 1 1
∆𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 = [ ][ 0 1 0] [ −0.5 0.866 0]
2 3 1
−3 −2 1 3 2 1
1 3 1
1 1 1
0.866 0.5 0
′ ′ ′ 2 1 1
∆𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 = [ ] [ −0.5 0.866 0]
2 3 1
1.402 −1.232 1
1 3 1
1.768 0.134 1
2.634 0.634 1
∆𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ = [ ]
1.634 2.366 1
0.768 1.866 1
Answer: New vertices are A’ (1.768, 0.134), B’ (2.634, 0.634), C’ (1.634, 2.366) and D’ (0.768,
1.866).

A triangle PQR with vertices at P (0, 0), Q (4, 0) and R (2, 3) is given. Perform the following
operations for it.
(i) Translation through 4 and 2 units along X and Y direction respectively,
(ii) Rotation through 90° in counter clockwise direction about the new position of point
R.
Solution: (i) Translation by tx = 4 and ty = 2.
∆𝑃′ 𝑄′ 𝑅′ = ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅. 𝑇
0 0 1 1 0 0
∆𝑃′ 𝑄 ′ 𝑅′ = [4 0 1] [ 0 1 0]
2 3 1 4 2 1
4 2 1
∆𝑃′ 𝑄 ′ 𝑅′ = [8 2 1]
6 5 1
Answer: New vertices are P’ (4, 2), Q’ (8, 2) and R’ (6, 5).
(ii) Rotation about the new point R’ (6, 5) through 90° counter-clockwise.
Hence, θ = 90°
Rotation about a point R’ (6, 5), so, first translate the object to origin then rotate the object
and then translate back the rotated object to the given point R’ (6, 5).
∆𝑃′′ 𝑄 ′ ′𝑅′′ = ∆𝑃′𝑄′𝑅′. 𝑇. 𝑅. 𝑇 −1
4 2 1 1 0 0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 90° 𝑆𝑖𝑛 90° 0 1 0 0
∆𝑃′′ 𝑄 ′′ 𝑅′′ = [8 2 1] [ 0 1 0] [−𝑆𝑖𝑛 90 𝐶𝑜𝑠 90° 0] [ 0 1 0]
6 5 1 −6 −5 1 0 0 1 6 5 1
4 2 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
∆𝑃′′ 𝑄′′ 𝑅′′ = [8 2 1] [ 0 1 0] [−1 0 0] [0 1 0]
6 5 1 −6 −5 1 0 0 1 6 5 1
4 2 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
∆𝑃′′ 𝑄′′ 𝑅′′ = [8 2 1] [ 0 1 0] [−1 0 0]
6 5 1 −6 −5 1 6 5 1

4 2 1 0 1 0
∆𝑃′′ 𝑄′′ 𝑅′′ = [8 2 1] [−1 0 0]
6 5 1 11 −1 1
9 3 1
∆𝑃′′ 𝑄′′ 𝑅′′ = [9 7 1]
6 5 1
Answer: New vertices are P’’(9, 3), Q’’(9, 7) and R’’(6, 5).

Reflect the diamond shape polygon whose vertices are A (–2, 0), B (0, –1) C (2, 0) and
D (0, 1) about an arbitrary line L which is represented by equation y = 0.5 x + 1.
Reflect the polygon about line y = 0.5 x + 1
So, first translate the object to origin, and then rotate the object such that the line coincides with
x-axis, then reflect the polygon about x-axis, then rotate back and then translate back.
y = 0.5 x + 1
𝑚 = 0.5 = tan 𝜃
𝜃 = tan−1 0.5 = 26.565° (𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒)
𝜃 = −26.565°
Also, when x = 0, y = 1 and when y = 0, x = -2.
∴ 𝑡𝑥 = 2, 𝑡𝑦 = 0
𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶 ′ 𝐷 ′ = 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷. 𝑇. 𝑅. 𝑀. 𝑅 −1 𝑇 −1
−2 0 1 1 0 0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 0 1 0 0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (−𝜃) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (−𝜃) 0 1 0 0
0 −1 1 0 1 0] [−𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
=[ ][ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 0] [0 −1 0] [−𝑆𝑖𝑛 (−𝜃) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (−𝜃) 0] [ 0 1 0]
2 0 1 𝑡 𝑡𝑦 1
𝑥 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 𝑡𝑥 𝑡𝑦 1
0 1 1

−2 0 1
1 0 0 𝐶𝑜𝑠(−26.5) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(−26.5) 0 1 0 0 𝐶𝑜𝑠26.5 𝑆𝑖𝑛26.5 0 1 0 0
0 −1 1
=[ ] [0 1 0] [−𝑆𝑖𝑛(−26.5) 𝐶𝑜𝑠(−26.5) 0] [0 −1 0] [−𝑆𝑖𝑛26.5 𝐶𝑜𝑠26.5 0] [ 0 1 0]
2 0 1
2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 −2 0 1
0 1 1
−2 0 1
1 0 0 0.8944 −0.4472 0 1 0 0 0.8944 0.4472 0 1 0 0
0 −1 1
=[ ] [0 1 0] [0.4472 0.8944 0] [0 −1 0] [−0.4472 0.8944 0] [ 0 1 0]
2 0 1
2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 −2 0 1
0 1 1
−2 0 1
1 0 0 0.8944 −0.4472 0 1 0 0 0.8944 0.4472 0
0 −1 1
=[ ] [0 1 0] [0.4472 0.8944 0] [0 −1 0] [−0.4472 0.8944 0]
2 0 1
2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 −2 0 1
0 1 1
−2 0 1
1 0 0 0.8944 −0.4472 0 0.8944 0.4472 0
0 −1 1
=[ ] [0 1 0] [0.4472 0.8944 0] [0.4472 −0.8944 0]
2 0 1
2 0 1 0 0 1 −2 0 1
0 1 1
−2 0 1
1 0 0 0.6 0.8 0
0 −1 1
=[ ] [0 1 0] [0.8 −0.6 0]
2 0 1
2 0 1 −2 0 1
0 1 1
−2 0 1
0.6 0.8 0
0 −1 1
=[ ] [ 0.8 −0.6 0]
2 0 1
−0.8 1.6 1
0 1 1
−2 0 1
−1.6 2.2 1
=[ ]
0.4 3.2 1
0 1 1
Answer: New vertices are A’ (-2, 0), B’ (-1.6, 2.2), C’ (0.4, 3.2) and D’ (0, 1).
4.6 References

5
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Course Contents
5.1 Basic Concept
5.2 Historical Background
5.3 Definition
5.4 Engineering Applications of
the Finite Element Method
5.5 General procedure of Finite
Element Method
5.6 Stress analysis of stepped bar
5.7 Penalty Approach
5.8 Effect of Temperature on
Elements
5.9 Discretization of the Domain
5.10 Discretization Process
5.11 Automatic Mesh Generation
5.12 Analysis of Trusses
5.13 Principle of Minimum
Potential Energy
5.14 Natural OR Intrinsic
Coordinate System
5.15 Shape function in Natural
Coordinate System
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: A. J. Makadia

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 5.1
5. Finite Element Analysis Computer Aided Design (3161903)
5.1 Basic Concept

 The basic idea in the finite element method is to find the solution of a complicated
problem by replacing it by a simpler one.
 Since the actual problem is replaced by a simpler one in finding the solution, we will
be able to find only an approximate solution rather than the exact solution.
 The existing mathematical tools will not be sufficient to find the exact solution (and
sometimes, even an approximate solution) of most of the practical problems.
 Thus, in the absence of any other convenient method to find even the approximate
solution of a given problem, we have to prefer the finite element method.
 Moreover, in the finite element method, it will often be possible to improve or refine
the approximate solution by spending more computational effort.
 In the finite element method, the solution region is considered as built up of many
small, interconnected sub regions called finite elements. As an example of how a
finite element model might be used to represent a complex geometrical shape,
consider the milling machine structure shown in Figure 5.1(a).
 Since it is very difficult to find the exact response (like stresses and displacements) of
the machine under any specified cutting (loading) condition, this structure is
approximated as composed of several pieces as shown in Figure 5.1(b) in the finite
element method. In each piece or element, a convenient approximate solution is
assumed and the conditions of overall equilibrium of the structure are derived. The
satisfaction of these conditions will yield an approximate solution for the
displacements and stresses.
Fig. 5.1 Representation of a Milling Machine Structure by Finite Elements.
Prepared By: A. J. Makadia Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 5.2 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Computer Aided Design (3161903) 5. Finite Element Analysis
 Figure 5.2 shows the finite element idealization of a fighter aircraft.
Fig. 5.2 Finite Element Mesh of a Fighter Aircraft.

5.2 Historical Background
 Although the name of the finite element method was given recently, the concept dates
back for several centuries. For example, ancient mathematicians found the
circumference of a circle by approximating it by the perimeter of a polygon as shown
in Figure 5.3.
 In terms of the present day notation, each side of the polygon can be called a “finite
element.” By considering the approximating polygon inscribed or circumscribed, one
can obtain a lower bound S(l) or an upper bound S(u) for the true circumference S.

 Fig. 5.3 Lower and Upper Bounds to the Circumference of a Circle.

 Furthermore, as the number of sides of the polygon is increased, the approximate

values converge to the true value. These characteristics, as will be seen later, will hold
true in any general finite element application.
 To find the differential equation of a surface of minimum area bounded by a specified
closed curve, Schell back discretized the surface into several triangles and used a
finite difference expression to find the total discretized area in 1851.
 In the current finite element method, a differential equation is solved by replacing it
by a set of algebraic equations. Since the early 1900s, the behavior of structural
frameworks, composed of several bars arranged in a regular pattern, has been
approximated by that of an isotropic elastic body.
 In 1943, Courant presented a method of determining the torsional rigidity of a hollow
shaft by dividing the cross section into several triangles and using a linear variation of
the stress function ϕ over each triangle in terms of the values of ϕ at net points (called
nodes in the present day finite element terminology).
 This work is considered by some to be the origin of the present-day finite element
method. Since mid-1950s, engineers in aircraft industry have worked on developing
approximate methods for the prediction of stresses induced in aircraft wings.
 In 1956, Turner, Cough, Martin, and Topp presented a method for modeling the wing
skin using three-node triangles. At about the same time, Argyris and Kelsey presented
several papers outlining matrix procedures, which contained some of the finite
element ideas, for the solution of structural analysis problems. Reference is
considered as one of the key contributions in the development of the finite element
method.
 The name finite element was coined, for the first time, by Clough in 1960. Although
the finite element method was originally developed mostly based on intuition and
physical argument, the method was recognized as a form of the classical Rayleigh-
Ritz method in the early 1960s.
 Once the mathematical basis of the method was recognized, the developments of new
finite elements for different types of problems and the popularity of the method
started to grow almost exponentially.
 The digital computer provided a rapid means of performing the many calculations
involved in the finite element analysis and made the method practically viable. Along
with the development of high-speed digital computers, the application of the finite
element method also progressed at a very impressive rate.
 Zienkiewicz and Cheung presented the broad interpretation of the method and its
applicability to any general field problem. The book by Przemieniecki presents the
finite element method as applied to the solution of stress analysis problems.
5.3 Definition:
 In Finite Element Analysis, the structure or body is divided into finite numbers of
elements, the solution is obtained for individual element and solution of all elements
is assembled to give distribution of field variable over entire region.

 For example: Heat Analysis Field variable is Temperature

Stress & strain Field variable is Displacement.
5.4 Engineering Applications of the Finite Element Method
The finite element method was developed originally for the analysis of aircraft structures.
I. Equilibrium problems or steady-state or time-independent problems
 In an equilibrium problem, we need to find the steady-state displacement or stress
distribution if it is a solid mechanics problem,
 Temperature or heat flux distribution if it is a heat transfer problem and
 Pressure or velocity distribution if it is a fluid mechanics problem.
II. Eigenvalue problems
 In eigenvalue problems also, time will not appear explicitly. They may be
considered as extensions of equilibrium problems in which critical values of
certain parameters are to be determined in addition to the corresponding steady-
state configurations.
 In these problems, we need to find the natural frequencies or buckling loads and
mode shapes if it is a solid mechanics or structures problem.
 Stability of laminar flows if it is a fluid mechanics problem and
 Resonance characteristics if it is an electrical circuit problem.
III. Propagation or transient problems
 The propagation or transient problems are time-dependent problems. This type of
problem arises, for example, whenever we are interested in finding the response of
a body under time-varying force in the area of a solid mechanics
 Under sudden heating or cooling in the field of heat transfer.
 Crack propagation.
Engineering Applications of the Finite Element Method
Eigenvalue
Area of Study Equilibrium Problems Propagation Problems
Problems
1.Civil Static analysis of Natural frequencies Propagation of stress
engineering trusses, frames, folded and modes of waves; response of
structures plates, shell roofs, shear structures; stability structures to a periodic
walls, bridges, and of structures loads
prestressed concrete
structures
2. Aircraft Static analysis of Natural frequencies, Response of aircraft
structures aircraft wings, flutter, and stability structures to random
fuselages, fins, rockets, of aircraft, rocket, loads; dynamic response
spacecraft, and missile spacecraft, and of aircraft and spacecraft
structures missile structures to a periodic loads
3. Heat Steady-state – Transient heat flow in

conduction temperature rocket nozzles, internal

distribution in solids combustion engines,
and fluids turbine blades, fins, and
building structures
4. Geo mechanics Analysis of excavations, Natural frequencies Time-dependent soil–
retaining walls, and modes of dam-
structure interaction
underground openings, reservoir systems and
problems; transient see
rock joints, and soil– soil–structure page in soils and rocks;
structure interaction interaction problems stress wave propagation
problem; stress analysis in soils
in soils, dams, layered and rocks
piles, and machine
foundations
5. Hydraulic and Analysis of potential Natural periods and Analysis of unsteady
water resources flows, free surface modes of shallow fluid flow and wave
engineering; flows, boundary layer basins, lakes, and propagation problems;
hydrodynamics flows, viscous flows, harbors; sloshing of transient seepage in
transonic aerodynamic liquids in rigid and aquifers and porous
problems; analysis of flexible containers media; rarefied gas
hydraulic structures and dynamics; magneto
dams hydrodynamic flows
6. Nuclear Analysis of nuclear Natural frequencies Response of reactor
engineering pressure vessels and and stability of containment structures to
containment structures; containment dynamic loads; unsteady
steady –state structures; neutron temperature distribution
Temperature flux distribution in reactor components;
distribution in reactor thermal and viscoelastic
components analysis of reactor
structures
7. Biomedical Stress analysis of Impact analysis of skull;
engineering eyeballs, bones, and dynamics of anatomical
teeth; load-bearing structures
capacity of implant and –
prosthetic systems;
mechanics of heart
valves
8. Mechanical Stress concentration Natural frequencies Crack and fracture
Design problems; stress and stability of problems under dynamic
analysis of pressure linkages, gears, and loads
vessels, pistons, machine tools
composite materials,
linkages, and gears
9. Electrical Steady-state analysis of Transient behavior of
machines and synchronous and Electromechanical
electromagnetics induction machines, devices such as motors
eddy current, and core – and actuators, magneto
losses in electric dynamics
machines, magneto
statics

5.5 General procedure of Finite Element Method
Step 1: Divide structure into discrete elements (discretization).

 Divide the structure or solution region into subdivisions or elements. Hence, the
structure is to be modeled with suitable finite elements.
 The number, type, size, and arrangement of the elements are to be decided.
Step 2: Select a proper interpolation or displacement model.
 Since the displacement solution of a complex structure under any specified load
conditions cannot be predicted exactly, we assume some suitable solution within an
element to approximate the unknown solution. The assumed solution must be simple
from a computational standpoint, but it should satisfy certain convergence
requirements.
 In general, the solution or the interpolation model is taken in the form of a
polynomial.
Step 3: Derive element stiffness matrices and load vectors.
 From the assumed displacement model finding,
Stiffness matrix – [K]e
Load vector. – [P]e
Step 4: Assemble element equations to obtain the overall equilibrium equations.
 Since the structure is composed of several finite elements, the individual element
stiffness matrices and load vectors are to be assembled in a suitable manner and the
overall equilibrium equations have to be formulated as
[K] [ϕ] = [P]
Where [K] = the assembled stiffness matrix
[ϕ] = the vector of nodal displacements
[P] = Load vector
Step 5: Solve for the unknown nodal displacements.
The overall equilibrium equations have to be modified to account for the boundary conditions
of the problem. After the incorporation of the boundary conditions, the equilibrium equations
can be expressed as
[K] [ϕ] = [P]
Step 6: Compute element strains and stresses.
From the known nodal displacements ϕ, if required, the element strains and stresses can be
computed by using the necessary equations of solid or structural mechanics.

5.6 Stress analysis of stepped bar
Fig. 5.4 Steeped bar under Axial load
Step 1: Idealization.
The bar is idealized as an assemblage of two elements, one element for each step of the bar as
shown in Figure 5.4(b). Each element is assumed to have nodes at the ends so that the
stepped bar will have a total of three nodes.
Since the load is applied in the axial direction, the axial displacements of the three nodes are
considered as the nodal unknown degrees of freedom of the system, and are denoted as
Φ1,Φ2, and Φ3 as shown in Figure 5.4(b).
Step 2: Develop interpolation or displacement model.
Since the two end displacements of element e, Φ1(e), and Φ2(e), are considered the degrees of
freedom, the axial displacement, ϕ(x), within the element e is assumed to vary linearly as
(Figure 5.4(c)): ϕ(x) = a+bx (E.1)

Step 3: Derive element stiffness matrix and element load vector.

The element stiffness matrices can be derived from the principle of minimum potential
energy. For this, we write the potential energy of the bar (I) under axial deformation as
I = strain energy – work done by external forces
= (1) + (2) – Wp
where(e) represents the strain energy of element e, and Wp denotes the work done by
external forces acting on the bar.
Apply principle of potential energy

Since there are only concentrated loads acting at the nodes of the bar (and no distributed load
acts on the bar), the work done by external forces can be expressed as
Wp = Φ1P1 +Φ2P2 +Φ3P3
In the present case, Φ1 = 0 since node 1 is fixed while the loads applied externally at the
nodes 1, 2, and 3 in the directions of Φ1, Φ2, and Φ3, respectively, areP1 = unknown (denotes
the reaction at the fixed node 1 where the displacement Φ1 is zero),P2 = 0, and P3 = 1 N.

 P1 
 
If the bar as a whole is in equilibrium under the loads, P   P2  the principle of minimum
P 
 3
potential energy gives
Step 4: Assemble element stiffness matrices and element load vectors

This step includes the assembly of element stiffness matrices [K]e and element load vectors
[P]e toobtain the overall or global equilibrium equations.
[K] [ϕ] = [P]
2
where[K] is the assembled or global stiffness matrix =  [K ]
(e)
e1
 1 
 
   2  = vector ofglobal displacements.
 
 3
Example 5.1:A1 = 200 mm2, E1 = E2 = E = 2 x 106 N/mm2
A2 = 100 mm2, l1 = l2 = 100 mm
P3 = 1000 N. Find: Displacement and stress & strain.
Let overall stiffness matrix [K] = [K(1)] + [K(2)]

In the present case, external loads act only at the node points; as such, there is no need to
assemblethe element load vectors. The overall or global load vector can be written as
By solving the matrix

Φ2 = 0.25 × 10−6cm and
Φ3 = 0.75 × 10−6cm
Derive element strains and stresses.

Once the displacements are computed, the strains in the elements can be found as
The stresses in the elements are given by
Example 5.2: A thin plate as shown in Fig. 5.5(a) has uniform thickness of 2 cm and its
modulus of elasticity is 200 x 103 N/mm2 and density 7800 kg/m3. In addition to its self
weight the plate is subjected to a point load P of500 N is applied at its midpoint.
Solve the following:
(i) Finite element model with two finite elements.
(ii) Global stiffness matrix.
(iii) Global load matrix.
(iv) Displacement at nodal point.

(v) Stresses in each element.

(vi) Reaction at support.
(a) Fig. 5.5 (b)
(i) The tapered plate can be idealized as two element model with the tapered area
converted to the rectangular equivalent area Refer Fig. (b). The areas A1 and A2
are equivalent areas calculated as
15  11.25
A1   2  26.25 cm 2
2
11.25  7.5
A2   2  18.75 cm 2
2
(ii) Global stiffness matrix can be obtained as

(iii) The load matrix given by
(iv) The displacement at nodal point can be obtained by writing the equation in global
form as

5.7 Penalty Approach

 In the preceding problems, the elimination approach was used to achieve simplified
matrices. This method though simple, is not very easy to adapt in terms of algorithms
written fix computer programs.
 An alternate method to achieve solutions is by the penalty approach. By this approach
a rigid support is considered as a spring having infinite stiffness. Consider a system as
shown in Fig. 7.6.
Fig. 5.6 Penalty Approach

 The support or the ground is modelled with a high stiffness spring, having a stiffness
C. To represent a rigid ground, c must be infinity.
 However, instead of introducing an infinite value in the calculations, a substantially
high value of stiffness constant is introduced for those nodes resting on rigid supports.
 The magnitude of the stiffness constant should be at least l04 times more than the
maximum value in the global stiffness matrix.
 From Fig. 5.6, it is seen that one end of the spring will displace by a1. The
displacement Q1 (for dof l) will be approximately equal to a1 as the spring has a high
stiffness.
 Consider a simple 1D element with node 1 fixed.
 At node l, the stiffness term is ‘C’ is introduced to reflect the boundary condition
related to a rigid support. To compensate this change, the force term will also be
modified as:
 The reaction force as per penalty approach would be found by multiplying the added
stiffness with the net deflection of the node.
R = - C(Q-a)
 The penalty approach is an approximate method and the accuracy of the forces
depends on the value of C.

Example 5.3: Consider the bar shown in Fig. 5.7. An axial load P = 200 x 103 N is applied as
shown. Using the penalty approach for handling boundary conditions, do the following:
(a) Determine the nodal displacements
(b) Determine the stress in each material.
(c) Determine the reaction forces.
Fig. 5.7
(a) The element stiffness matrices are
The structural stiffness matrix that is assembled from k1 and k2 is
The global load vector is

F = [0, 200 x 103, 0]T
Now dofs 1 and 3 are fixed. When using the penalty approach, therefore, a large number C is
added to the first and third diagonal elements of K. Choosing C
C = [0.86 x 106] x 104
Thus, the modified stiffness matrix is

The finite element equations are given by
which yields the solution

Q = [15.1432 x 10-6, 0.23257, 8.1127 x 10-6]mm
(b) The element stresses are
where 1 MPa = 106 N/m2= 1N/mm2. Also,
(c) The reaction forces are

R1 =– CQ1
= –[0.86 x 1010] x 15.1432x 106
= – 130.23 x 103 N
R3 =– CQ3
= –[0.86 x 1010] x 8.1127x 106
= – 69.77 x 103 N
Example 5.4: In Fig. 5.8(a), a load P = 60 x 103 N is applied as shown. Determine the
displacement field, stress and support reactions in the body. Take E = 20 x 103N/mm2.
Fig. 5.8

The boundary conditions are Q1= 0 and Q3= 1.2 mm. The structural stiffness matrix K is
and the global load vector F is

F = [0, 60 x 103, 0]T
In the penalty approach, the boundary conditions Q1= 0 and Q3=1.2 imply the following
modifications: A large number C chosen here as C = (2/3) x 1010, is added on to the 1stand 3rd
diagonal elements of K. Also, the number (C x 1.2) gets added on to the 3rdcomponent of F.
Thus, the modified equations are
The solution is
Q = [7.49985 x 10-5, 1.500045, 1.200015]T mm
The element stresses are
The reaction forces are

R1 = –Cx 7.49985 x 10-5
=–49.999 x 103N
R3 = –Cx(1.200015 – 1.2)
=–10.001 x 103N
5.8Effect of Temperature on Elements:

When any material is subjected to a thermal stress, the thermal load is additional load acting
on every element. This load can be calculated by using thermal expansion of the material due
to the rise in. temperature.
Thermal stress in material can be given by
σt = Eεt
Where εt= thermal strain
E = modulus of elasticity
εt=α Δt
α= coefficient of linear expansion of material
Δt= change in temperature of material.
Then the thermal load is given by

Where, Ft = σt A = AEα Δt
A = Area of the bar.
Fig. 5.9
Consider the horizontal step bar supported at two ends is subjected to a thermal stress and
load P at node 2 as shown in Fig. 5.9.
Thermal load in element 1
Thermal load in element 2
Example 5.5 : An axial load P = 300 x 103 N is applied at 20C to the rod as shown in Fig.
5.10.The temperature is then raised to 60C.
(a) Assemble the K and F matrices.
(b) Determine the nodal displacements and element stresses.
Fig. 5.10
(a) The element stiffness matrices are
Now, in assembling F, both temperature and point load effects have to be considered.
The element temperature forces due to ΔT = 40C are obtained as
F = 103[-57.96, 245.64, 112.32]T N

(b) The elimination approach will now be used to solve for the displacements. Since dofs
1 and 3 are fixed, the first and third rows and columns of K, together with the first and
third components of F, are deleted. This results in the scalar equation
103[1115] Q2 =103 x 245.64
Q2 = 0.220 mm
Q = [0, 0.220, 0]Tmm
In evaluating element stresses

5.9 Discretization of the Domain

 The geometry (domain or solution region) of the problem is often irregular. The first
step of the finite element analysis involves the discretization of the irregular domain
into smaller and regular subdomains, known as finite elements. This is equivalent to
replacing the domain having an infinite number of degrees of freedom (DOF) by a
system having a finite number of DOF.
 A variety of methods can be used to model a domain with finite elements.
 Different methods of dividing the domain into finite elements involve varying
amounts of computational time and often lead to different approximations to the
solution of the physical problem.
 Some automatic mesh generation programs have been developed for the efficient
idealization of complex domains requiring minimal interface with the analyst.
 Basic Element Shapes
 The shapes, sizes, number, and configurations of the elements have to be chosen
carefully such that the original body or domain is simulated as closely as possible
without increasing the computational effort needed for the solution.
Fig. 5.11 Two - Dimensional Elements.

 The two-dimensional elements shown in Fig. 5.11. The basic element useful for two-
dimensional analysis is the triangular element. Although a quadrilateral element (or its
special forms, the rectangle and parallelogram) can be obtained by assembling two or
four triangular elements, as shown in Fig.5.12.
 For the bending analysis of plates, multiple dof (transverse displacement and its
derivatives) are used at each node.

Fig. 5.12 A Quadrilateral Element as an Assemblage of Two or Four Triangular Elements.

 If the geometry, material properties, and other parameters of the body can be
described by three independent spatial coordinates, we can idealize the body by using
the three-dimensional elements shown in Fig.5.13.
Fig. 5.13Three-Dimensional Finite Elements.

 The basic three-dimensional element, analogous to the triangular element in the case
of two-dimensional problems, is the tetrahedron element.

 In some cases the hexahedron element, which can be obtained by assembling five
tetrahedrons as indicated in Fig. 5.14.
Fig. 5.14 A Hexahedron Element as an Assemblage of Five Tetrahedron Elements.

 Some problems, which are actually three-dimensional, can be described by only one
or two independent coordinates. Such problems can be idealized by using an
axisymmetric or ring type of elements shown in Fig. 5.15.
Fig. 5.15 Axisymmetric Elements.

 The problems that possess axial symmetry, such as pistons, storage tanks, valves,
rocket nozzles, and reentry vehicle heat shields, fall into this category.
 For the discretization of problems involving curved geometries, finite elements with
curved sides are useful. Typical elements having curved boundaries are shown in Fig.
5.16.

Fig. 5.16 Finite Elements with Curved Boundaries.
5.10Discretization Process
Step - 1: Type of Elements
 If the problem involves the analysis of a truss structure under a given set of load
conditions (Fig. 5.17(a)), the type of elements to be used for idealization is obviously
the “bar or line elements” as shown in Fig. 5.17(b).
Fig. 5.17 A Truss Structure.

 In the case of stress analysis of the short beam shown in Fig.5.18(a), the finite element
idealization can be done using three-dimensional solid elements as shown in Fig.
5.18(b).
Fig. 5.18 A Short Beam

 In some cases one has to choose the type of elements judicially. As an example,
consider the problem of analysis of the thin walled shell shown in Fig. 5.19(a). In this
case, the shell can be idealized by several types of elements as shown in Fig. 5.19(b).
Fig. 5.19 A Thin-Walled Shell under pressure.

 In some cases, we may have to use two or more types of elements for idealization. An
example of this would be the analysis of an aircraft wing.
 Since the wing consists of top and bottom covers, stiffening webs, and flanges, three
types of elements—namely, triangular plate elements (for covers), rectangular shear
panels (for webs), and frame elements (for flanges)—have been used in the
idealization shown in Fig. 5.20.
Fig. 5.20 Idealization of an Aircraft Wing Using Different Types of Elements.

Step - 2: Size of Elements
 The size of elements influences the convergence of the solution directly, and hence it
has to be chosen with care.
 If the size of the elements is small, the final solution is expected to be more accurate.
However, we have to remember that the use of smaller-sized elements will also mean
more computation time.
 Sometimes, we may have to use elements of different sizes in the same body. For
example, in the case of stress analysis of the box beam shown in Fig. 5.21(a), the size
of all the elements can be approximately the same, as shown in Fig. 5.21(b).
 However, in the case of stress analysis of a plate with a hole shown in Fig. 5.22 (a),
elements of different sizes have to be used, as shown in Fig. 5.22 (b). The size of
elements has to be very small near the hole (where stress concentration is expected)
compared to distant places.

Fig. 5.21A Box Beam.
Fig. 5.22 A Plate with a Hole.

 The aspect ratio describes the shape of the element in the assemblage of elements.
 For two-dimensional elements, the aspect ratio is taken as the ratio of the largest
dimension of the element to the smallest dimension. Elements with an aspect ratio of
nearly unity generally yield best results.
Step - 3: Location of Nodes
Fig. 5.23 Location of Nodes at Discontinuities.

 If the body has no abrupt changes in geometry, material properties, and external
conditions (e.g., load and temperature), the body can be divided into equal
subdivisions and hence the spacing of the nodes can be uniform.
 On the other hand, if there are any discontinuities in the problem, nodes have to be
introduced at these discontinuities, as shown in Fig. 5.23.
Step - 4: Number of Elements
 The number of elements to be chosen for idealization is related to the accuracy
desired, size of elements, and the number of dof involved.
 Although an increase in the number of elements generally means more accurate
results, for any given problem, there will be a certain number of elements beyond
which the accuracy cannot be significantly improved. This behavior is shown
graphically in Fig. 5.24.
 Moreover, since the use of a large number of elements involves a large number of dof,
we may not be able to store the resulting matrices in the available computer memory.
Fig. 5.24 Effect of Varying the Number of Elements.
Step - 5: Simplifications Afforded by the Physical Configuration of the Body

 If the configuration of the body as well as the external conditions are symmetric, we
may consider only half of the body for finite element idealization. The symmetry
conditions, however, have to be incorporated in the solution procedure.
 This is illustrated in Fig. 5.25, where only half of the plate with a hole, having
symmetry in both geometry and loading, is considered for analysis. Since there cannot
be a horizontal displacement along the line of symmetry AA, the condition that u = 0
has to be incorporated while finding the solution.

(a) Plate with hole (b) Only half of plate can be considered for analysis
Fig. 5.25A Plate with a Hole with Symmetric Geometry and Loading.
Step - 6: Finite Representation of Infinite Bodies
 In most of the problems, like in the analysis of beams, plates, and shells, the
boundaries of the body or continuum are clearly defined. Hence, the entire body can
be considered for element idealization.
 However, in some cases, as in the analysis of dams, foundations, and semi-infinite
bodies, the boundaries are not clearly defined. In the case of dams (Figure 5.26), since
the geometry is uniform and the loading does not change in the length direction, a unit
slice of the dam can be considered for idealization and analyzed as a plane strain
problem.
Fig. 5.26 A Dam with Uniform Geometry and Loading.

 However, in the case of the foundation problem shown in Fig. 5.27(a), we cannot
idealize the complete semi-infinite soil by finite elements. Fortunately, it is not really
necessary to idealize the infinite body.
 Since the effect of loading decreases gradually with increasing distance from the point
of loading, we can consider only that much of the continuum in which the loading is
expected to have a significant effect as shown in Fig. 5.27(b). Once the significant
extent of the infinite body is identified as shown in Fig. 5.27(b), the boundary
conditions for this finite body have to be incorporated in the solution.
Fig. 5.27 A Foundation under Concentrated Load.
5.11 Automatic Mesh Generation

 Mesh generation is the process of dividing a physical domain into smaller subdomains
(called elements) to facilitate an approximate solution of the governing ordinary or
partial differential equation.
 For this, one-dimensional domains (straight or curved lines) are subdivided into
smaller line segments, two-dimensional domains (planes or surfaces) are subdivided
into triangle or quadrilateral shapes, and three-dimensional domains (volumes) are
subdivided into tetrahedron and hexahedron shapes.
 If the physical domain is simple and the number of elements used is small, mesh
generation can be done manually. However, most practical problems, such as those
encountered in aerospace, automobile, and construction industries have complex
geometries that require the use of thousands and sometimes millions of elements.
 In such cases, the manual process of mesh generation is impossible and we have to
use automatic mesh generation schemes based on the use of a CAD or solid modeling
package.

 Automatic mesh generation involves the subdivision of a given domain, which may
be in the form of a curve, surface, or solid (described by a CAD or solid modeling
package) into a set of nodes (or vertices) and elements (subdomains) to represent the
domain as closely as possible subject to the specified element shape and size
restrictions.
 Many automatic mesh generation schemes use a “bottom-up” approach in that nodes
(or vertices or corners of the domain) are meshed first, followed by curves
(boundaries), then surfaces, and finally solids.
 Thus, for a given geometric domain of the problem, nodes are first placed at the
corner points of the domain, and then nodes are distributed along the geometric curves
that define the boundaries.
 Next, the boundary nodes are used to develop nodes in the surface(s), and finally the
nodes on the various surfaces are used to develop nodes within the given volume (or
domain).
 The nodes or mesh points are used to define line elements if the domain is one-
dimensional, triangular, or quadrilateral elements if the domain is two-dimensional,
and tetrahedral or hexahedral elements if the domain is three-dimensional.
 The automatic mesh generation schemes are usually tied to solid modeling and
computer aided design schemes. When the user supplies information on the surfaces
and volumes of the material domains that make up the object or system, an automatic
mesh generator generates the nodes and elements in the object.
 The user can also specify minimum permissible element sizes for different regions of
the object. Many mesh generation schemes first create all the nodes and then produce
a mesh of triangles by connecting the nodes to form triangles (in a plane region).
 In a particular scheme, known as Delaunay triangulation, the triangular elements are
generated by maximizing the sum of the smallest angles of the triangles; thus the
procedure avoids generation of thin elements.
5.12Analysis of Trusses
 The links of a truss are two-force members, where the direction of loading is along the
axis of the member. Every truss element is in direct tension or compression.
 All loads and reactions are applied only at the joints and all members are connected
together at their ends by frictionless pin joints. This makes the truss members very
similar to a 1D spar element.
Fig. 5.28 Truss

The direction cosines l and m can be expressed as:

x2  x1
l  cos  
le
y2  y1
m  cos   sin  
le
le  ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2
q1’ =qll + q2 m
q2’ = q3 l + q4 m
Fig. 5.29 Direction Cosines
 l2 lm l 2lm 
 
A E lm m2 lm m 2 
[K ]  e e  2
Le  l lm l2 lm 
 
 lm m
2
lm m2 
Ee
  l  m l m  q
le
 Thermal Effect In Truss Member
 l 
 m 
(1) Thermal Load , P = Ae Ee e  
 l 
 
m
Ee
(2) Stress for an element,    l  m l m  q  Ee  t
le
(3) Remaining steps will be same as earlier.
Example 5.6: A two member truss is as shown in Fig. 5.30. The cross-sectional area of each
member is 200 mm2 and the modulus of elasticity is 200 GPa. Determine the deflections,
reactions and stresses in each of the members.

Fig. 5.30
In global terms, each node would have 2 dof. These dof are marked as shown in Fig.5.31. The
position of the nodes, with respect to origin (considered at node l) are as tabulated below:
Node Xi Yi
1 0 0
2 4000 0
3 0 3000
Fig.5.31
For all elements, A=200 mm2
and E= 200 x 103 N/mm2
The element connectivity table with the relevant terms are:
Ae Ee x j  xi y j  yi
Element Ni Nj le  ( x j  xi ) 2  ( y j  yi ) 2 l m l2 m2 lm
le le le
4000  0
(4000  0) 2  (0  0) 2 00
(1) 1 2 10000 4000 0 1 0 0
 4000 1
4000
4000
(0  4000) 2  (3000  0) 2  3000
(2) 2 3 8000 5000  0.6 0.64 0.36 -0.48
 5000  0.8
5000
As each node has two dof in global form, for every element, the element stiffness matrix
would be in a 4 x 4 form. For element 1 defined by nodes l-2,the dof are Q1, Q2, Q3 andQ4
and that for element 2 defined by nodes 2-3, would be Q3, Q4, Q5 andQ6. For a truss element
 l2 lm l 2lm 
 
A E lm m2 lm  m 2 
[ K ]e  e e  2
Le  l lm l2 lm 
 
 lm  m
2
lm m2 

Element 1: The element stiffness matrix would be :
Element 2: The element stiffness matrix would be :
The global stiffness matrix would be:

In this case, node 1 and node 3 are completely fixed and hence,
Q1=Q2=Q5 = Q6 = 0
Hence, rows and columns 1,2,5 and 6 can be eliminated
Also the external nodal forces,
F1 = F2 = F3 = F5 = F6 = 0
F4 = -10 x 103 N
In global form, after using the elimination approach
103 (- 3.84 Q3 + 2.88 Q4) = - 10 x 103

- 3.84 Q3 + 2.88 Q4 = - l0
- 3.84 (0.254 Q4) + 2.88 Q4 = -10
Q4 = -5.25mm
Q3 = -1.334mm
The reactions can be found by using the equation:
R = KQ –F
R1 = -10 x 103 x (-1.334) = 13340 N

R2 = 0 N
R5 = -5.12 x 103 x (-1.334) + 3.84 x 103x (-5.25) = -13340 N
R6 = 3.84 x 103 x (-1.334) – 2.88 x 103x (-5.25) = 9997.44 N
Ee
To determine stresses:    l  m l m  q
le
Element 1:
Element 2:
Example 5.7: Consider the four-bar truss shown in Fig. 5.32(a). It is given that E = 29.5 x
106 psi and Ae = lin.2 for all elements. Complete the following:
(a) Determine the element stiffness matrix for each element.
(b) Assemble the structural stiffness matrix K for the entire truss

(c) Using the elimination approach, solve for the nodal displacement.
(d) Recover the stresses in each element.
(e) Calculate the reaction forces.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.32
(a) It is recommended that a tabular form be used for representing nodal coordinate data
and element information. The nodal coordinate data are as follows:
Node x y
1 0 0
2 40 0
3 40 30
4 0 30

The element connectivity table is

Element 1 2
1 1 2
2 3 2
3 1 3
4 4 3
Note that the user has a choice in defining element connectivity. For example, the
connectivity of element 2 can be defined as 2-3 instead of 3-2 as in the previous table.
However, calculations of the direction cosines will be consistent with the adopted
connectivity scheme. Using formulas, together with the nodal coordinate data and the given
element connectivity information, we obtain the direction cosines table:
Element le l m
1 40 1 0
2 30 0 -1
3 50 0.8 0.6
4 40 1 0
For example, the direction cosines of elements 3 are obtained as
l = (x3 – x1)le = (40 - 0)/50 = 0.8 and m = (y3 – y1)le = (30 - 0)/50 = 0.6.
Now, the element stiffness matrices for element 1 can be written as
The global dofs associated with element 1, which is connected between nodes 1 and2, are
indicated in k1 earlier. These global dofs are shown in Fig. 5.32(a) and assist in assembling
the various element stiffness matrices. The element stiffness matrices of elements 2,3and 4
are as follows:

(b) The structural stiffness matrix K is now assembled from the element stiffness
matrices. By adding the element stiffness contributions, noting the element
connectivity, we get
(c) The structural stiffness matrix K given above needs to be modified to account for the
boundary conditions. The elimination approach will be used here. The rows and
columns corresponding to dofs 1, 2, 4, 7, and 8, which correspond to fixed supports,
are deleted from the K matrix. The reduced finite element equations are given as
Solution of these equations yields the displacements
The nodal displacement vector for the entire structure can therefore be written as
Q =[0, 0,27.12x 10-3, 0,5.65 x 10-3, -22.25 x 10-3,0, 0]T in.
(d) The stress in each element can now be determined as shown below.
The connectivity of element 1 is 1 - 2. Consequently, the nodal displacement vector
for element l is given by q = [0,0, 27.72 x 10-3,0]T

The stress in member 2 is given by
Following similar steps, we get

σ3 = 5208.0Psi
σ4= 4L67.0Psi
(e) The final step is to determine the support reactions. We need to determine the reaction
forces along dofs 1, 2, 4, 7and 8, which correspond to fixed supports. These are
obtained by substituting for Q into the original finite element equation R = KQ - F. In
this substitution, only those rows of K corresponding to the support dofs are needed,
and F = 0 for those dofs. Thus, we have
Which results in
5.13 Principle of Minimum Potential Energy

 This principle states that for all kinematically admissible displacement fields
corresponding to equilibrium extremize the total potential energy. If extreme
condition is a minimum, the equilibrium is stable. It means that if the system is stable
and steady, then total potential energy of the system is zero.

 The application of this principle can be made in a spring or elastic system subjected to
the loading conditions.
 Consider a system of four springs as shown in Fig. 5.33subjected to the deflections
under the application of force. This system has three nodal points.
Fig. 5.33
Consider,a system of four spring having the nodes at point 1, 2, 3.
The potential energy P of the system is
1 1 1 1
P k112  k2 2 2  k3 32  k4 4 2  F1 x1  F3 x3
2 2 2 2
Where,
δ1, δ2, δ3, δ4 = deflections of the four springs
x1, x2, x3 = displacement at nodal points 1, 2, 3
F1, F3 = forces at nodal points 1 and 3
k1, k2, k3, k4 = stiffnesses of four springs
δ1 = x1– x2
δ2 = x2
δ3 = x3– x2
δ4 = – x3
Potential energy of the system (P) is given by
1 1 1 1
P k1 ( x1  x2 ) 2  k 2 x2 2  k3 ( x3  x2 ) 2  k 4 x32  F1 x1  F3 x3
2 2 2 2
For equilibrium of this three degrees of freedom system, we need to minimize (P) with
respect to x1, x2 and x3.
According to principle of minimum potential energy, the potential energy is differentiated
with respect to each displacement and equated to zero for minimum condition of potential
energy.

…….(4)
The x1, x2, x3deflectionscanbeobtainedbyusing numerical methods.
On the other hand, we proceed to write the equilibrium equations of the system by
considering the equilibrium of each separate node as shown in Fig. 5.34.
k1δ1 = F1
k2δ2 – k1δ1 – k3δ3 = 0
k3δ3 – k4δ4 = F3
which is precisely the set of equations represented in Eq. (4).
Fig. 5.34.
We see clearly that the set of equations (4) is obtained in a routine manner using the potential
energy approach, without any reference to the free-body diagrams. This makes the potential
energy approach attractive for large and complex problems.
Example 5.8: Calculate the deflections of the points at node 1, 2 and 3 for the spring system
shown in Fig. 5.33. The stiffnesses are k1 = 80 N/mm, k2= 50 N/mm, k3=60 N/mm, k4 = 40
N/mm, the loads are F1= 40 N, F3 = 60 N.
Find the deflections x1, x2 and x3.
The model of the above system is used and stiffness, deflection and load matrix can be
written as

Solving the above matrices, the value of x1= 0.4 mm, x2= 0.1 mm, x3= 0.66 mm.
Example 5.9: Fig. 5.35 shows a cluster of four springs. One end of the assembly is fixed and
a force of 1000 N is applied at the end. Using the finite element method, determine:
(a) The deflection of each spring.
(b) The reaction forces at support.
Fig. 5.35
The system of springs can be represented by a finite element model as shown in Fig. 5.36
Fig. 5.36
The element connectivity table is as shown:

The element stiffness matrices are as under:
The overall stiffness matrix would be:
In global terms,
The boundary conditions for this problem are:

Q1 = 0
F1 = F2 = 0
F3 = 1000 N
By elimination approach:
22 Q2 – 10 Q3 = 0

Q2 = 0.4545 Q3
– 10 Q2 + 30 Q3 = 1000
– 10 (0.4545 Q3) + 30 Q3 = 1000
Q3 = 39.286 mm
Q2 = 0.4545 x 39.286 = 17.857 mm
To determine the reaction forces,
R = KQ – F
5.14 Natural OR Intrinsic Coordinate System:
Fig.5.37
 Consider a element (e), having node numbers 1 & 2 shown in Fig. 5.37 (a). The first node
1 would be at a distance x1 and second node would be at a distance x2 from the reference.
A convenient coordinate system called as the natural coordinate system is defined, as it
helps in formulating individual element matrix which can than be used to combine and
form a global stiffness matrix.
 In natural coordinate system, the centre of the element is considered as 0 and the node 1
and node 2 are placed at a distance - 1 and + 1 respectively Fig. 5.37(b). The variable of
measurement of the distance in this case is represented as ξ. Thus node 1 is at coordinate
position ξ = - 1 and node 2 is at ξ = + 1. Total length of the element would thus be 2 units
and this length of the element is covered in the range ξ = - 1 to +1.
 To establish relationship between two coordinate system consider any point P situated at a
distance x, in the Global coordinate system Fig.5.37 (a) and correspondingly at a distance
ξ from the origin as shown in Fig.5.37 (b).
Now
Length of element in Natural system Dist. of Po int P from Node 1 in Natural system

Length of element in Global system Dist. of Po int P from Node 1 in Global system

2 1

 x 2  x1   x  x1 
2  x  x1 
  1 _______(a)
 x 2  x1 
Confirm the validity of equation (a)
2  x1  x1 
At x = x1  ξ =  1 = 0  1 = 1
 x 2  x1 
2  x 2  x1 
At x  x 2   1  2 1 1
 x 2  x1 
This confirm the relation of the two coordinate system.
5.15 Shape function in Natural Coordinate System:
 The natural coordinate can be used to define shape functions. This makes it convenient to
isolate the element from the continuum and develop the necessary element stiffness
matrix. The shape function as defined earlier is used to interpolate the deflections or
degree of freedom within the element. The accuracy of calculations would increase with
increase in number of elements. Consider linear distribution as represented by Fig.5.38.
Fig.5.38
 The shape function N1 and N2 in natural coordinate term can be developed by considering
Fig.5.39 (a) and Fig.5.39 (b).
Fig.5.39

 Fig. 5.39 (a) General line equation is
 1 
m  slope   
y  mx  C  2 

For N1  1 ,    1

1
 N1     C
2
1 1
1   (1)  C  C
2 2
1 1
 N1    
2 2
1
N1    
2
 Fig. 5.39(b) line equation is
 1 
m  slope  
y  mx  C  2 

For N2  0 ,    1

1
 N2  C
2
1
0  (1)  C
2
1
 C
2
1 1
 N2   
2 2
1
N2    
2
 Once the shape functions are defined, the linear displacement field within the element can
be written in terms of nodal displacements q1 and q2 as….
 u  N1 q1  N 2 q 2 ........ (b)
Fig.5.40

which in Matrix form will be
u  Nq
where N   N1 , N 2 
q1 
q   q1 , q 2  T   
q 2 
 The term q is referred to as element displacement vector, and the verification of equation
(b) can be done by considering the equation of shape functions.
 At Node 1:   1
1  1  (1)
N1   1
2 2
1  1  (1)
N2   0
2 2
So displacement at Node 1 will be
 u  N1 q1  N 2 q 2
 1 (q1 )  0 (q 2 )
 q1
 At Node 2:    1
1  11
N1   0
2 2
1  11
N2   1
2 2
So displacement at Node 2 will be
 u  N 2 q 2  N1 q1
 1 (q 2 )  0 (q1 )
 q2
 Thus it is seen that as per equation, the displacement at Node 1 and 2 are q1 and q2 which
are the expected results.
2  x  x1 
 We know equation   1
 x 2  x1 

 1 x  x1
 
2 x 2  x1
   1
x     x 2  x1   x1
 2 
   1    1
   x2    x1  x1
 2   2 
   1    1
x    x2   1  x1
 2   2 
   1  1       1  1   
   x2    x1     N2 ,    N1 
 2   2    2   2  
 x  N1 x1  N 2 x 2 
 x  N1 x1  N 2 x 2  
u  N1 q1  N 2 q 2 
 Comparing equation, it is seen that both, the displacement u and the coordinate x can be
interpolated within the element using the same shape function N1 and N2. This is referred
to as the “Isoparametric Formulation”.
Example – 5.10: Temp. at Node 1 is 100° C and Node 2 is 40° C. The length of the element
is 200 mm. Evaluate the shape function associated with Node 1 and Node 2. Calculate the
temp. at point P situated at 150 mm from Node 1. Assume a linear shape function.
Fig. 5.41
Solution:
At Node 1:
x1  0
x 2  200 mm
x 0
2  x  x1 
   1  1
 x 2  x1 
1 
N1     1
2
1 
N2    0
2

At Node 2:
x1  0
x 2  200 mm
x  200 mm
2  x  x1  2  200  0 
  1  1  1
 x 2  x1   200  0 
1 
N1     0
2
1 
N2    1
2
At Point P:
x1  0  t1  100 C
x 2  200 mm  t 2  40 C
x  150 mm
2  x  x1  2 150  0 
  1   1  0.5
 x 2  x1   200  0 
1   1  0.5
N1       0.25
2 2
1   1  0.5
N2      0.75
2 2
 t  N1 t1  N 2 t 2
 0.25 100   0.75  40 
t  55 C
Example – 5.11 : A 1D spar element having a linear shape function as shown in fig. If the
temp.at Node 1 is 50° C and Node 2 is -20°C. Find the temp. at point P.
Fig. 5.42
Solution:
At Point P:
x1  25  t1  50 C
x 2  50  t 2   20 C
x  30

Let
2  x  x1  2  30  25 
  1   1   0.6
 x 2  x1   50  25
Now
1   1    0.6 
N1       0.8
2 2
1   1    0.6 
N2      0.2
2 2
t  N1 t1  N 2 t 2
 0.8  50   0.2  20 
t  30 C
Example – 5.12: Consider an element having a linear shape function shown in fig. Evaluate
the natural coordinate and shape functions for point P. If the displacement at Node 1 and
Node 2 are 2 mm and -1 mm respectively, determine the value of displacement at point P.
Also determine in global terms the point where the displacement would be zero. Also
determine the shape function at zero displacement point.
Fig. 5.43
Solution:
At point P:
x1  180 mm  q1  2 mm
x 2  360 mm  q 2   1 mm
x  220 mm
Let
2  x  x1  2  220  180 
  1   1   0.556
 x 2  x1   360  180 
1   1    0.556 
N1       0.778
2 2
1   1    0.556 
N2      0.222
2 2
Let

u  N1 q1  N 2 q 2
 0.778  2   0.222  1
u  1.334 mm
To determine the position of point where displacement is zero (q1 = 2 mm , q2 = -1 mm).
Let
u  N1 q1  N 2 q 2
0  N1  2   N 2  1
 2 N1  N 2
1    1  
2    
 2   2 
 2  2  1  
1
   0.333
3
Let
2  x  x1 
  1
 x 2  x1 
2  x  180 
0.333  1
 360  180 
x  300 mm
1   1  0.333
N1    0.333
2 2
N 2  2 N1  2 (0.333)  0.667
 x can be find out

x  N1 x1  N 2 x 2
 0.333 180   0.667  360 
x  300 mm
Example – 5.13: Determine the temperature at x = 40 mm if the temperature at nodes Øi =
120° C and Øj = 80° C and xi = 10 mm, xj = 60 mm.
Fig. 5.44

Solution:
x i  10
x j  60
1
x  40
2
i  120 C
 j  80 C
Let
2  x  x1 
  1
 x 2  x1 
2  40  10 
 1
 60  10 
 0.2
1   1  0.2
N1       0.4
2 2
1   1  0.2
N2      0.6
2 2
Let
  N1 i  N 2  j
 0.4 120   0.6  80 
 96 C
References:
 Finite Element Method – S.S. Rao
 Introduction to Finite Elements in Engineering - Tirupathi R. Chandrupatla
 CAD/CAM & Automation – Farazdak Haideri
 CAD/CAM – Khandare

OPTIMIZATION
Course Contents
6.1 Definition
6.2 Conventional versus
Optimum Design Process
6.3 Engineering Applications
of Optimization
6.4 Statement of an
Optimization Problem
6.5 Terms used in
Optimization
6.6 Classification of
Optimization Problem
6.7 Optimum Design with
Lagrange Multipliers
6.8 Johnson’s Method of
Optimum Design
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Vimal Limbasiya

6. Optimization Computer Aided Design (161903)
6.1 Definition
− Optimization is the act of obtaining the best result under given circumstances.
− In design, construction, and maintenance of any engineering system, engineers have
to take many technological and managerial decisions at several stages. The ultimate
goal of all such decisions is either to minimize the effort required or to maximize the
desired benefit.
− Optimization can be defined as the process of finding the conditions that give the
maximum or minimum value of a function.
Fig. 6.1Minimum of f (x) is same as maximum of − f (x).

− The optimum seeking methods are also known as mathematical programming
techniques and are generally studied as a part of operations research.
− Operations research is a branch of mathematics concerned with the application of
scientific methods and techniques to decision making problems and with establishing
the best or optimal solutions.
6.2 Conventional Versus Optimum Design Process

− It is a challenge for engineers to design efficient and cost-effective systems without
compromising their integrity. Fig. 6.2 (a) presents a self-explanatory flowchart for a
conventional design method; Fig. 6.2(b) presents a similar flowchart for the optimum
design method.
− It is important to note that both methods are iterative, as indicated by a loop between
blocks 6 and 3. Both methods have some blocks that require similar calculations and
others that require different calculations. The key features of the two processes are
these:
Prepared By: Vimal Limbasiya Department of Mechanical Engineering

Computer Aided Design (161903) 6. Optimization
1. The optimum design method has block 0, where the problem is formulated as one of
optimization. An objective function is defined that measures the merits of different
designs.
2. Both methods require data to describe the system in block 1.
3. Both methods require an initial design estimate in block 2.
4. Both methods require analysis of the system in block 3.
5. In block 4, the conventional design method checks to ensure that the performance
criteria are met, whereas the optimum design method checks for satisfaction of all of
the constraints for the problem formulated in block 0.
6. In block 5, stopping criteria for the two methods are checked, and the iteration is
stopped if the specified stopping criteria are met.
7. In block 6, the conventional design method updates the design based on the designer’s
experience and intuition and other information gathered from one or more trial
designs; the optimum design method uses optimization concepts and procedures to
update the current design.
Fig. 6.2 Comparison of (a) conventional design method and (b) optimum design method.
− The foregoing distinction between the two design approaches indicates that the
conventional design process is less formal. An objective function that measures a
design’s merit is not identified. Trend information is usually not calculated; nor is it
used in block 6 to make design decisions for system improvement. In contrast, the
optimization process is more formal, using trend information to make design changes.

6.3 Engineering Applications of Optimization

Optimization, in its broadest sense, can be applied to solve any engineering problem.
Some typical applications from different engineering disciplines indicate the wide
scope of the subject:
1. Design of aircraft and aerospace structures for minimum weight
2. Finding the optimal trajectories of space vehicles
3. Design of civil engineering structures such as frames, foundations, bridges, towers,
chimneys, and dams for minimum cost
4. Minimum-weight design of structures for earthquake, wind, and other types of
random loading
5. Design of water resources systems for maximum benefit
6. Optimal plastic design of structures
7. Optimum design of linkages, cams, gears, machine tools, and other mechanical
components
8. Selection of machining conditions in metal-cutting processes for minimum production
cost
9. Design of material handling equipment, such as conveyors, trucks, and cranes, for
minimum cost
10. Design of pumps, turbines, and heat transfer equipment for maximum efficiency
11. Optimum design of electrical machinery such as motors, generators, and transformers
12. Optimum design of electrical networks
13. Shortest route taken by a salesperson visiting various cities during one tour
14. Optimal production planning, controlling, and scheduling
15. Analysis of statistical data and building empirical models from experimental results to
obtain the most accurate representation of the physical phenomenon
16. Optimum design of chemical processing equipment and plants
17. Design of optimum pipeline networks for process industries
18. Selection of a site for an industry
19. Planning of maintenance and replacement of equipment to reduce operating costs
20. Inventory control
21. Allocation of resources or services among several activities to maximize the benefit
22. Controlling the waiting and idle times and queueing in production lines to reduce the
costs
23. Planning the best strategy to obtain maximum profit in the presence of a competitor
24. Optimum design of control systems.

6.4 Statement of an Optimization Problem

An optimization or a mathematical programming problem can be stated as follows.
 x1 
x 
 
Find X =  2  which minimizes f(X)
:
 xn 
Subject to the constraints
gj (X) ≤ 0, j = 1, 2,….., m
lj (X) ≤ 0, j = 1, 2,….., p (6.1)
where X is an n-dimensional vector called the design vector,
f (X) is termed the objective function, and
gj (X) and lj (X) are known as inequality and equality constraints, respectively.
The problem stated in Eq. (6.1) is called a constrained optimization problem.
Some optimization problems do not involve any constraints and can be stated as
 x1 
x 
 
Find X =  2  which minimizes f(X)
:
 xn 
Such problems are called unconstrained optimization problems.
6.5 Terms used in optimization

I. Design Vector and preassigned parameters.
− Any engineering system or component is defined by a set of quantities some of which
are viewed as variables during the design process.
− In general, certain quantities are usually fixed at the outset and these are called
preassigned parameters.
− All the other quantities are treated as variables in the design process and are called
design or decision variables. The design variables are collectively represented as a
design vector.
− As an example, consider the design of the gear pair shown in Fig. 6.3, characterized
by its face width b, number of teeth T1 andT2, center distance d, pressure angle ψ,
tooth profile, and material.
− If center distanced, pressure angle ψ, tooth profile, and material of the gears are fixed
in advance, these quantities can be called preassigned parameters.
− The remaining quantities can be collectively represented by
 x1   b 
   
− A design Vector X =  x2  = T1 
 x  T 
 3  2

Fig. 6.3 Gear pair in mesh.

II. Design Space or Design Variable Space
− If an n-dimensional Cartesian space with each coordinate axis representing a design
variable xi (i = 1, 2, . . . , n) is considered, the space is called the design variable
space or simply design space. Each point in the n-dimensional design space is called a
design point and represents either a possible or an impossible solution to the design
problem.
− In the case of the design of a gear pair, the design point {1.0, 20, 40}T, for example,
represents a possible solution, whereas the design point {1.0,−20, 40.5}T represents an
impossible solution since it is not possible to have either a negative value or a
fractional value for the number of teeth.
III. Design Constraints, Behavior Constraints and Side Constraints
− In many practical problems, the design variables cannot be chosen arbitrarily; rather,
they have to satisfy certain specified functional and other requirements. The
restrictions that must be satisfied to produce an acceptable design are collectively
called design constraints.
− Constraints that represent limitations on the behavior or performance of the system
are termed behavior or functional constraints.
− Constraints that represent physical limitations on design variables, such as
availability, fabricability, and transportability, are known as geometric or side
constraints.
− For example, for the gear pair shown in Fig. 6.2, the face width b cannot be taken
smaller than a certain value, due to strength requirements. Similarly, the ratio of the
numbers of teeth, T1/T2, is dictated by the speeds of the input and output shafts, N1
and N2. Since these constraints depend on the performance of the gear pair, they are
called behavior constraints.
− The values of T1 and T2 cannot be any real numbers but can only be integers. Further,
there can be upper and lower bounds on T1 and T2 due to manufacturing limitations.
Since these constraints depend on the physical limitations, they are called side
constraints.
IV. Constraint Surface
− For illustration, consider an optimization problem with only inequality constraints gj
(X) ≤ 0. The set of values of X that satisfy the equation gj (X) = 0 forms a
hypersurface in the design space and is called a constraint surface.
− The constraint surface divides the design space into two regions:
− one in which gj (X) < 0 and the other in which gj(X)>0.
− Thus the points lying on the hypersurface will satisfy the constraint gj (X) critically,
whereas the points lying in the region where gj (X)>0 are infeasible or unacceptable,
and the points lying in the region where gj (X) < 0 are feasible or acceptable. The
collection of all the constraint surfaces gj (X) = 0, j = 1, 2, . . . ,m, which separates the
acceptable region is called the composite constraint surface.
Fig. 6.4 Constraint surfaces in a hypothetical two-dimensional design space.

− Fig.6.4 shows a hypothetical two-dimensional design space where the infeasible

region is indicated by hatched lines. A design point that lies on one or more than one
constraint surface is called a bound point, and the associated constraint is called an
active constraint.
− Design points that do not lie on any constraint surface are known as free points.
− Depending on whether a particular design point belongs to the acceptable or
unacceptable region, it can be identified as one of the following four types:
1. Free and acceptable point
2. Free and unacceptable point
3. Bound and acceptable point
4. Bound and unacceptable point
V. Objective Function
− The criterion, with respect to which the design is optimized, when expressed as a
function of the design variables, is known as the criterion or merit or objective
function.
− The choice of objective function is governed by the nature of problem. The objective
function for minimization is generally taken as weight in aircraft and aerospace
structural design problems.
− In civil engineering structural designs, the objective is usually taken as the
minimization of cost.
− The maximization of mechanical efficiency is the obvious choice of an objective in
mechanical engineering systems design.
− In some situations, there may be more than one criterion to be satisfied
simultaneously.
− For example, a gear pair may have to be designed for minimum weight and maximum
efficiency while transmitting a specified horsepower.
− An optimization problem involving multiple objective functions is known as a
multiobjective programming problem.
− If f1(X) andf2(X) denote two objective functions, construct a new (overall) objective
function for optimization as
f (X) = α1f1(X) + α2f2(X)
− whereα1 and α2are constants whose values indicate the relative importance of one
objective function relative to the other.
6.6 Classification of Optimization Problems

Optimization problems can be classified in several ways, as described below.
(a) Classification Based on the Existence of Constraints
− Any optimization problem can be classified as constrained or unconstrained,
depending on whether constraints exist in the problem.

(b) Classification Based on the Nature of the Design Variables

− Based on the nature of design variables encountered, optimization problems can be
classified into two broad categories. In the first category, the problem is to find values
to a set of design parameters that make some prescribed function of these parameters
minimum subject to certain constraints. For example, the problem of minimum-
weight design of a prismatic beam shown in Fig. 6.9a subject to a limitation on the
maximum deflection can be stated as follows:
b 
Find X =   which minimizes
d 
f (X) = ρlbd
subject to the constraints
δtip (X) ≤ δmax
b ≥ 0 and d ≥ 0
− Where ρ is the density and δtip is the tip deflection of the beam. Such problems are
called parameter or static optimization problems.
Fig. 6.5 Cantilever beam under concentrated load.

− In the second category of problems, the objective is to find a set of design parameters,
which are all continuous functions of some other parameter, that minimizes an
objective function subject to a set of constraints. If the cross-sectional dimensions of
the rectangular beam are allowed to vary along its length as shown in Fig. 6.9b, the
optimization problem can be stated as
− Here the design variables are functions of the length parameter t. This type of
problem, where each design variable is a function of one or more parameters, is
known as a trajectory or dynamic optimization problem.

(c) Classification Based on the Physical Structure of the Problem

− Depending on the physical structure of the problem, optimization problems can be
classified as optimal control and nonoptimal control problems.
− Optimal Control Problem. An optimal control (OC) problem is a mathematical
programming problem involving a number of stages, where each stage evolves from
the preceding stage in a prescribed manner.
− It is usually described by two types of variables the control (design) and the state
variables. The control variables define the system and govern the evolution of the
system from one stage to the next, and the state variables describe the behavior or
status of the system in any stage.
(d) Classification Based on the Nature of the Equations Involved
− Another important classification of optimization problems is based on the nature of
expressions for the objective function and the constraints. According to this
classification, optimization problems can be classified as linear, nonlinear, geometric,
and quadratic programming problems. This classification is extremely useful from the
computational point of view since there are many special methods available for the
efficient solution of a particular class of problems. Thus the first task of a designer
would be to investigate the class of problem encountered. This will, in many cases,
dictate the types of solution procedures to be adopted in solving the problem.
− Nonlinear Programming Problem. If any of the functions among the objective and
constraint functions in Eq. (1.1) is nonlinear, the problem is called a nonlinear
programming (NLP) problem. This is the most general programming problem and all
other problems can be considered as special cases of the NLP problem.
− Linear Programming Problem. If the objective function and all the constraints are
linear functions of the design variables, the mathematical programming problem is
called a linear programming (LP) problem. A linear programming problem is often
stated in the following standard form:

− Geometric Programming Problem.

− Definition :A function h(X) is called a posynomialif h can be expressed as the sum of
power terms each of the form
cix1ai1x2ai2 ………..xnain
− where ci and aij are constants with ci>0 and xj>0. Thus a posynomial with N terms can
be expressed as
h(X) = c1x1a11 x2a12………xna1n+ ……..+ cNx1aN1 x2aN2………xnaNn
− A geometric programming (GMP) problem is one in which the objective function and
constraints are expressed as posynomials in X.
− Quadratic Programming Problem. A quadratic programming problem is a nonlinear
programming problem with a quadratic objective function and linear constraints. It is
usually formulated as follows:
(e) Classification Based on the Permissible Values of the Design Variables

− Depending on the values permitted for the design variables, optimization problems
can be classified as integer and real-valued programming problems.
− Integer Programming Problem. If some or all of the design variables x1, x2, . . . , xnof
an optimization problem are restricted to take on only integer (or discrete) values,the
problem is called an integer programming problem.
− On the other hand, if all the design variables are permitted to take any real value, the
optimization problem is called a real-valued programming problem.
(f) Classification Based on the Deterministic Nature of the Variables
− Based on the deterministic nature of the variables involved, optimization problems
can be classified as deterministic and stochastic programming problems.
− Stochastic Programming Problem. A stochastic programming problem is an
optimization problem in which some or all of the parameters (design variables and/or
preassigned parameters) are probabilistic (nondeterministic or stochastic).
(g) Classification Based on the Separability of the Functions
− Optimization problems can be classified as separable and nonseparable programming
problems based on the separability of the objective and constraint functions.

− Separable Programming Problem.

− Definition: A function f (X) is said to be separable if it can be expressed as the sumof
n single-variable functions, f1(x1), f2(x2), . . . ,fn(xn), that is,
− A separable programming problem is one in which the objective function and the
constraints are separable and can be expressed in standard form as
n
Find X which minimizes f ( X ) = ∑ f i ( xi )
i =1
n
Subject to g j ( X ) = ∑ g ij ( xi ) ≤ b j , j = 1, 2,……., m
i =1
Where bj is a constant
(h) Classification Based on the Number of Objective Functions
Depending on the number of objective functions to be minimized, optimization problems can
be classified as single and multiobjective programming problems.
Multiobjective Programming Problem. A multiobjective programming problem can be stated
as follows:
Find X which minimizes f1(X), f2(X), . . . ,fk(X)
subject to
gj (X) ≤ 0, j = 1, 2, . . . ,m
wheref1, f2, . . . , fk denote the objective functions to be minimized simultaneously.
Example 6.1:
Fig. 6.6 Tubular column under compression.

Design a uniform column of tubular section, with hinge joints at both ends, (Fig. 6.4) to carry
a compressive load P = 2500 kgf for minimum cost. The column is made up of a material that
has a yield stress (σy) of 500 kgf/cm2, modulus of elasticity (E) of 0.85 × 106kgf/cm2, and
weight density (ρ) of 0.0025 kgf/cm3.The length of the column is 250 cm. The stress induced
in the column should be less than the buckling stress as well as the yield stress. The mean
diameter of the column is restricted to lie between 2 and 14 cm, and columns with
thicknesses outside the range 0.2 to 0.8 cm are not available in the market. The cost of the
column includes material and construction costs and can be taken as 5W + 2d, where W is the
weight in kilograms force and d is the mean diameter of the column in centimeters.
The design variables are the mean diameter (d) and tube thickness (t):
 x  d 
X =  1=  
 x2   t 
The objective function to be minimized is given by
f (X) = 5W + 2d
= 5 (ρv) +2d
= 5 (ρAl) + 2d
= 5 (ρlπdt) + 2d
= 9.82x1x2 + 2x1
The behavior constraints can be expressed as
stress induced ≤ yield stress
stress induced ≤ buckling stress
The induced stress is given by

Since there are only two design variables, the problem can be solved graphically as shown
below.
First, the constraint surfaces are to be plotted in a two-dimensional design space where the
two axes represent the two design variables x1 and x2. To plot the first constraint surface, we
have
that is, x1x2≥ 1.593

Thus the curve x1x2 = 1.593 represents the constraint surface g1(X) = 0. This curve can be
plotted by finding several points on the curve. The points on the curve can be found by giving
a series of values to x1 and finding the corresponding values of x2that satisfy the relation x1x2
= 1.593:
These points are plotted and a curve P1Q1 passing through all these points is drawn as shown
in Fig. 6.7, and the infeasible region, represented by g1(X)>0 or x1x2< 1.593,is shown by
hatched lines. Similarly, the second constraint g2(X) ≤ 0 can be expressed as x1x2(x12+ x22 ) ≥
47.3 and the points lying on the constraint surface g2(X) = 0 can be obtained as follows for
x1x2(x12+ x22 ) = 47.3:

These points are plotted as curve P2Q2, the feasible region is identified, and the infeasible
region is shown by hatched lines as in Fig. 6.7. The plotting of side constraints is very simple
since they represent straight lines. After plotting all the six constraints, the feasible region can
be seen to be given by the bounded area ABCDEA.
Fig. 6.7 Graphical optimization of Example 6.1.

Next, the contours of the objective function are to be plotted before finding the optimum
point. For this, we plot the curves given by
f (X) = 9.82x1x2 + 2x1 = c = constant
for a series of values of c. By giving different values to c, the contours of f can be plotted
with the help of the following points.

For 9.82 x1 x2 + 2 x1 = 50
x2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
x1 16.77 12.62 10.10 8.44 7.24 6.33 5.64 5.07
For 9.82 x1 x2 + 2 x1 = 40
x2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
x1 13.40 10.10 8.08 6.75 5.79 5.06 4.51 4.05
For 9.82 x1 x2 + 2 x1 = 31.58 (Passing through corner point C)

x2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
x1 10.57 7.96 6.38 5.33 4.57 4.00 3.56 3.20
For 9.82 x1 x2 + 2 x1 = 26.53 (Passing through corner point B)

x2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
x1 8.88 6.69 5.36 4.48 3.84 3.36 2.29 2.69
For 9.82 x1 x2 + 2 x1 = 20
x2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
x1 6.70 5.05 4.04 3.38 2.90 2.53 2.26 2.02
These contours are shown in Fig. 6.7 and it can be seen that the objective function cannot be
reduced below a value of 26.53 (corresponding to point B) without violating some of the
constraints.
Thus the optimum solution is given by point B with
d* = x1* = 5.44 cm
t* = x2* = 0.293 cm
fmin = 26.53.
Example 6.2:It is required to design an oil can, shown in Figure 6.8, to hold at least 400 ml
of oil (1 ml = 1 cm3), as well as to meet other design requirements. The cans will be produced
in the billions, so it is desirable to minimize their manufacturing costs. Since cost can be
directly related to the surface area of the sheet metal used, it is reasonable to minimize the
amount of sheet metal required. Fabrication, handling, aesthetics, and shipping considerations
impose the following restrictions on the size of the can: The diameter should be no more than
8 cm and no less than3.5 cm, whereas the height should be no more than 18 cm and no less
than 8 cm.
The two design variables are defined as
D = diameter of the can, cm
H = height of the can, cm

x  D
Design vector X =  1  =  
 x2   H 
The objective function is minimization of cost of manufacturing of can
π
f ( x) = π DH + 2 D2
4
f ( x) = 3.14( x1 x2 + 0.5 x12 ) …………………….. (1)
Fig. 6.8 Can
Side constraints
8 ≥ D ≥ 3.5 cm
18 ≥ H ≥ 8 cm ……………………………….. (2)
Behavior constraints
V ≥ 400 ml (or cm3)
π
D 2 H ≥ 400 cm3
4
x12 x2 ≥ 509.3 …………………………………(3)
g(x) = x12 x2 ≥ 509.3
Get the solution from (2), (1) and (a)
x1 3.5 4.5 6 7 8
x2 41.57 25.15 14.14 10.39 8
f(x) 476.08 387.16 323.05 305.37 301.44
At x1 = 8 and x2 = 8 objective function is minimize and also satisfy the side constraints so,
D = 8 cm, H = 8 cm.
To plot the graph and to find feasible region with optimum solution, find x2 for various f(x)
by varying x1.
Let f ( x) = 3.14( x1 x2 + 0.5 x12 ) = 200
x1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x2 63.19 30.84 19.73 14 10.24 7.61 5.6 3.96
Let f ( x) = 3.14( x1 x2 + 0.5 x12 ) = 300
x1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x2 95.04 46.71 30.39 21.88 16.6 12.92 10.15 7.94

Fig. 6.9 Graphical optimization
Let f ( x) = 3.14( x1 x2 + 0.5 x12 ) = 400

x1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x2 127.8 62.7 41 29.89 23 18.28 14.7 11.92
Then g(x) = x12 x2 ≥ 509.3

x1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x2 509.3 127.3 56.58 31.83 20.37 14.14 10.4 8
Now plot f(200), f(300), f(400) and g(509.3)

From the graph BCE is Feasible Region. Point B shows optimum solution which gives
minimum surface area and minimum cost.
D = x1 = 8 cm
H = x2 = 8 cm
f(x) = 301.44
Example 6.3: A company manufactures two machines, A and B. Using available resources;
either 28 A or 14 B can be manufactured daily. The sales department can sell up to 14 A
machines or 24 B machines. The shipping facility can handle no more than 16 machines per
day. The company makes a profit of $400 on each A machine and $600 on each B machine.
How many A and B machines should the company manufacture every day to maximize its
profit?
Design variable
The following two design variables are identified in the problem statement:
xl = number of A machines manufactured each day
x2 = number of B machines manufactured each day
Objective function
The objective is to maximize daily profit, which can be expressed in terms of design variables
as f(x) = 400x1+ 600x2
Identification of constraints:
Design constraints are placed on manufacturing capacity, on sales personnel, and on the
shipping and handling facility.
The constraint on the shipping and handling facility is quite straightforward:
x1+ x2 ≤ 16 (shipping and handling constraint) – Behaviour constraint.
x1 x2
+ ≤ 1 (Manufacturing constraint) – Behaviour constraint.
28 14
x1 x2
+ ≤ 1(Sales Dept. limitations) – Behaviour constraint.
14 24
Finally, the design variables must be non-negative asx1, x2 ≥ 0 – Side constraint.
[Here the formulation remains valid even when a design variable has zero value. The problem
has two design variables and five inequality constraints. All functions of the problem are
linear in variables xl and x2. Therefore, it is a linear programming problem.]
Graphical Solution:
x1+ x2 ≤ 16 → g1
x1 0 16
x2 16 0

Fig. 6.10 Constraint boundary and Feasible/infeasible sidefor the inequality x1+ x2 ≤ 16 in the
profit maximization problem.
x1 x2
+ ≤ 1 → g2
28 14
x1 0 28 2 14
x2 14 0 13 7
Fig. 6.11Feasible region and Graphical solution tothe profit maximization problem
x1 x2
+ ≤1 → g3
14 24

x1 0 14
x2 24 0
x1 ≥ 0 → g4
x2 ≥ 0 → g5
Get the optimum function solution (To locate the optimum point)
f(x) = 400x1+ 600x2 Let at (6,4)
= 400 x 6+ 600 x 4
= 4800
f(x) = 400x1+ 600x2= 2400
f(x) = 400x1+ 600x2= 7200
As the contours move up toward point D, feasible designs can be found with larger values for
f(x). It is clear from observation that point D has the largest value for f(x) in the feasible
region. Now simply read the coordinates of point D (4, 12) to obtain the optimum design,
having a maximum value for the profit function as
f(x) = 400x1+ 600x2= 8800.
Example 6.4: A manufacturing firm produces two machine parts using lathes, milling
machines and grinding machines. The different machining times required for each part, the
machining time available on different machines and the profit on each machine part are given
in the following table.
Machining Time required ( in min) Maximum time
Type of Machine available per week
I (x) II (y)
(minutes)
Lathe 10 5 2500
Milling machine 4 10 2000
Grinding machine 1 1.5 450
Profit per unit Rs. 50 Rs. 100
Determine the number of parts I and II to be manufactured per week to maximize the profit.
Let A = number of parts I

B = number of parts II
1. Design vector :
The design vector is given by,
 A
X = 
B ………………(a)
2. Objective function :
The objective function to be maximized is the total profit. It is given by,
f(x) = 50 A + 100 B ……………….(b)
3. Design constraints :

Machining time of lathe machine : 10A + 5B ≤ 2500 ……………..(c)

Machining time of milling machine :4A+ 10B ≤ 2000 ……………..(d)
Machining time of grinding machine : A + 1.5B ≤ 450 ……………..(e)
Non-negativeconstraints : A ≥ 0 and integer …………… (f)
B ≥ 0and integer …………… (g)
From Equation (c),
10 A + 5B
≤1
2500
A B
+ ≤1
250 500
……………………. (h)
From Equation (d),
4 A + 10 B
≤1
2000
A B
+ ≤1
500 200
………………….. (i)
From Equation (e),
A + 1.5B
≤1
450
A B
+ ≤1
450 300
……………………..(j)
4. Plotting of design constraints :
The above design constraints can be plotted in two dimensional design space (A-axis and B-
axis), as shown in Fig. 6.12.
Design Constraint Remark
A B
+ ≤1 Straight line with A - intercept =250 and B - intercept = 500
250 500
A B
500 200
A B
450 300
1. Contours of objective function:

Coordinates of point L :
A = 0, B = 200
Coordinates of point N :
A = 250, B = 0

Computer Aided Design (161903
161903) 6. Optimization
Fig.6.12 Graphical optimization
Coordinates of point M :
Point M can be obtained as intersection of lines,
A B A B
+ =1 + =1
250 500 500 200
500 A + 250 B = 125000 and 200 A + 500 B = 100000
5 A + 2.5 B 1250 and 2 A + 5 B = 1000
10 A + 5 B = 2500
+ 2 A + 5B = + 1000
8 A = 1500

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Technology Rajkot Page 6.23
A =187.5
B = 125
Objective function curve through M :
For objective function curve through M (187.5, 125),
f(X) = P = 50A+ 1008
= 50 x 187.5 + 100 x 125
= 21875
Equation of objective function curve (line) through M is,
50 A + 100 B = 21875
50 A + 100 B
=1
21875
A B
+ =1
437.5 218.75
Optimum solution:
As P = f(X) is maximum at point M, the optimum solution is given by point M with,
A = 187.5 ≈ 187 (As A has to be an integer)
and B = I25
P = f(X) = 50 A + 100 B
= 50 x 187 + 100 x 125
= 21850
Number of parts I, A = 187
Number of parts II, B = 125
Profit, P = Rs.21850
6.7 Optimum Design with Lagrange Multipliers

− The Lagrange Multiplier is a powerful method for finding optima in multivariable
problemsinvolving function constraints.
Consider the objective function
U =U1(x, y, z)
Subject to functional constraints
Ψ1 = Ψ1 (x, y, z) and
Ψ2 = Ψ2 (x, y, z)

Example 6.5: A heat exchanger is to be designed for minimum cost. The design
requirement indicated that 300 m of tube length in all be installed for achieving necessary
heat transfer surface.
The total cost of installation has been approximated as:
1) Total cost of tubes = Rs.24500
2) Cost of shell = Rs.875D2.5L
where D = shell diameter and
L = length of each tube ≈ Length of heat exchanger
3) Cost of floor space occupied by the heat exchanger = 700 D L.
The spacing of the tubes is such that 20 tubes can be accommodated in cross sectional area of
l m2insidetheshell.Determine the diameter D and length L of the heat exchanger to minimize
costs.

Example 6.6: Find the solution using the Lagrange multiplier method:
Minimize f (x, y) = kx−1y−2
(x, y) = x2 + y2 − a2 = 0
Subject to g(x,

Page 6.26 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Technology Rajkot
Example 6.7: Find the dimensions of a cylindrical tin (with top and bottom) made up of
sheet metal to maximize its volume such that the total surface area is equal toA0 = 24π.
If x1 and x2 denote the radius of the base and length of the tin, respectively, the problem can
be stated as
Maximize f (x1, x2) = πx12x2
6.8 Johnson's Method of Optimum Design

In Johnson's method of Optimum Design, any mechanical element design can have 3 formsof
equations:-
(a) Primary Design Equation (PDE)
This is the most important design equation, which expresses the most significant functional
requirement or the most significant undesirable effect. For example, the primary design

equation for an airplane shaft may be the one which expresses its weight, which is an
undesirable effect and needs to be minimized.
(b) Subsidiary Design Equations (SDE)
In a mechanical element, design equations other than PDE are called Subsidiary Design
Equations (SDE). SDE express either functional requirements or significant undesirable
effects, whether they are directly specified or indirectly implied. The most important SDE are
the stress equations, which are generally implied.
(c) Limit Equations or Constraints (LE)
As mentioned previously, various parameters have certain ranges which are expressed in
mathematically simple limit equations. For example, the limitations in stress are imposed by
the strength of the material. Limitations on geometry are imposed by certain functional
requirement or space constraints.
Basic steps in method of Optimum Design:-

l) Problem Formulation:
a. Decide on basic configuration in the form of sketches identifying loads, deflections
and stresses.
b. Summarising the significant constraints, compile the Primary Design Equation,
Subsidairy Design Equation and the Limit Equation.
c. The equations are so combined that the total number of equations is equal to the
number of free variables.
d. These equations are then studied for optimum design.
The above procedure would be clarified in the following sections. Three types of problemsare
encountered in the method of Optimum Design:-
I. Case of Normal Specifications (NS)
II. Case of Redundant Specifications (RS)
III. Case of Incompatible Specifications (lS)
I. Case of Normal Specifications

This is the case in which the final formulation consists of a single PDE. For this type
ofproblem, nf ≥ NS, where nf is the number of free variables and NS is the number of SDEs.
A free variable is one with no constraints imposed by the Limit Equations.
nv= nf + nc
where
nv = Total number of Variables and
nc = Total number of constrained variables.
In this case, it is possible to uniquely determine the optimum solution.
Example 6.8: Design a tensile bar of length L = 200 mm to carry a tensile load of 5 kN
forminimum cost, out of the following materials:

Material Mass Density Material cost (Rs / Yield strength

(kg/m3) N Weight) (MPa)
Steel 7500 16 130
AL-alloy 3000 32 50
Titanium Alloy 4800 480 90
Magnesium Alloy 2100 32 20
Fig. 6.13 Simple Tensile Bar

(1) PDE (cost of material is the criterion of optimization)
Let cm = Cost of the bar in Rs.
P = Mass density in kg/m3.
A = Area in m2
L = Length in m
c = Cost of material / weight in Rs/N
cm =Weight of the bar (N) x c
= (Mass Density x Volume) x g x c
= ρ ALgc
PDE is → cm = ρ ALgc
(2) SDE
σ = P/A
where P is the specified load
(3) Linear Equation (LE)
σ ≤ σy/ F.S
(4) Itis observed that c, p, σy are material parameters, A is the geometrical parameter, σ and
cmare undesirable effects, P, L andF.S are functional requirements.
We observe that there is one free variable (A) and one SDE
nf= NS
Simplifying and combining equations

Here, P, L, F.S. are specified quantities and cannot be changed. (g is a constant).

Therefore, from the equation, the material selection factor (MSF) is c ρ /σy
The cost would be minimum for the material having lowest value of (MSF)
cρ
Material MSF =
Sy
16 × 7500
Steel = 923.077
130
32 × 3000
AL-alloy = 1920
50
480 × 4800
Titanium Alloy = 25600
90
32 × 2100
Magnesium Alloy = 3360
20
It is seen that steel has the lowest MSF and hence should be used to cost for achieve
optimization in cost for given conditions
Assuming F.S. = 2, the free variable A (area) can be calculated by using SDE i.e.
Example 6.9: In a light weight equipment, a shaft is transmitting a torque of 900 Nm and is
to have a rigidity of 90 Nm/degree. Assume a factor of safety of 1.5 based on yield stress.
Design the shaft with minimum weight. What will be the change in design for minimum cost?
Assume maximum shear stress theory of failure. Use the following data for the materials:-

Computer Aided Design (161903
161903) 6. Optimization
Mass Density Material cost Yield strength Shear Modulus

Material
(kg/m3) (Rs / N Weight) (MPa) (GPa)
Steel 8500 16 130 80
AL-alloy 3000 32 50 26.7
Titanium Alloy 4800 480 90 40
Magnesium Alloy 2100 32 20 16
Let ρ = Mass Density in kg/m3

K= Torsional rigidity in Nm/radian
MT = Torque rating in Nm
F.S. = 1.5
G= Modulus of rigidity in N/m2
Sy= Yield stress in N/m2
d = Diameter of shaft in m,
L= Length of shaft in m
W = Weight of shaft in N
cm= Material cost/weight (Rs/N)
/N)
(1) PDE:
W = ρ x L x g x d2 x π/4

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Technology Rajkot Page 6.31
MT, F.S. and K aree specified functional requirements. Hence, the minimum
imum MSF will mean
minimum weight.
Calculating from the data given
For Weight For Cost

Material ρG cρ G
MSF = 2 MSF =
Sy Sy 2
8500 × 80 ×109
Steel = 0.04024 0.6438
(130 ×106 )2
3000 × 26.7 ×109

AL-alloy = 0.03204 1.0253
(50 ×106 )2

Page 6.32 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Technology Rajkot
4800 × 40 ×109
Titanium Alloy = 0.02370 11.3760
(90 ×106 )2
2100 ×16 ×109

Magnesium Alloy = 0.08400 2.6880
(20 ×106 )2
Minimum MSF (0.02370) is for Titanium Alloy and hence it should be used to achieve,
minimum weight for given conditions.

From the table, it is seen that the minimum MSF (0.6438) is tor steel alloy which will result,
in minimum cost.
II. Case of Redundant Specifications:

This is a case in which the final formulation consists of a system of two or more equations.
For the case of redundant specifications, it is not possible to include the effects of all SDEs
and all LEs in a single PDE. This case is generally characterized by the necessity of
eliminating a limited parameter in order to combine a SDE with PDE. Hence, there is
generally an excess number of LEs for such cases and a special procedure is to be followed
for problem solving.
The case of redundant specification occurs when
nf < Ns
III. Case of Incompatible Specifications:

The case of incompatible specifications is a special case of redundant specifications where
the SDE and LEs are such that it is impossible to satisfy them all with any one physically
feasible design of the mechanical element. In such cases, no optimum design solution exists.
Example 6.10 : A simple tensile bar is subjected to the specified constant tensile force ‘F’.
Design the bar with the objective of minimizing the material cost using factor of safety ‘Nf’.
The following limitation is specified in the optimum design.
Lmin ≤ L ≤ Lmax
Fig. 6.14
Cm = material cost of the tensile bar, Rs.
c = cost per unit mass for the bar material, Rs /kg
ρ = mass density of the bar material, kg / m3
A = cross-sectional area of the bar, m2

L = length of the bar, m

F = tensile force acting on the bar, N
Nf = factor of safety
σt = tensile stress induced in the bar, N / m2
Syt = yield strength of the bar material, N / m2
l. Primary design equation (P.D.E.):

• The most significant undesirable effect to be minimized is the material cost of the bar
and is given by,
Cm = Cost per unit mass of the bar x Mass of the bar
Cm = c x ρ A L
or Cm = c ρ A L, Rs …………………(a)
2. Subsidiary design equation (S.D.E.) :
• The tensile stress induced in the bar is given by,
σt = F/A …………………(b)
3. Limit equations (L.E.):
• The limit equations are,
σt ≤ Syt / Nf ………………….(c)
Lmin ≤ L ≤ Lmax ………………….(d)
4. Classification of parameters :
Specified Limited Unspecified and
Unlimited
Functional Requirement Parameters F, Nf
Undesirable Effect Parameters σt Cm
Geometrical Parameters L A
Material Parameters c, ρ, Syt
5. Combining S.D.E. with P.D.E. :

• S.D.E. [Equation (b)] is combined with P.D.E. [Equation (a)] by eliminating the
unspecified and unlimited parameter A. Therefore,
C m = c ρ A L / σt ………………………..(e)
• This is developed P.D.E. From Equation (e) it is seen that, the effects of both the limit
equations i.e. Equations (c) and (d) can be included in the developed P.D.E.
• Therefore, this is the base of normal specifications.
6. Combining limit equations with P.D.E. :
• The next step is to include the effects of all limit equations in the developed P.D.E.
• Cm α 1/ σt, hence for minimizing ' Cm', the parameter ' σt' should be placed at its upper
limit i.e. Syt / Nf.
• Again, Cm α L, and hence for minimizing ' Cm' the parameter 'L' should placed at its
lower limit i.e. Lmin.

• Substituting these limiting values, Equation (e) can be written as,
……………(f)
• This is final P.D.E. In order to minimize ' Cm ', the material selection factor [c ρ / Syt ]
should be minimum.
7. Selection of material :
• The material selection factor [c ρ / Syt] is calculated for all the available material and
the material with the lowest value of [c ρ / Syt] is selected.
8. Determination of eliminated parameter :
• The eliminated parameter 'A' can be determined by using S.D.E. [Equation (b)].
Therefore, substituting the limiting value of σt Equation (b),
9. Determination of optimum quantity :

• Finally the most significant undesirable effect to be minimized i.e. ' Cm ', is
determined by using final P.D E [Equation (f)].
Example 6.11: A tensile bar of circular cross-section is subjected to the cyclic tensile force
which varies from zero to maximum. Design the bar with the objective of maximizing the
energy absorption capacity using the factor of safety 'Nf'. The following limitations are to be
used in the design due to space and assembly restrictions.
d ≤ dmax
Lmin ≤ L ≤ Lmax
Fig. 6.15

The endurance limit of the test specimen is given by,

Se = 0.5 Sut
The endurance limit of the tensile bar is given by,
Se’ = Ka . Kb . Kc . Kd . Ke . Kg .Se’
Se’ = Ka . Kb . Kc . Kd . Ke . Kg .0.5 Sut
Se = K Sut ……………………….(a)
Where K = Ka . Kb . Kc . Kd . Ke . Kg x 0.5
U = energy absorption capacity of the tensile bar, N-mm
L = length of the bar, mm
A = cross-sectional area of the bar, mm2
d = diameter of the bar, mm
Fmax = maximum force acting on the bar during the cycle, N
δmax = maximum elongation of the bar during the cycle, N
σmax = maximum stress induced in the bar, N/mm2
σm = mean stress, N/mm2
σa = stress arnplitude, N/mm2
Nf = factor of safety
Syt = yield strength of the bar material, N/mm2
Sut = ultimate tensile strength of the bar material, N/mm2
Se = endurance limit of the bar, N/mm2
E = modulus of elasticity of the bar material. N/mm2
1. Primary design equation (P.D.E.) :

The most significant functional requirement to be maximized is the energy absorption
capacity of the tensile bar and is given by,
1
U= Fmax .δ max ……………………………………(b)
2
2. Subsidiary design equations (S.D.E.):
The maximum elongation of the tensile bar is given by,
……………………(c)
The maximum tensile stress induced in the bar is given by,

…………………(d)
3. Limit equations (L.E.) :
Fig. 6.16 Repeated stress

According to the Soderberg criterion, for the safety of the bar against the fatigue failure,
For the repeated stress, as shown in Fig. 6.16, the mean stress and the stress amplitude are
given by,
The Equations (h), (i) and (j) are the limit equations.

4. Classification of parameters :
Specified Limited Unspecified and
Unlimited
Functional Requirement Parameters Nf U, Fmax, δmax
Undesirable Effect Parameters σmax
Geometrical Parameters L,d A
Material Parameters c, ρ, Syt
5. Combining S.D.E.'s with P.D.E. :

S.D.E. (c) is combined with P.D.E. [Equation (b)] by eliminating the unspecified and
unlimited parameter ' δmax '. Therefore,
………..(k)
Again S.D.E. (d) is combined with P.D.E. [Equation (k)] by eliminating the unspecified and
unlimited parameter Fmax Hence,
………..(l)
This is developed P.D.E. From Equation (l) it is seen that, the effects of all limit equations i.e.
Equations (h), (i) and (r) can be included in the developed P.D.E.
Therefore, this is the case of normal specifications.
6. Combining limit equations with P.D.E. :
The next step is to include the effects of all limit equations in the developed P.D.E.
U α σ2max, hence for maximizing 'U', the parameter σmax, should be placed at its upper limit
2  K .Sut .S yt 
i.e.  
N f  K .Sut + S yt 
U α d2, hence for maximizing 'U', the parameter d, should be placed at its upper limit i.e. dmax.
Again U α L, hence for maximizing 'U', the L, should be placed at its upper limit i.e. Lmax.
Substituting these limiting values, Equation (l) can be written as,
…………..(m)
This is final P.D.E. In order to maximize ‘U’, the material selection factor
 1  K .S .S 2 
  ut yt
  should be maximum.
  
E K .S + S yt  
 ut


7. Selection of material:
 1  K .S .S  
2
The material selection factor    is calculated for all the available materials
ut yt
 
 E  K .Sut + S yt 
 
 1  K .S .S 2 
and the material with the largest value of     is selected.
ut yt
 E  K .Sut + S yt  

 
8. Determination of eliminated parameters :
The eliminated parameters Fmax and δmax are determined by using S.D.E.’s i.e. Equations (c)
and (d).
Substituting limiting values of σmax and ‘d’ in Equation (d),
9. Determination of optimum quantity :

Finally the most significant functional requirement to be maximized i.e. ‘U’ is determined by
using the final P.D.E. [Equation (m)].
References :
− Engineering Optimization – S. S. Rao
− Introduction to Optimum Design – J. S. Arora
− Machine & CAD – Farzak Haideri


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Contents

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................1.2

Fig.1.1 – Typical product cycle

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.3 – Definition of CAD tools based on their implementation in a design environment

1.2 Reason for Implementing a CAD System

1.3 Conventional Design Process

Fig.1.4 – Conventional Design Process

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.5 – Conventional design vs Computer Aided Design

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.5 Benefits of CAD

1.6 Limitations of CAD

1.7 CAD/CAM Systems Evaluation Criteria

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.7.1 System Considerations

1.7.2 Geometric Modeling Capabilities

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.8 CAD Hardware

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Functions of secondary memory

Fig.1.7 – Design workstation

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

• A digitizing tablet is considered to be a locating as well as pointing device. It is a small, low-

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.12 – Principle of CRT

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Direct View Storage Tube (DVST)

Fig.1.14 – Direct view storage tube

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.15 – Typical pixel matrix of a raster display

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.19 – Drum plotter

Fig.1.20 – Flat bed plotter

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.21 – Dot matrix printer

Fig.1.22 – Working of laser printer

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.10 Coordinate Systems

Fig.1.23 – Typical component to model

Fig.1.24 – Coordinate systems

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.25 – Screen coordinate system.

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.26 – A straight line drawing by DDA algorithm

Fig.1.27 – Flow chart for line calculation procedure by DDA algorithm

Ex. 1.1 [GTU; Dec-2018; 7 Marks]

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.12 Bresenham’s Line Algorithm

Prof. Vimal G Limbasiya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig.1.28 – Position of individual pixels for calculation using Bresenham procedure

𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + 1 Eq. (1.7)

𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚𝑥𝑖 + 𝐶 Eq. (1.8)

𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝐶 Eq. (1.9)

𝑑1 = 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝐶 − 𝑦𝑖 Eq. (1.10)

𝑑2 = 𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) − 𝐶 Eq. (1.11)

From Eq. (1.10) and Eq. (1.11)

𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝐶 − 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖+1 + 𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 𝐶 Eq. (1.12)

𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 2𝑚(𝑥𝑖 + 1) + 2𝐶 − 2𝑦𝑖 − 1 Eq. (1.13)