25th International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage Q.

64
01-08 November 2023, Visakhapatnam, India R.64.1.01

A NAVIGATION TOOL FOR MODERNIZATION: MASSCOTE

APPLICATIONS TO FIND A WAY IN THE COMPLEXITY

UN OUTIL DE NAVIGATION POUR LA MODERNIZATION :

L’APPLICATION MASSCOTE POUR TRACER UN
CHEMIN DANS LA COMPLEXITE

M.G. Shivakumar1, Dr. Daniel Renault2 and Lance Gore3

ABSTRACT

How to found a way for modernizing irrigation systems in the jungle and complexity of issues
and solutions? This question is critical for managers of irrigation systems who often are stuck in
their daily management tasks and face difficulty to make a step aside and contemplate openly
what are the ranges of options they might consider. This often ends up with well-known
interventions, like canal lining, restoring initial canal capacity, that might not be a complete
response to the problems.
The FAO RAP-Masscote (Ref. 1.) procedure has been developed for helping managers doing
this “out of the box” thinking. Two weeks are required for RAP-MASSCOTE4, it is only during
the second week after in depth diagnosis that a vision of modernization and services emerges
among the participants and lead to a strategy and technical options for modernization of the
project. Masscote exercise is being applied to multiple use major and medium irrigation (MMI)
projects in India under the new initiative called the Support for Irrigation Modernization Program
(SIMP) taken up by Ministry of Jal Shakti with technical assistance (TA) provided from the
Asian Development Bank. SIMP’s objective is to improve water productivity, water use
efficiency, and increase farmers’ income.
The concept of Masscote application under SIMP will ultimately be linked with a typology of
Indian irrigation systems, reducing the number to few types investigated in depth. This process
will allow sharing experience between similar systems.
The applications of the Masscote procedure in the first four selected projects of SIMP had led
to clearly identify key strategic thrusts that must be considered for the future projects:
1. Optimum surface reservoir management to yield more water for the project by
minimizing evaporation and reducing spill.
2. Canal service for groundwater recharge: Conjunctive surface and groundwater
reservoir management implies to introduce the Service for groundwater recharge
(especially in wet season) aside with the classical service for irrigation.
3. Pipe systems for improved distribution system: to improve the service to users as
well as to reduce water losses, piping the system below the main and secondary
canals, down to the field inlet is an efficient option.
4. Progressive Automation: automation along the main infrastructure becomes often a
necessity to cope with increased complexity of service as well as reduction of staff, its
introduction must be made progressive together with the development of capacity.
These 4 elements come with the more classical recommendations on institutions, on data
monitoring and management, on sustainability to cover the O&M cost, on agriculture

1 Irrigation Modernization Specialist, Consultant ADB, India, skumarmg04@gmail.com

2 Irrigation Modernization Specialist, Consultant ADB, France, daniel.renault34@orange.fr
3 Principal Water Resources Specialist, Asian Development Bank., Manila, lgore@adb.org
4 RAP = Rapid Appraisal Procedure; MASSCOTE= Mapping System and Services for Canal
Operation Technique.

1
 25th International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage Q.64
01-08 November 2023, Visakhapatnam, India R.64.1.01

development to convert improved services into yield growth, improved productivity and higher
revenues for farmers.
The paper examines how the Masscote navigation tool has help in moving away from classical
responses to produce more consistent innovative package.
Keywords: Irrigation; modernisation; diagnosis; performance.

RÉSUMÉ

Comment trouver la bonne trajectoire pour moderniser les systèmes d'irrigation dans la jungle
et la complexité des problèmes et des solutions ? Cette question est cruciale pour les
gestionnaires de systèmes d'irrigation qui sont souvent trop pris dans leurs tâches
quotidiennes de gestion et ont du mal à faire le pas de côté nécessaire pour envisager de
façon large et ouvertes, quelles sont toutes les types d'options qu'ils pourraient envisager. Cela
se termine souvent par le choix d’interventions bien connues, comme le revêtement des
canaux, la restauration de la capacité initiale du canal, options qui malheureusement peuvent
ne pas être une réponse suffisante aux problèmes.
La procédure RAP-Masscote de la FAO a été développée pour aider les gestionnaires à
penser « hors des sentiers battus ». La manière la plus classique d'appliquer RAP-
MASSCOTE est à travers un exercice de formation de deux semaines avec environ 40 cadres
d'horizons divers (irrigation, agriculture, eaux souterraines). Deux semaines sont en effet
nécessaires pour un atelier Masscote, et ce n'est qu'au cours de la deuxième semaine après
un diagnostic approfondi qu'une vision de modernisation et des services émerge parmi les
participants et débouche sur une stratégie et des options techniques de modernisation du
projet.
Le processus par étapes dans Masscote impose aux participants d'approfondir chaque étape
pour ensuite entrer progressivement dans la construction d'une stratégie sans risquer de
laisser de côté des aspects importants. C'est un processus qui ouvre progressivement la boîte
en donnant suffisamment de temps et d'interaction entre tous les participants de divers
horizons et de divers projets. L’exercice collectif est stimulant et apporte plus que la somme
des contributions individuelles.
La méthode Masscote est appliquée à 5 projets d'irrigation large et moyen en Inde dans le
cadre de la nouvelle initiative "Support for Irrigation Modernization Program" (SIMP) prise en
charge par le ministère de Jal Shakti dans le cadre de l'assistance technique (TA) de la
Banque asiatique de développement. L'objectif du SIMP est d'améliorer la productivité de l'eau,
l'efficacité de l'utilisation de l'eau et l'augmentation des revenus des agriculteurs.
Le concept d'application Masscote dans le SIMP sera finalement lié à une typologie des
systèmes d'irrigation en Inde, et ce afin de réduire le nombre des périmètres étudiés en
profondeur à seulement quelques types. Ce processus permettra un meilleur partage
d'expérience entre des systèmes similaires.
Les applications de Masscote dans 4 premiers projets sélectionnés du SIMP ont permis
d'identifier clairement les axes stratégiques clés qui doivent être pris en compte pour les futurs
projets :
1. Gestion optimale du réservoir de surface pour produire plus d'eau pour le projet en
minimisant l'évaporation et en réduisant les déversements.
2. Un service de recharge des eaux souterraines : La gestion conjointe des réservoirs
d'eau de surface et souterraine implique d'introduire le Service de recharge des eaux
souterraines (surtout en saison humide) à côté du service classique d'irrigation.
3. Systèmes de canalisations pour un système de distribution amélioré : pour
améliorer le service aux utilisateurs ainsi que pour réduire les pertes d'eau, la mise
sous canalisation du réseau de distribution à l’aval des canaux principaux et/ou
secondaires, jusqu'à l'entrée du champ est une option efficace.
4. Automatisation progressive : l'automatisation le long de l'infrastructure principale
devient souvent une nécessité pour faire face à la complexité accrue du service ainsi
qu'à la réduction du personnel, son introduction doit être progressive et associé à un
programme de développement des capacités.

2
 25th International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage Q.64
01-08 November 2023, Visakhapatnam, India R.64.1.01

Ces 4 éléments se rajoutent à des recommandations plus classiques qui cible les
réarrangements institutionnels au niveau local et à l’échelle du projet, sur le suivi et la gestion
des données, sur la durabilité pour couvrir les coûts d'exploitation et de maintenance, sur le
développement de l'agriculture qui, en fin de compte, permettra de convertir les services
améliorés d’irrigation en accroissement des rendements et de la productivité et des revenus
plus élevés pour les agriculteurs.
L'article examinera comment l'outil de navigation Masscote a aidé à s'éloigner des réponses
classiques pour produire un package innovant plus cohérent.
Mots clés : Irrigation ; modernisation ; diagnostique; performance.

1. Introduction
The idea of modernization of irrigation systems is quite well spread among the irrigation
community as new projects are seldom and the existing ones are performing far below par
needing urgently to improve performance. The progressive use of performance assessment
tools shows that there is often a gap between projected and achieved targets. With the
introduction of a cheap but efficient pumping technology and the State power subsidy many
farmers are diverting from disappointed canal services to groundwater pumping. Another
reason for modernization is the need to cater new concerns that were not initially considered,
environment, resilience to extreme climate events, multiple uses of water and new needs for
water uses, as well as cost recovery for MOM.5 The demand from other sectors like domestic
and industries is reducing the water allocation for irrigation which is putting pressure on the
managers to find new sources of water and use efficient application of water (drip, sprinkler).
In this rapidly evolving environment, managers are often under pressure, they are asked to
deliver better services with often less staff and still having manually operated systems and
deteriorated infrastructure.
Inadequate funding for MOM leading to the recurrent cycles of rehabilitation/modernization
(every 30 years or so) as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The depressing cycle of build-neglect-rehabilitate-neglect for irrigation schemes

(Burton, 2010, Ref 2)

Often modernization strategy is limited to introduction of well-known technology: upgrade

technical, canal lining, introduction of information systems, etc and there are a long list of
interventions that do not bring lasting and sustained improvements in the absence of adequate
O&M6 funding and trained staff.
Under SIMP, some 80 measures were initially identified as potential technical improvements for
modernization. Which ones should managers consider? The benefits accruing from the
intervention vis-a-vis cost is an important consideration for phased planning. How to found a
way for modernizing irrigation systems in the jungle and complexity of issues and solutions?
Where should the efforts put: main canal, distribution network, field application, etc.?

5 MOM = Management Operation and Maintenance

6 O&M = Operation and Maintenance

3
 25th International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage Q.64
01-08 November 2023, Visakhapatnam, India R.64.1.01

This question is critical for managers of irrigation systems who often are stuck in their daily
management tasks and face difficulty to make a step aside and contemplate openly what are
the ranges of options they might consider.
The framework used under SIMP provides a consistent approach for both systems’ diagnostics
and for building nationwide knowledge and capacity. It allows progressively generating a bank
of projects and modernization experiences, and it identifies some trends and needs across
multiple systems. As SIMP progresses more and more projects and experiences will be
added, the trends/themes and their range of solutions will become more defined.

2. Canal Service to walk along the attractiveness pathway

The first quality of a navigation tool is to identify the pathway that one should not go again, the
dead-end street.
The classical reflex of irrigation managers confronted to the regression of irrigation canal water
services is to retrieve the initial capacity to channel and distribute surface water to farmers. It is
most of the time illusory because the initial design service was probably never reached, and
dangerous because the situation has changed so much in terms of cropping pattern, increased
demand from other sectors, overuse of water for irrigation (waterlogging), etc.
The harsh reality is that many farmers in many systems have diverted from canal water for their
supply to groundwater services much more performant at least when groundwater is abundant
and sustainable. This is particularly true in India where the groundwater pumping using
electricity is encouraged by the authorities in many ways on investment and running cost.
There is a sense of cruelty for managers because before the canal construction in some areas,
there was nothing or just wet season crops only, agriculture was not developed, now farmers
are turning away from the canal to look elsewhere.
In this context we must recognize that this is often “mission impossible” for managers and
irrigation engineers to go back and succeed along the old track. Many farmers have diverted
from irrigation canal service to a good service from groundwater pumping. This service is
adequate, reliable, flexible, the kind of performance that are very difficult to achieve along a
surface canal network.
However, there are still many reasons for the canal water service to be attractive. Managers,
designers must identify them and focus on them, and probably less on the idea of the old
service of the design stage of the project such as rigid cropping pattern with low value crops
and protective irrigation spread over a larger area which might no longer be pertinent. Farmers
have moved away from protective irrigation to productive irrigation cultivating more
remunerative and high value crops.
Canal water remains attractive:
• For quality issues when surface water is fresh and groundwater having some
quality problems (salt)
• For continuous service when power shedding might interrupt groundwater
pumping.
• For energy balance when canal water is gravity fed
• For serving other uses of water along distributaries (i.e., for domestic and
industrial users)
• For sustaining water resource management when groundwater use becomes
critical So it is a re-engineering pathway that one has to go for modernization (A
method that was used in the industrial and business sector some decades ago to
reshuffle the firm activity)

4
 25th International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage Q.64
01-08 November 2023, Visakhapatnam, India R.64.1.01

3. Avoid rushing on well-known interventions

A navigation tool for modernization should not rush you towards the well-known interventions,
like canal lining, restoring initial canal capacity, that might exhaust rapidly allocated funds but
not be a complete response to the problems.
Well known interventions are good when they are well designed and serving clear objectives of
modern water services.
With the Masscote exercise users are initially more driven towards questions than answers,
such as: Why lining? What services? What benefits? For whom? etc. It is like a car’s GPS7
asking the driver why they want to go there. It is somehow annoying but generally ultimately
fruitful.
This is made to ensure that the consideration on providing the services will be tuned with the
requirements and the affordability by users. The paradox, difficult to accept sometimes by
engineers, is that in cases “modernization” in its true sense can lead to redesign manual and
low-cost operation without high technologies or huge investment. That could be the case, for
instance, for paddy irrigation systems.

4. Avoid rushing on well-known high technologies.

There is a danger in entrusting one's fate to cutting-edge technologies, even if they have been
proven elsewhere. This attitude is dangerous because it can divert the designer from looking
elsewhere in other directions and dangerous if applied without strong precautions to ensure
success. Irrigation modernisation is full of magic words like SCADA8, automation, sprinkler,
drip, etc. and they are often considered as panacea to reach high performance, but
unfortunately this might not be achieved as expected from the books.
Well-known technologies are good when they are well mastered, and that needs a lot of efforts
beyond the first installation needing sustained O&M, upgradation, and acceptability by the
users (farmers).
The case of field applications technologies is a good example of that issue. If the books say 95
%, 85% and 60% respectively for drip, sprinkler and surface irrigation efficiency at field level,
the assessment of actual performance shows that the two first figures are overestimating the
performance achieved by farmers. Inversely surface irrigation might do better than the low
figure mentioned when good technologies are applied (e.g., laser levelling, control of flow at
field head, etc.).
A comprehensive assessment made for the entire State of California (Ref 3.) shows that the
mean performance measured for drip is 86%, for sprinkler 76% and for surface irrigation 75%.
Preliminary studies in India shows lower values (Ref. 4).

5. Exploring new ways before taking decision

A modernization project should be evaluated not only on the option(s) selected but on the
options explored that have not been retained at the end, on the basis of a deep plus and minus
approach. Exploring all possible options serving the objective of modernization is a good
guarantee of a thorough process leading to a justified proposal.
In the Masscote exercise usually different options and new ideas are explored during the
second week of the workshop and ultimately it may lead to several options proposed to the
irrigation department and finally leading to a consolidation of the best suited option.

6. Masscote’s navigation tool: a Radar to help setting the vision

How does the Masscote navigation tool work?

7 GPS = Global Positioning System

8 SCADA = Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

5
 25th International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage Q.64
01-08 November 2023, Visakhapatnam, India R.64.1.01

First of all, one has to know that this tool will never give you the direction to go, it is not a
compass. It is a tool that will drive you to explore systematically several areas, in a stepwise
process and ultimately will help you finding your own way and developing innovative solutions.
The only principle that is fundamentally embedded as a direction in Masscote is Service
Oriented Management (SOM),9 and there are many things that derive from this central focus.
This principle gives the directions to explore, the services, the users, the demand, etc. but
Masscote will not tell you which services to which users, you will have to investigate yourself
with all stakeholders to arrive at a compromise on the what to who!
In that sense Masscote is more like a radar allowing spotting and focussing the lenses on the
major elements in the mist of issues and options hence further favouring the determination of
the directions to go.
The first 5 steps of Masscote (Figure 2) are each dealing with the diagnosis of the current
situation: The Rapid Appraisal Procedure is the first as a worldwide standard to rank and
benchmark the performance, the second focusses on physical capacity of the infrastructure
capacity issues and sensitivity, the third assesses all the perturbations the system is
experiencing, the fourth looks at the water balance and the fifth at the cost of operation and
maintenance. These are the elements which are the basis providing baseline assessment on
which options for modernization will be explored.
An important step of Masscote procedure is the discussion on service (Step 6) which follows
the 5 steps of diagnosis. This step on Service goes together with the elaboration of a vision of
the scheme for all stakeholders. In the Masscote approach, we consider that it is only on the
basis of a clear vision that we can evaluate the pertinence of the technical and managerial
changes that will be then proposed in the modernization plan.
The further steps of Masscote 7 to 10 are focussing on the elaboration of managerial and
technical solutions that needs to be implemented.

Figure 2 The stepwise MASSCOTE approach

7. New thrusts emanating from SIMP Masscote application

The applications of the Masscote procedure in 4 selected projects of SIMP had led to clearly
identify some “rather new” key strategic thrusts that must be considered for the future projects
as possible options. We say “rather new” because they are not genuinely new of course, what’s
new is that they become as clear evidence on the 4 projects investigated and so we can
consider these as some key aspects for the future of irrigation modernization in India. These
thrusts are:
1. Optimum surface reservoir management to yield more water for the project by
minimizing evaporation and reducing spill.
2. Canal service for groundwater recharge: Conjunctive surface and groundwater
reservoir management implies to introduce the service for groundwater recharge

9 SOM= Service Oriented Management

6
 25th International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage Q.64
01-08 November 2023, Visakhapatnam, India R.64.1.01

(especially in wet season) aside with the classical service for irrigation. This managed
recharge mechanism is called “Groundwater Banking” and its use to increase water
supply reliability should be largely implemented. For providing good service,
groundwater monitoring mechanism should be established to monitor recharge and
withdrawals.
3. Pipe systems for improved distribution system: to improve the service to users as
well as to reduce water losses and improve equity, piping the system below the main
and secondary canals, down to the field inlet is an efficient option.
4. Progressive Automation: automation along the main infrastructure becomes often a
necessity to cope with increased complexity of service as well as reduction of staff, its
introduction must be made progressive together with the development of capacity.

7.1 Optimum surface reservoir management: a narrow pathway edging between

efficiency and risk
In the classical irrigation project setting, a surface reservoir storing water during the
rainy season delivers the water to users of the command area during the dry season.
Most of the time managers are reluctant to issue water during the rainy season, they
want to keep the water storage at highest level possible to ensure enough storage at
end of rainy season.
In so doing, the efficiency of the reservoir measured as its capacity to store water and
yield water deliveries, is reduced by two factors: evaporation from the reservoir and
spill when water reached maximum storage capacity.
By lowering water level in the reservoir during the rainy season, the manager will
reduce evaporation and create an additional storage capacity to store flood if any.
Lowering the level increases efficiency but it also increases the risk of being not full at
season end and being short in following normal irrigation deliveries if aquifers and
pumping do not allow to fill the gap.
Most of the time everything is done for managers not to dare taking risk.
The only way to minimize the risk is to test trajectories of operational rules against a
long sequence of hydrological data. This can be done by generating a simple water
balance model (monthly) and test years of conditions (rainfall, inflows, outflows, spills,
etc.) which have to include severe extreme conditions. This hydro modelling has the
potential to frame reservoir operation rules and develop decision support system
minimizing risks and maximising efficient use of available water.
7.2 Canal service for groundwater recharge
Farmers have turned their heads towards groundwater to complement and benefit from a good
service of water. It is time now for managers to do the same and become again attractive by
serving the groundwater. In some systems it is a question of conjunctive use and improved
services by allowing farmers to combine groundwater and surface water services.
In some other severe situation, it is a question of life and death when decades of groundwater
pumping have exhausted the aquifers. Massive groundwater recharge during the wet season
become the only option left to managers. This approach is receiving increasingly more
attention of managers and designers. In some cases it is referred to as “Groundwater Banking”
in other cases as “Managed Aquifers Recharge” (MAR). The initial idea is to store water in
aquifers when surface water is abundant, but the principle of banking can go beyond managing
the water surplus during wet period.
Under SIMP the groundwater banking approach is considered together with surface storage or
surface banking in the reservoir if any. We focus then on the residual value of water after the
banking period being in the surface reservoir or the aquifers. Usually, the value in surface
storage is deflated by evaporation, whereas the water value in the aquifers is usually not
deflated but energy has been lost and is needed to get it back to the system.

7
 25th International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage Q.64
01-08 November 2023, Visakhapatnam, India R.64.1.01

So the trade-off between the two banking strategies is volume of water vs energy consumption.
Here also a hydro model can be of great help in testing various operation rules in managing
water and delivery of irrigation services.
Lately the technology for recharging groundwater has made significant progress and adopted
in catchment areas. When dealing with shallow aquifers, ponds, check dams along rivers and
nalas (drainage streams) can do the recharge. When dealing with deep aquifers recharge wells
have to be constructed. Currently recharge wells can go up to 30 litres per second and are not
costly (approx. $6,000 to $7,000 in India).
Of course, this must be designed after a thorough investigation of the aquifer’s flows, and
boundary conditions. No one wants to recharge flows where it will be rapidly drained out of the
command area. The recharge infrastructure must be spread all over the irrigated command
area, we are talking of recharge structures by hundreds that must be properly managed and
maintained.
Now the time has come to 1) introduce groundwater recharge component in irrigation projects
where groundwater is over exploited threatening agriculture 2) balance surface and
groundwater banking and energy footprint for optimal resources management in irrigated
agriculture.
Groundwater banking has the potential to mitigate droughts in the same system and or
interconnected systems within the sub-basin by implementing solidarity mechanism.

7.3 Pipe systems for improved distribution system:

Distribution networks below the main or large secondary canals are to improve the service to
users as well as to reduce water losses, piping the system below the main and secondary
canals, down to the field inlet is an efficient option. It is quite often that the tertiary and
quaternary canals have not been immediately constructed or they have been built without lining
and are one major reason for low efficiency in the distribution of water to the fields.
Today the piping technology has been largely developed and cost has come down. Two
options are possible, gravity fed networks or pressurized systems fed by a pumping station.
The choice is constrained by the elevation gradient of the CA and the service that is required at
field level, for instance, micro irrigation techniques required a minimum of 2 bars of pressure.
7.4 Progressive Automation
Automation along the main infrastructure often becomes a necessity to cope with increased
complexity of service as well as reduction of staff.
However, automation is one example of SESAME word (panacea) which might lead to
disappointments and maybe rejected if not progressively introduced. There are many examples
of failure.
Often one reason of the problems met in introducing automation is that this is applied on a
manual operation which is ill designed and obsolete. Changing the modus operandi and
changing the technology at the same time is a big challenge.
It is better to start introducing major change of the modus operandi keeping the manual
process wherever it is possible. Today the communication among the different control points of
the system has been highly eased with the mobile phone technology. This allows staff to
familiarize with and understand the new rules. Once this is done for few seasons then
automation can come, and staff can turn into supervisory tasks only. Automation has the
potential to overcome staff shortage in management and indeed is the need of the hour.
It must be introduced together with the development of capacity among the staff.
8. Conclusions
Masscote is a navigation tool of a special sort. Usually, a navigation tool you specify where you
want to go. Here it is different the tool that will help you in exploring several directions on a
systematic manner and ultimately it helps you decide where you want to go keeping the
performance in mind.
What is important is that the process implies a large participation of project officers from the
investigated system thereby building their capacity in modern approaches to management and

8
 25th International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage Q.64
01-08 November 2023, Visakhapatnam, India R.64.1.01

modernization. It helps a lot for the ownership of the proposed solutions.It is not an external
solution that is printed on the system, but something that has been brewed during two weeks
with managers.
The recent applications performed as part of SIMP demonstrate again the value of the
approach in generating momentum towards major paradigm shifts. The exercise has proved to
be a precursor to developing irrigation modernization plan in line with SIMP objectives to
improve water productivity, WUE, and farmers’ income.
Beyond the system there is a need to look at the other interconnected systems within the sub-
basin how the water savings in one system/groundwater banking can be of use to other
interconnected systems in mitigating droughts by implementing solidarity mechanism.
REFERENCES

FAO ID 63 MASSCOTE Mapping System and Services for Canal Operation Techniques. 2007.
by D. Renault, T. Facon and R. Wahaj
Burton, Martin. 2010. Irrigation Management: Principles and Practices. CABI Publishing,
Wallingford, United Kingdom
Cooperative project between University of California, Davis ; United States Geological Survey
and California Department of Water Resources Group
https://watermanagement.ucdavis.edu
Irrigation in India: Status, challenges and options Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 18(4):
0-0, October-December 2019 RAJNI JAIN, PRABHAT KISHORE and DHIRENDRA
KUMAR SINGH Contact ICAR-National Institute of Agricultural Economics and Policy
Research, New Delhi-12, rajni.jain@icar.gov.in