Chapter 5
The Changing Role of Insecticides in
Structural Pest Control
Michael K. Rust
University of California, Riverside, California
5.1 Introduction
The widespread use and need for pest management in and
around structures can be directly attributed to the dislike
of insects and arthropods by urban residents. Some insects
such as termites and wood-destroying beetles pose a seri-
ous economic threat to structures and a few such as cock-
roaches, fleas, mosquitoes, and ticks may present a real
medical or veterinary threat. Even though bedbugs do not
vector human diseases, their recent reemergence as a pest
worldwide has already dramatically influenced pest man-
agement practices and consumer attitudes about structural
pest control. Surveys indicate that only 10% of respon-
dents could recognize bedbugs, and individuals 60 years
old did somewhat better with 20% identifying them
(Reinhardt et al., 2008). Many other urban insects may
be classified as occasional intruders and nuisance pests.
Surprisingly, some of these such as spiders are considered
by homeowners to be a major problem that requires treat-
ment (Rust, unpublished data).
In recent years, there has been an increased awareness
of the potential hazards of pesticides in urban environ-
ments and demand for more integrated pest management
(IPM) and so-called “green pest control.” Even though
green pest control lacks a clear definition and is largely a
marketing tool, it has generated considerable attention. It
has revitalized urban IPM, especially strategies that utilize
less insecticides, and has stimulated the development of
several different training programs for pest management
professionals (PMPs). The increased use of container-
ized and gel baits, insect growth regulators (IGRs), natural
products, and alternative strategies such as extreme tem-
peratures, modified atmospheres, and physical barriers is
indicative of the public’s increased interest in IPM.
This chapter expands on the use patterns of insecti-
cides in and around structures to control the major urban
insect pests reviewed by Rust (2001). In recent years,
Hayes’ Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology
Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
environmental and health concerns have become an
important consideration in urban pest management, espe-
cially as it relates to water quality issues. The detection
of pesticides, particularly pyrethroids, in urban water-
ways has raised concerns about their use, especially for
ant control. Certainly the resurgence of the bedbug, Cimex
lectularius L., has focused attention on finding effective
residual insecticides and alternative pest control strate-
gies. Wherever possible, information on the efficacy and
residual activity of new active ingredients, improved for-
mulations, and alternative strategies will be provided. The
chapter concludes with some thoughts regarding the future
directions of urban pest management.
5.2 Pest problems: real or perceived
The mere presence of insects and arthropods in and around
structures is of concern to homeowners and is generally
perceived as a pest problem (Rust, 2001). In recent years,
there has been a resurgence in the number of bedbugs found
worldwide, including Canada (Hwang et al., 2005), Israel
(Mumcuoglu, 2008), Italy (Masetti and Bruschi, 2007),
Korea (Lee et al., 2008), the United Kingdom (Boase,
2001), and the United States (Anderson and Leffler, 2008).
In 2003, Orkin Inc. reported treating 390 cases of bedbugs
in 33 different states in the United States (McGinnis, 2004).
Public health officials documented 46 locations in Toronto
infested with C. lectularius in 2003 and PMPs reported
treating another 847 locations (Hwang et al., 2005). Single-
family dwellings and apartments made up 70 and 18% of the
locations treated, respectively. Even in an area endemic for
malaria, 33% of those surveyed in Tanzania felt that the
tropical bedbug, Cimex hempiterus F., was more troublesome
than mosquitoes. Respondents from houses infested with
bedbugs always thought them more of a problem than mos-
quitoes (Temu et al., 1999). In fact, there was a significant
257
258
correlation between bedbug infestations and the purchase
and use of pyrethroid-treated bed nets. It is easy to see why
the topic of bedbugs shares center stage at urban pest man-
agement conferences worldwide.
In agriculture, the decision to apply an insecticide or
treatment strategy (action threshold) is often based on some
economic injury level (EIL; Flint and van den Bosch, 1981).
In urban settings, economic thresholds have not been estab-
lished and action thresholds are often based on a perceived
economic damage or an aesthetic injury level. The aesthetic
injury level (AIL) is highly variable and is based on expe-
rience, education, and accompanying attitudes of the target
audience (Zungoli and Robinson, 1984). Consequently, the
presence of a single bedbug, cockroach, spider, or cat flea
indoors may result in an insecticide treatment. However,
attempts to establish procedures by which EIL and action
thresholds can be established have been proposed (Pinto,
2000; Pinto and Kraft, 2000). Five criteria proposed to
establish an EIL are economics, health and safety, esthetics,
public opinion, and legal issues (Pinto, 2000). These action
thresholds are typically not based on any scientific method
and are simply educated guesses. Thus, the action threshold
is not zero and the EIL or AIL should be higher (Stejskal,
2002). Preventive treatments should be justified based on the
comparison of preventive versus responsive pest control and
the cost of forecasted/expected damages (Stejskal, 2003).
Justifying preventive treatments and adopting nonzero tol-
erances will result in fewer calendar-based treatments. If
adopted by PMPs, this could have a substantial impact on
future urban IPM programs, especially in the reduction of
insecticide applications.
Pesticides are frequently used and stored in homes (Rust,
2001). This is especially true in low-income housing where
cockroach and mice problems commonly exist. In a study of
urban minority women, 85% reported pest control measures
conducted during their pregnancy and 35% reported their
homes being sprayed for pests (Whyatt et al., 2002). Greater
than 90% of the pesticides used were to control cockroaches.
Most residents in inner city public housing reported using
insecticides to control cockroaches and 15% reported using
illegal pesticides (Chew et al., 2006).
5.3 Environmental and health
concerns
In recent years, there has been an increasing concern about
pesticides in urban watersheds. In the San Francisco Bay
area, it has been suggested that “spraying pesticides on
and around buildings to control Argentine ants has histori-
cally been among the most problematic pesticide uses for
water quality” (TDC Environmental, 2006). The amount
of organophosphate insecticides used in urban areas in
California significantly decreased from 2000 to 2006, but
the use of bifenthrin, cyfluthrin, and permethrin dramatically
Hayes’ Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology
increased (TDC Environmental, 2008). In a suburb of
Sacramento, CA, bifenthrin was implicated as the primary
cause of toxicity to the amphipod Hyalella azteca Saussure
with additional toxicity from cyfluthrin and cypermethrin
(Weston et al., 2005). They identified the probable sources
of the pyrethroids to structural pest control applications and
homeowners’ use of lawn care products. In a study involv-
ing 15 creeks in California and 12 creeks around Nashville,
TN, 12 of the 15 creeks in California had sediments or
water toxic to H. azteca (Amweg et al., 2006). Bifenthrin
was suggested as the most likely pesticide causing the tox-
icity because of its high concentration at each of the sites.
Probable sources of the bifenthrin, cypermethrin, and del-
tamethrin may have been applications made by PMPs.
However, eight different products containing bifenthrin were
available to homeowners in California and they may have
also contributed to its detection in the creeks. Pyrethroids
were detected in water runoff and sediments in storm water
drains in residential neighborhoods in Sacramento (Weston
et al., 2009). Bifenthrin was of greatest toxicological con-
cern with up to 73 ng/l in water and 1211 ng/g in sediment,
with cypermethrin and cyfluthrin being of secondary impor-
tance. Dry season irrigation was less important than intense
storm events in discharging pyrethroids into the storm
drains. The total consumer sales of bifenthrin in California
in 2005 was 4759 kg AI, 69% of this being purchased from
June to September when ants were most active. The total
amount applied by PMPs was 19,271 kg AI, 39% being
applied from June to September. The patterns of bifenthrin
detection were primarily attributed to professional use. One
of the major problems with the pyrethroids in these urban
systems is that they are primarily particle-bound, smaller
particles containing higher concentrations. The concentra-
tions on particles decline slowly over the first year and then
persist for a long time (Berger-Preiss et al., 1997).
Indoor applications of insecticides are routinely made to
control cockroaches. In a study of minority women and pes-
ticides used during their pregnancy, 90% of the pesticides
used were for cockroach control (Whyatt et al., 2002). As
the level of housing disrepair increased, there was an increase
in pesticide use. Air monitoring revealed that diazinon (2–
6010 ng/m3), chlorpyrifos (0.7–193 ng/m3), and propoxur
(3.8–1380 ng/m3) were found in residences of all the women
monitored in the study. Some women’s exposure to diazinon
may have exceeded health-based levels. Urine samples of
children in a long-term study were analyzed for the common
metabolites of pyrethroids and Lu et al. (2006, 2009) reported
continuous exposure to pyrethroids in their diet all year and
periodic episodes of high exposure, especially in children in
homes where pesticides were applied seasonally. The intensive
use of household pyrethroids in the fall and increased con-
sumption of imported produce in the winter and spring may
have contributed to the high seasonal levels. Pest control
applications increased the levels of pyrethroids such as cyflu-
thrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, and permethrin in house
Chapter | 5 The Changing Role of Insecticides in Structural Pest Control
dust and airborne particles and permethrin and cyfluthrin
remained above background levels in house dust for 1 year
(Leng et al., 2005). The levels of permethrin and piperyonl
butoxide in air samples were highly associated with self-
reported use of spray cans and total release aerosols by
pregnant women (Williams et al., 2008). Even up to 5 years
after chlorpyrifos and diazinon were eliminated for residen-
tial use, 92% of the personal air samples contained them.
Seventeen different pesticides were analyzed from
farm, rural, and urban households (Obendorf et al., 2006).
Chloryprifos, resmethrin, and tetramethrin were found in
higher levels in urban households. Higher residues were
found on carpets compared with smooth surfaces and set-
tled dust. In general, the amount of residues from indoor
pest control practices was lower than those in agricul-
ture and horticulture landscapes. In Boston public hous-
ing, permethrin, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, and cypermethrin
were detected in 100, 100, 98, and 90% of kitchen floor
swipes in all units tested, respectively (Julien et al., 2008).
Cyfluthrin, restricted to professional use only, was found
in 70% of the homes even though they did not hire pro-
fessional pest control service. Residents were appar-
ently applying the formulated wettable powder to control
cockroaches.
Appropriately performed pest control applications of
pyrethroids such as cyfluthrin, permethrin, cypermethrin,
and deltamethrin led to significantly increased pyrethroid
metabolite concentrations in occupants at days 1 and 3
post-treatment compared with pretreatment levels (Leng
et al., 2003). However, metabolite levels did not exceed
published background levels. Studies of German PMPs
indicated no expected health effects after occupational
applications of pyrethroids as long as label directions were
followed (Hardt and Angerer, 2003).
Asthma induced by insects and other arthropods is of
major importance in structures, especially low-income
apartments. The prevalence of cockroach allergens and
their mitigation have been reviewed by Arruda (2005),
Gore and Schal (2007), and Perzanowski et al. (2008). In
a national survey and sampling of residents in apartments
in the United States, 11% of living room floors and 13%
of kitchen floors had concentrations of cockroach allergen
(Bla g 1) exceeding 2.0 U/g (level associated with allergic
sensitization) (Cohn et al., 2006). In 3% of living rooms
and 10% of kitchens the levels exceeded 8.0 U/g (level
associated with asthma morbidity). Elevated concentra-
tions were associated with high-rise apartments, homes
built before 1940, urban areas, low-income households,
and multifamily structures. Residents (86%) reporting
cockroach problems had considerably higher levels of
allergen, 58% having 2.0 U/g and 38% having 8.0 U/g
in their homes, than did those not reporting cock-
roaches. In low-income housing, 81% of the apartments
were infested with cockroaches, mice, and other insects
(Wang et al., 2008). Kitchen dust samples in 98% of the
259
apartments sampled had detectable levels of cockroach
allergen (0.4 U/g Bla g 1), 52% had 2 U/g, and 33% had
8 U/g. Of the 1173 residents in those units, 13 and 9%
had medically diagnosed asthma and allergy, respectively.
In a study of New York City public housing, cockroaches
were found in 77% of the apartments and 15% of the resi-
dences had used illegal pesticides, cockroach chalk, and
Tempo (cyfluthrin registered for professional use only;
Chew et al., 2006). Dust samples containing cockroach
allergen (Bla g 2) were 8 U/g in 36% of the kitchens and
15% of the bedrooms sampled. Apartments with one or
more asthmatic patients were characterized by beds with
high cockroach allergen, cockroaches in the kitchen, and
resident reports of seeing cockroaches. Most residents
reported using cockroach baits, but 66% indicated that
they had used total release aerosols or foggers, insecticidal
chalk, sprays, and Tempo.
Environmental interventions including sealing cracks
and small holes, applications of gel baits to cracks and crev-
ices, boric acid, and vacuuming cockroach fecal material
and debris in a Boston public housing project resulted in
clear reductions of cockroach allergens (Levy et al., 2006).
The greatest reduction in cockroach allergens corresponded
to the greatest improvement in asthma health conditions in
the apartments. The Bla g 1 allergens were reduced by 71
and 53% in the kitchen and bedroom, respectively, and Bla
g 2 allergens by 86 and 70%, respectively, within 6 months
(Peters et al., 2007). After 6 months, the concentrations of
allergens began to increase indicating that the intervention
must be sustained. In a study comparing a baiting program
conducted by university-based entomologists and service
provided by PMPs, the baiting program provided 90%
reductions in cockroaches trapped, whereas the PMPs
achieved between 62 and 81% reductions (Sever et al.,
2007). There were significant reductions in allergens (Bla g
1) at all locations in homes baited by university personnel.
Even though there was an 83% reduction in cockroaches
in kitchens in PMP treatments, the level of allergen only
decreased by 35.7%. Clearly, very substantial reductions or
near elimination of cockroaches is needed to make signifi-
cant reductions in the allergens present.
In addition to living with cockroaches in housing,
occupational risks also occur. In a survey of seamen,
68.3% reported exposure to cockroaches on board ship
(Oldenburg et al., 2008). Of them, 26.9% were cockroach
sensitive to a skin prick test. Seamen from tropical coun-
tries (37.3%) were significantly more sensitive than sea-
men from temperate countries (21.3%).
A new source of indoor allergens in structures is the
invasive Asian ladybird beetle, Harmonia axyridis Pallas
(Nakazawa et al., 2007). Adult ladybird beetles enter struc-
tures in the fall, frequently overwintering in large numbers.
Patients primarily exposed to allergens from the German
cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.), had a significant
cross-reaction to two proteins isolated from H. axyridis.
260 Hayes’ Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology

5.4 Insecticide applications

Table 5.1 Active Ingredients Which May be in
5.4.1 Nonresidual Insecticides Minimum-Risk Pesticide Products Exempted under
Section 25(b) of FIFRA
When insecticides are applied to kill existing infestations
and do not provide long-lasting effects, they are typically Castor oil (U.S.P. or Linseed oil
equivalent)
classified as nonresidual applications (Anonymous, 1989).
These can be defined as follows: Cedar oil Malic acida
Nonresidual insecticides are those products applied to Cinnamona and cinnamon Minta and mint oila
obtain insecticidal effects only during the time of treatment oila
and are applied either as space treatments or as contact Citric acida Pepperminta and peppermint oila
treatments:
Citronella and citronella oil 2-Phenethyl proprionate
a. Space treatment is the dispersal of insecticides into the air (2-phenylethyl proprionate)
by foggers, misters, aerosol devices, or vapor dispensers Clovesa and clove oila Potassium sorbate
for control of flying insects and exposed crawling insects. a
Corn gluten meal Putrescent whole egg solids
b. Contact treatment is the application of a wet spray for
a
immediate insecticidal effect. Corn oil Rosemarya and rosemary oila
Cottonseed oila Sesamea and sesame oila
The nonresidual insecticides are most typically applied
Dried blood Sodium chloridea
as aerosol or spray formulations of allethrin, esfenvalerate,
resemethrin, and synergized pyrethrins (Braness, 1997). Eugenol Sodium lauryl sulfate
Considering the popularity of aerosol sprays, there is a a
Garlic and garlic oil a
Soybean oil
paucity of data concerning their efficacy. A review of some
Geraniol Thymea and thyme oila
earlier studies is provided by Rust (2001).
Alternative low-impact chemical treatments are popular Geranium oil White peppera
especially among those interested in so-called green pest Lauryl sulfate Zinc metal strips
control. High-viscosity foams produced with air or CO2 a
Lemon grass oil
killed significantly more German cockroaches than did low-
viscosity foams (Choi et al., 1997). Baldwin and Koehler a
These active ingredients are exempt for use on all food commodities
from the requirement of a tolerance on all raw agricultural commodities
(2007) reported that contact sprays of various commercially at 40 CFR 180.1164(d) (EPA, 2009).
available dishwashing liquids and household cleaners were
toxic to adult male German cockroaches. Topical sprays of
a 0.54% solution provided 50% kill of adult males.
In recent years, the use of the exempt products that con- cinnamic alcohol were neuro-insecticides and their toxicity
tain ingredients listed in Table 5.1 has become popular with was species-dependent. The octopaminergic system medi-
PMPs. In contact toxicity studies against German cock- ated the insecticidal activity of eugenol and -terpineol,
roaches, pulegone, camphor, and verbenone were comparable but not cinnamic alcohol. Eugenol has been reported to
to permethrin (Jang et al., 2005). Eucalyptus, marjoram, pen- affect octopamine receptors and mimicks octopamine,
nyroyal, and rosemary oils had more pronounced contact and thereby increasing cellular calcium levels, and causes
vapor activity against human head lice, Pediculus humanus toxicity (Enan, 2001). However, Price and Berry (2006)
capitis De Geer, than did -phenothrin and pyrethrum (Yang reported that eugenol and octopamine had opposing effects
et al., 2004). In vapor phase toxicity tests, verbenone, -thujone, on dorsal median neurons in the American cockroach,
thymol, -terpineol, camphor, linalool, and marjoram oil were Periplaneta americana L., inferring that eugenol must
toxic to cockroaches, but considerably less active than dichlor- interact on a different subtype of octapmine. Geraniol and
vos. Monoterpenoids such as 1,8-cineole, anisole, limonene, citral showed some similarities to octopamine. Inhibition of
and -pinene showed vapor activity against eggs and adult P. acetylcholinesterase (AchE) has been proposed as a mode
humanus capitis (Toloza et al., 2008). Deposits of basil, cit- of action for the essential oils. However, Picollo et al.
ronella, lemon, peppermint, and tea tree oils were not highly (2008) found the vapor activity of 1,8-cineole and toxicity
toxic to Argentine ants, Linepithema humile (Mayr), and red to P. humanus capitis greater than dichlorvos but found no
imported fire ants, Solenopsis invicta Buren, but deterred them correlation with inhibition of AchE activity.
from crossing barriers (Wiltz et al., 2007). Only citronella oil Even though there has been considerable interest in
provided 50% kill of Argentine ants in 34 min and 100% kill these essential oils and compounds exempt from U.S.
within 24 h. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) registration, there
The mode of action of the essential oils remains unclear. has been very little published about their use in pest man-
Enan (2001) reported that eugenol, -terpineol, and agement programs and effectiveness. With limited residual
Chapter | 5 The Changing Role of Insecticides in Structural Pest Control
activity, additional structural modifications and cultural
controls may be necessary to provide satisfactory control,
especially for PMPs providing every other month or quar-
terly pest control.
5.4.2 Residual Insecticides
Insecticides applied to provide control over a longer period
of time are typically referred to as residual insecticides
(Anonymous, 1989). These are defined as follows:
Residual insecticides are those products applied to obtain
insecticidal effects lasting several hours or longer and are
applied as general, spot, or crack and crevice treatments:
a. General treatment is an application to broad expanses
of surfaces such as walls, floors, ceilings, or as an out-
side treatment.
b. Spot treatment is an application to limited areas on
which insects are likely to occur but will not contact
food or utensils or ordinarily contact workers. These
areas may occur on floors, walls, and bases or under-
sides of equipment. For this purpose a “spot” will not
exceed 2 square feet.
c. Crack and crevice treatment is an application of small
amounts of insecticides into cracks and crevices in
which insects hide or through which they may enter the
building. Such openings commonly occur at expansion
joints, between different elements of construction, and
openings that may lead to voids such as hollow walls,
equipment legs and bases, conduits, motor housings,
and junction or switch boxes.
Residual insecticides have been the primary chemicals
used by PMPs because they allow for less frequent visits
and applications. Consequently, they are routinely applied
according to a schedule in a preventive manner. Typically
insecticides only account for 3–5% of the costs of treat-
ments provided by PMPs and thus labor and travel are
much more important in reducing costs.
5.4.2.1 General Treatments
Sprays are frequently applied around structures as barri-
ers to prevent the accumulation of insect pests and their
movement into structures. Typically, treatments consist of
high volumes (0.5–1.0 gal/100 ft2) of low concentrations
of insecticides applied in bands 2.4–3 m wide on and adja-
cent to the structure (Klotz et al., 2008; Rust, 2001). In the
past few years, this practice has been questioned because
of the potential for insecticide runoff from hard surfaces
into urban surface waters. Consequently, more targeted
and site-specific application techniques for ant control are
being promoted (Klotz et al., 2007, 2009).
Physiological insecticide resistance is still an impor-
tant problem in situations in which residual insecticides
are widely applied for the control of German cockroaches.
Strains of B. germanica collected in Cuba were resistant to
261
malathion, deltamethrin, and cypermethrin (Pantoja et al.,
2000). A field-collected strain of German cockroach was
highly resistant to permethrin and deltamethrin, had low
cross-resistance to imidacloprid, and had no cross-resistance
to fipronil (Wei et al., 2001). German cockroaches collected
from 29 different locations in North Carolina exhibited resis-
tance to cyclodienes and cross-resistance to fipronil, and
there was a direct relationship between survivors exposed
to dieldrin and fipronil (Holbrook et al., 2003). These cock-
roaches were resistant to ingested fipronil bait. In urban
areas of Taiwan, patterns of resistance in B. germanica pop-
ulations were propoxur  chlorpyrifos  cypermethrin in
hospitals, and propoxur  cypermethrin  chlorpyrifos in
houses (Pai et al., 2005). Resistance patterns reflected the
overall insecticide use in both hospitals and homes. Two
field-collected strains in Denmark were resistant to dieldrin
and the most resistant strains were homozygous for A302S
mutation, imparting 1000-fold resistance to dieldrin and
15-fold resistance to fipronil (Kristensen et al., 2005). In
Iran, 11 field-collected strains of German cockroaches were
resistant to permethrin and showed no cross-resistance to
fipronil (Nasirian et al., 2006). Field-collected strains of B.
germanica were shown to have multiple resistance mecha-
nisms to permethrin, namely kdr-type and metabolic resis-
tance (Limoee et al., 2007). The presence of pyrethroid
resistance must be taken into account when developing an
IPM program to control German cockroaches.
The use of inorganic dust formulations, silica aerogels,
and boric acid to treat wall voids, attics, and other areas
likely to harbor cockroaches and silverfish has been advo-
cated for decades (Ebeling, 1995). Our understanding of
the mode of action of boron remains unclear, and a review
of the literature on boron toxicity in insects is provided by
Gentz and Grace (2006) with special emphasis on termites.
Subterranean termites were confined to borate-treated
wood surfaces for 5 days, then removed, and placed on
untreated wood. They excreted or metabolized about 60%
of the boron and survived the exposure (Gentz and Grace,
2008). This clearly supports the use of borate-treated
lumber in a preventive role in IPM programs but not as a
remedial treatment.
Even though diatomaceous earth and silica aerogel are
principally silica, the high sorptivity of insect wax by silica
aerogels makes them much more effective as a desiccant
than diatomaceous earth. Diatomaceous earth principally
acts as an abrasive (Ebeling, 1995). Diatomaceous earth
treated with dichlordimethyl-saline significantly increased
the insecticidal activity against German cockroaches even
at high humidities (Faulde et al., 2006). Contrary to com-
mon knowledge, insecticidal dust deposits including boric
acid, Drione, silica gel, silica gel with pyrethrins, and
organic dusts can be used in high-humidity environments
(Appel et al., 2004).
The application of perimeters sprays, especially
for the control of ants, is a widespread and standard
262
approach to controlling pests outdoors. Barrier sprays
of cyfluthrin, imidacloprid, and fipronil gave varying
degrees of control against several species of ants (Scharf
et al., 2004). However, this approach has become a
major concern because of potential pesticide runoff
into urban waterways. Reduced application techniques
to ant trails and structural guidelines provided equiva-
lent control to full perimeter treatments and reduced
the volume of spray applied by 67% (Klotz et al., 2007,
2009). The effectiveness of perimeter sprays against
ants is enhanced by delayed toxicity and horizontal
transfer of insecticides by necrophoresis (Soeprono
and Rust, 2004a). When ants exposed to fipronil die
and are removed by nestmates, lethal doses of insecti-
cide are transferred to nestmates (Choe and Rust, 2008;
Soeprono and Rust, 2004b). This horizontal transfer
clearly explains the outstanding results achieved with
perimeter sprays of fipronil (Klotz et al., 2007, 2009).
Perimeter spray applications around structures similar to
those applied against ants with microencapsulated cyflu-
thrin resulted in low but measurable levels of cyfluthrin
up to 9.1 m from the structure (Stout and Leidy, 2000).
No cyfluthrin was measured in the air indoors, but it was
detected on some indoor surfaces. Treated soil around
the structure was probably the source of the indoor resi-
dues. Application techniques that reduce the likelihood
that pesticides move from the target site will become the
new standard in the future.
5.4.2.2 Spot Treatments
More precise applications of insecticides are often necessary
in environmentally sensitive areas such as food preparation
areas, hospitals, offices, nursing homes, computer facili-
ties, and museums. The area to be treated and the amount
of residual insecticide to be applied are often important
considerations. In areas where food is being prepared, pest
management strategies require the judicious and safe use
of insecticides. The following definition specifically delin-
eates such areas (Anonymous, 1989):
A food handling establishment is an area or place other
than a private residence in which food is held, pro-
cessed, prepared. and/or served.
a. Nonfood areas of food handling establishments
include garbage rooms, lavatories, floor drains
(to sewers), entries and vestibules, offices, locker
rooms, machine rooms, boiler rooms, garages, mop
closets, and storage (after canning or bottling).
b. Food areas of food handling establishments include
areas for receiving, serving, storage (dry, cold, fro-
zen, raw), packaging (canning, wrapping, boxing),
preparing (cleaning, slicing, cooking, grinding), edi-
ble waste storage, and enclosed processing systems
(mills, dairies, edible oils, syrups).
Hayes’ Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology
Even though the treatment of these sensitive areas rep-
resents a significant income to PMPs, there has been very
little published on the efficacy of spot treatments. Nothing
better highlights this situation than the lack of data regarding
spot treatments of insecticides for the control of bedbugs.
The resurgence of C. lectularius has stimulated a renewed
interest in finding residual insecticide treatments that can be
applied inside structures. Continuous exposure on residual
deposits of a probable susceptible strain of bedbugs provided
the following lethal times required to kill 50%: -cyhalo-
thrin  bifenthrin  deltamethrin  permethrin  chlorfena-
pyr (Moore and Miller, 2006). None of the insecticides was
repellent. By contrast, Romero et al. (2009) found that bed-
bugs avoided filter paper treated with deltamethrin. However,
a field-collected strain of C. lectularius resistant to deltame-
thrin did not avoid harborages treated with deltamethrin.
Chlorfenapyr deposits failed to prevent bedbugs from mat-
ing and laying eggs (Moore and Miller, 2006). Barriers of
deltamethrin or chlorfenapyr failed to prevent bedbugs from
reaching feeding sources (Romero et al., 2009).
The development of insecticidial resistance and world-
wide human travel and commerce may be the primary fac-
tors leading to the resurgence of bedbugs. Resistance to
permethrin and -cypermethrin has been documented in the
tropical bedbug, C. hemipterus, possibly resulting from bed
net programs to control malaria (Myamba et al., 2002). Anti-
malarial programs in Sri Lanka may have been an important
factor contributing to broadscale resistance in C. hemipterus
(Karunaratne et al., 2007). Karunaratne et al. (2007) reported
populations resistant to DDT, malathion, permethrin, and
deltamethrin. A field-collected strain of C. lectularius tested
against deltamethrin required 343 h to provide 50% kill
compared with only 1 h in the susceptible strain (Moore and
Miller, 2006). Considerably more research is needed to find
effective chemical alternatives to the pyrethroids.
Various microencapsulated formulations (CS) were
tested against B. germanica for their bioavailability from
porous and nonporous surfaces (Stejskal et al., 2007).
Larger microcapsules were more readily available on
porous substrates than were smaller microcapsules. The
research suggests that increasing the size of the micro-
capsules would improve the toxicity of those pyrethroid
CS formulations applied to porous substrates. This would
be especially important for outdoor barrier treatments and
indoor treatments on greasy and oily surfaces (Rust, 1995).
5.4.2.3 Crack and Crevice Treatments
It is generally accepted that crack and crevice applica-
tions reduce the amount of insecticides in the indoor envi-
ronment compared with aerosols and sprays. Crack and
crevice applications of chlorpyrifos in the kitchen resulted
in transport of chlorpyrifos to all locations in the house
because it is a semivolatile compound with a vapor pres-
sure of 1.7  105  mm  Hg at 25°C (Stout and Mason 2003).
Chapter | 5 The Changing Role of Insecticides in Structural Pest Control 263

Air conditioning in the structure may have contributed to the
movement. The pin-stream application also produced localized
splashing and higher deposition of chlorpyrifos. As expected,
a total release application of a similar amount of chlorpy-
rifos produced much higher amounts throughout the struc-
ture. Pyrethroids are not very volatile and translocation may
be more influenced by movement of particle-bound residues.
When applied indoors according to label directions, concentra-
tions of permethrin and deltamethrin were low in the air and
mainly particle bound (Berger-Preiss et al., 1997). Smaller par-
ticles contained higher concentrations of each pyrethroid. The
concentrations on particles declined slowly over the first year
and then persisted for a long time.
In a year-long study comparing a conventional monthly
baseboard spray (0.025% cyfluthrin) and crack and crevice
treatment (boric acid aerosol) with an IPM approach incor-
porating vacuuming and monthly or quarterly applications of
baits (2.15% hydramethylnon bait) and IGR devices (90.6%
hydroprene), Miller and Meek (2004) found that the conven-
tional treatment cost $1.05 per unit treated whereas the IPM
approach was $4.06. However, the average trap catches (15.3)
in the conventional routes were significantly higher than the
IPM route (9.2) at 12 months. In another study comparing
spray and crack and crevice treatments with baiting programs,
monitoring with traps clearly revealed that most of the conven-
tional spray treatments were totally unnecessary because of
extremely low numbers of cockroaches trapped in the schools
(Williams et al., 2005). Overall the costs of the services were
similar and the IPM eliminated using propetamphos sprays.
5.5 Soil treatments for
subterranean termites
For nearly 50 years, the application of organochlorine insec-
ticides such as chlordane, heptachlor, aldrin, and dieldrin to
soil was the primary preconstruction treatment or remedial
strategy to protect structures from subterranean termites.
These insecticides provided an inexpensive and persistent
barrier to termites (Su and Scheffrahn, 1998). With the loss
of organochlorine chemistry, there has been a progression of
insecticides registered for termite control as partially reviewed
by Rust (2001) and Kard (2003). Over the past 20 years, the
water solubility and contact toxicity of many of these insec-
ticides against subterranean termites have increased, whereas
the Kow (octanol water coefficient), Koc (soil organic car-
bon-water coefficient), and soil half-lives have decreased
(Table 5.2). Consequently, the paradigm about soil applications

Table 5.2 Insecticides that have been Registered for Preventive and Remedial Applications to Soil for the Control of
Subterranean Termites

Insecticide Classa Water solubility Log Koc Log Kow Soil half-life
(g/l)

Chlordaneb OC 0.0001 4.19–4.39 2.78 ~4 years

c
Chlorpyrifos OP 0.002 3.78 4.7–5.11 11–141 days
d
Isofenphos OP 0.018–0.024 2.89 3.30 59–127 days
e
Permethrin PY 0.0002 4.93 2.88 21–42 days
f
Cypermethrin PY 0.000009 5.20 6.6 8–16 days
g
Esfenvalerate PY 0.00002 3.72 6.22 15–90 days
h
Bifenthrin PY 0.0001 5.10–5.48 6.0 65–156 days
i
Imidacloprid NE 0.51 2.12–2.49 3.7 48–190 days
j
Chlorfenapyr CP 0.00014 3.32–3.69 4.83 146–730 days
k
Fipronil PP 0.0019 2.92 5.0 122–128 days
l
Acetamiprid NE 3.5–4.2 2.12–2.43 0.8 1–8 days
a
OC  organochlorine; OP  organophosphate; PY  pyrethroid; NE  neonicotinoid; CP  cyanopyrrole; PP  phenylpyrazole.
b
extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/chlodan.htm; www.eps.gov/ogwdw/dwh/t-soc/chlordan.html
c
pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/carbaryl-dicrotophos/chlorpyrifo-ext.html
d
www.ars.usda.gov/util/download.cfm?file  SP2userFiles/ad_hoc/12755100DatabaseFiles//isofenphos.txt
e
pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/metiram-propoxur/permethrin-ext.html
f
pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/carbaryl-dicrotophos/cypermet-ext.html; www.flouridealert.org/pesticides/msd/flutriafol.armour.c.seed.dress.pdf
g
pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/dienochlor-glyphosate/esfenvalerate-ext.html
h
www.pw.ucr.edu/textfiles/bifentn.pdf; pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/24d-captan/bifenthrin-ext.html
i
pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/haloxyfop-methylparathion/imidacloprid-ext.html; www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/emon/pubs/fatememo/imid.pdf
j
pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/insect-mite/cadusafos-cyromazine/chlorfenapyr/chlorfenapyr_DECletter_102.html
k
npic.orst.edu/factsheets/fipronil.pdf
l
www.epa.gov/opprd001/factsheets/acetamiprid.pdf
264
of insecticides to protect and remediate termite infestations
has dramatically changed. Remedial treatments provide
shorter residual control, but their activity against termites
has increased.
For decades the U.S. Forest Service has been testing
insecticides in two different field tests as potential soil
treatments against subterranean termites (Kard, 2003;
Wagner et al., 2003). Seven different organophosphate and
pyrethroid termiticides were applied to two different soil
types in Mississippi and soils were extracted and analyzed
over 5 years (Jarratt et al., 2004). The initial concentra-
tions at both sites were two times higher than expected
according to label directions. Only isofenphos failed to
meet minimum thresholds at 5 years. However, with the
advent of the new slow-acting nonrepellent insecticides,
the utility of these two study designs has come under
closer scrutiny. In other field situations, the residual activ-
ity of some of the insecticides has been considerably less
than reported in the U.S. Forest Service studies. Organic
matter content, silt and clay proportions, pH, and cation
exchange capacity affected the bioavailability of imidaclo-
prid to subterranean termites (Ramakrishnan et al., 2000).
It was not detectable at 0.05 ppm at several homes 1 year
after treatment with 0.05% imidacloprid (Osbrink et al.,
2005). Soil residual studies in Arizona found that insec-
ticides degraded as follows: chlorpyrifos  imidacloprid
 bifenthrin  permethrin  zeta-cypermethrin (Baker
and Bellamy, 2006). The registered termiticides provided
between 2.85 and 5.4 years’ activity. In field studies in
Australia, soils treated with bifenthrin and chlorfenapyr
were the most persistent, losing  50% over 12 months
(Horwood, 2007). Chlorpyrifos, fipronil, and imidaclo-
prid were least persistent, losing 99, 67–96, and 50–95%,
respectively. In simulated field studies, imidacloprid levels
declined from 84.5 to 7.5 ppm in 6 months and the insec-
ticidal activity of deposits down to 15 cm decreased dra-
matically after 9 months (Peterson, 2007). Preconstruction
treatment rates of bifenthrin, chlorpyrifos, and imidaclo-
prid applied at two locations in Mississippi were tested for
longevity and activity (Mulrooney et al., 2006). Bifenthrin
and chlorpyrifos maintained their insecticidal activity
for at least 48 months, whereas the imidacloprid signifi-
cantly declined within 12 months. Their study showed that
most of the insecticide and contact with termites occurred
within the top 2.5 cm of the surface. Richman et al. (2006)
found that elevating soil pH with Portland cement affected
residual activity of insecticides as follows: imidacloprid
 fipronil  chlorpyrifos  bifenthrin  permethrin 
cypermethrin. As soil organic matter increased, the bio-
availability of fipronil decreased (Mulrooney and Gerard,
2007). Saran and Kamble (2008) found that the half-lives
of bifenthrin, fipronil, and imidacloprid increased as the
concentration applied to the soil increased and there was
an inverse relationship between concentration applied and
the time required to kill 50 and 90% of the termites. The
Hayes’ Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology
authors suggest that as the concentration increases the
adsorption coefficient decreases, increasing the amount
of toxicant available to kill termites (Kamble and Saran,
2005). In general, the residual activity of the newer non-
repellent termiticides is significantly less than previously
registered organochlorine, organophosphate, and pyre-
throid insecticides.
With the advent of the slow-acting nonrepellent chem-
istries, it was suggested that the insecticides were trans-
ferred horizontally through the colony providing area-wide
effects and colony kill (Potter and Hillery, 2001). Ninety-
three percent of monitoring stations 0.3–4 m away from
fipronil-treated structures had no termite activity or had
dead termites. It was suggested that the use of nonre-
pellent slow-acting termiticides might make dogmatic
mandatory full treatments of interior perimeter expan-
sion joints and other indoor sites unnecessary (Potter and
Hillery, 2002). There has been very little direct evidence
to support this claim. The perimeters of buildings were
treated with 0.05% imidacloprid, and termites collected in
traps within 1–3 m from the treated zone were not affected
by the treatment (Osbrink et al., 2005). When only the
perimeters of structures were treated with 0.125% fipro-
nil, 36% of the structures were still infested at 6 months
postreatment (Waite et al., 2004). No area-wide effects on
the colonies were observed. Similarly, Ripa et al. (2007)
were unable to show any area-wide effects of perimeter
treatments of fipronil.
Fipronil is a phenylpyrazole insecticide that is extremely
toxic to subterranean termites, with LD50 values ranging
from 0.2 to 2 ng/termite (Ibrahim et al., 2003; Saran and
Rust, 2007; Yamaoka and Tsunoda, 2007). It is slow-acting
and nonrepellent with the maximal effects occurring 3–5
days after exposure (Remmen and Su, 2005a,b; Saran and
Rust, 2007). Exposure to fipronil-treated deposits resulted
in delayed toxicity (Hu, 2005; Saran and Rust, 2007).
Horizontal transfer occurs only when donors are exposed
to deposits with concentrations 5 ppm (Bagnères et al.,
2009; Saran and Rust, 2007; Tsunoda, 2006), maximum
transfer occurs within first 24 h (Saran and Rust, 2007),
and contact and grooming are the primary mechanisms
for transfer (Bagnères et al., 2009; Saran and Rust, 2007).
Concentrations 100 ppm were needed to transfer fipronil
among the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes
formosansus Shiraki (Shelton and Grace, 2003). In a labo-
ratory study, the maximum mortality occurred within 1.5 m
of the treated zone and the maximum effects 2.5 m from
the treated zone (Saran and Rust, 2007). Su (2005) reported
lethal transfer effects 5 m.
The neonicotinoid imidacloprid is highly toxic to ter-
mite workers, with as little as 10.6 ng/termite providing 50%
kill in 7 days (Rust and Saran, 2008). In addition to toxic-
ity, sublethal effects have been reported with imidacloprid
inhibiting feeding of workers of the eastern subterranean
termite, Recticulitermes flavipes (Kollar), after exposure
Chapter | 5 The Changing Role of Insecticides in Structural Pest Control
(Ramakrishnan et al., 2000). Sublethal exposures to imi-
dacloprid also decreased tunneling activity in R. virgini-
cus (Thorne and Breisch, 2001) and locomotion (Haagsma
and Rust, 2007). The deposits are nonrepellent and ter-
mites readily contact lethal treatments (Haagsma and
Rust, 2007). Shelton and Grace (2003) found that expo-
sures on 100 ppm deposits were necessary for transference.
Imidacloprid is transferred between termites primarily
by contact (Haagsma and Rust, 2007). Exposures to imi-
dacloprid decreased locomotion within hours, probably
minimizing the importance of horizontal transfer. This sup-
ported the finding of Osbrink et al. (2005) that there was
no measurable horizontal transfer under field conditions.
Chlorfenapyr is a slow-acting insecticide that is horizon-
tally transferred by termites (Rust and Saran, 2006; Shelton
et al., 2006) by mutual grooming and contact (Rust and
Saran, 2006). Deposits ranging from 100 to 300 ppm were not
repellent and as low as 10 ppm prevented tunneling (Rust and
Saran, 2006). Termite movement was greatly hampered within
4 h after exposure to 50 ppm chlorfenapyr deposits, limiting
the distance that termites might travel back to the nest.
The neonicotinoid acetamiprid is extremely toxic to ter-
mites with as little as 0.02 and 0.04 ng/termite killing 50%
of the western subterranean termite, Reticulitermes hes-
perus Banks, and R. flaviceps (Oshima), respectively (Mo
et al., 2005; Rust and Saran, 2008). Barriers with as little as
1–8 ppm prevented termite tunneling. Contrary to the notion
that all slow-acting neonicotinoids are nonrepellent, acet-
amiprid was repellent at all concentrations and acted more
like a pyrethroid treatment in soil (Rust and Saran, 2008).
With the advent of new chemistries such as the neo-
nicotinoids, phenylpyrazoles, and pyrroles, changes in the
ways that we pretreat and remedially treat structures for
subterranean termites have occurred and more are likely
in the future. With shorter residuals in the soil than pro-
vided by organochlorine, organophosphate, and pyrethroid
insecticides, it may be necessary to re-treat structures more
often as part of a contractual service. Since some of the
newer termiticides are nonrepellent and actively kill forag-
ers, the amount of termiticide applied and the extent of the
coverage may be reduced. By targeting active infestations
with repeated treatments, the industry may begin to move
away from the concept of merely applying long-term pro-
tective barriers.
5.6 Baits and baiting
Baits have been used to control structural insect pests for
over 100 years. Typically, they have incorporated fast-
acting toxicants such as organochlorines, organophos-
phates, and carbamates (Rust, 1986, 2001). With the advent
of slower-acting insecticides developed as baits for red
imported fire ant control in the early 1980s (Klotz et al.,
2008), bait development underwent a major revolution.
265
A consequence of this research was the development of
cockroach baits that changed the paradigm of German
cockroach control (Reierson, 1995; Rust, 2001).
Behavioral resistance or bait aversion was first
described by Silverman and Bieman (1993) in a field-
collected strain of German cockroach. The cockroaches
avoided ingesting toxicant/diet mixtures containing
d-glucose and this aversion was an autosomal incompletely
dominant trait. Another field-collected strain showed
avoidance to fructose, glucose, maltose, and sucrose and
moderate levels of physiological resistance to abamectin
and fipronil (Wang et al., 2004). Behavioral resistance to
baits was weakly sex-linked, with females inheriting to a
greater degree (Wang et al., 2006). These studies suggest
that behavioral and physiological resistance will quickly
develop to baits, especially if they are intensively used to
control German cockroaches. Consequently, better IPM
strategies that include improved bait bases and rotational
schemes for toxicants will be necessary in the future.
Secondary and tertiary mortality of cockroaches
has been reported with baits containing indoxacarb
(Buczkowski et al., 2008). Factors affecting the trans-
fer included the freshness of excretions from donors, the
presence of alternative food, and the length of time of con-
tact between donors and recipients. Behavioral studies of
German cockroaches and baits containing microencapsu-
lated chlorpyrifos indicated that the amount consumed was
affected by insect age and food nutrititional content (Jones
and Raubenheimer, 2002). The toxicant affected the aver-
age meal duration and frequency in interaction with age
and food nutrient effects. Nymphs that survived the initial
exposure to bait were less likely to ingest lethal doses at
a later time. The chitin synthesis inhibitor noviflumu-
ron was active against nymphal B. germanica producing
99% kill of laboratory populations at 7 weeks (Wang and
Bennett, 2006a). In simulated kitchens, mixed populations
of B. germanica were reduced 96% by week 8. Indoxacarb
baits were toxic and relatively nonrepellent, significantly
reducing field populations of German cockroaches (Appel,
2003). In field studies, building-wide IPM programs
including baiting were comparable to stand-alone baiting
for 29 weeks (Wang and Bennett, 2006b).
Baits and baiting technology are currently being mar-
keted to control subterranean termites (Rust, 2001). The
ideal bait toxicant for subterranean termites (1) must be
slow acting, (2) must act as a nondeterrent, and (3) must
not cause adverse effects when ingested at sublethal doses.
Furthermore, its lethal time must be dose independent
(Su and Scheffrahn, 1998). The uptake of hexaflumu-
ron on worker R. hesperus peaked at about 280 ng at day
12 (Haagsma and Rust, 2005). Dead termites contained
113 ng of hexaflumuron suggesting that this is the mini-
mal lethal dose required to kill workers. Hexaflumuron
was quickly excreted by workers and the half-lives ranged
from 2.1 to 4.7 days, but it was readily dispersed through
266
the termite colony by trophallaxis. The uptake of the ben-
zolphenylurea IGR noviflumuron by R. flavipes was simi-
lar to hexaflumuron, but the half-life in the termites was
about 29 days compared with 8–9 days with hexaflumuron
(Karr et al., 2004). The toxic dose of noviflumuron was
two- to threefold less than hexaflumuron. Therefore, the
faster activity of noviflumuron is in part explained by the
longer retention in termite workers and its greater intrinsic
activity. Another benzolphenylurea compound, bistrifluron
(5000 ppm), provided slower toxicity to C. formosanus at
8 weeks (Kubota et al., 2006). Higher concentrations of
bistrifluron caused some feeding repellency. A gel for-
mulation of 2.15% hydramethylnon was tested against the
western drywood termite, Incisitermes minor (Hagen), in
small block tests (Indrayani et al., 2008). It was unclear
whether termites had been killed by contact or ingestion of
bait, but the results are interesting and warrant additional
investigation.
The development and requirements of a toxicant for an
ant bait differ from those of termite baits because of the
increased amount of trophallaxis and complete metamor-
phosis in ant colonies. Stringer et al. (1964) concluded that
ant bait toxicants must exhibit delayed toxicity over at least
10- to 100-fold dosage range, not be repellent when added
to bait, be readily transferred between ants, and kill the
recipient. In addition, the delayed toxicity of the toxicant
must not inhibit or prevent trophallaxis.
Even though several toxicants such as hydramethylnon,
sulfluramid, abamectin, and fipronil meet all the criteria, the
development of acceptable bait bases for the various spe-
cies of pest ants has been problematic. No single bait base
is attractive to all pest species of ants. Consequently, special
bait bases will be needed for different groups of ants. IGRs
such as fenoxycarb, methoprene, and pyriproxyfen have been
successfully used to control S. invicta, but little information is
available on other pestiferous species such as Argentine ants,
odorous house ants, and carpenter ants as reviewed by Klotz
et al. (2008). Baits containing toxicants such as hydrameth-
ylnon provided delayed toxicity (15% mortality at 24 h;
Stringer et al., 1964) of S. invicta workers. However, indoxa-
carb provided 15, 55, and 100% kill at 9, 24, and 48 h, respec-
tively (Oi and Oi, 2006). Indoxacarb did not provide delayed
toxicity and the results clearly suggest that our criteria for ant
baits (based on Stringer et al., 1964) may need to be modified
for pro-insecticides like indoxacarb.
5.7 Future directions
The implementation of IPM programs for the control of
structural pests and regulatory changes will increase in
response to the public’s concerns over insecticide use, the
so-called green pest control movement, and new challenges
presented by invasive pests. For example, 24.5% of U.S.
states require school districts to conduct IPM and 30.6%
Hayes’ Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology
recommend that IPM be conducted (Jones et al., 2007).
This will certainly increase in the future. Insecticides will
continue to play an extremely important role in urban pest
management, but there will be increased emphasis on those
that possess a real or perceived threat to urban waterways
and indoor and outdoor environments. The types of insecti-
cides applied and their use pattern will dramatically change
over the next 10 years and more restrictions on the use of
pyrethroids around structures are likely. The broadcast use
of insecticides indoors and outdoors and barrier sprays out-
doors will be phased out for more prescription treatments
such as baits, crack and crevice applications, and traps.
The popularity of baits will continue, stimulating new ave-
nues of research dealing with the behavior and ecology of
structural insect pests. Natural products and other chemi-
cals such as essential and fragrance oils and detergents
will also continue to be of interest. It remains to be seen
if these products can be effectively incorporated into via-
ble IPM programs. The consumer and public will demand
more environmentally safer and effective treatments that
use less insecticides and this will be the direction of urban
pest management for the next decade.
Conclusion
Reemerging pests and environmental challenges are chang-
ing the face of urban pest management. The reemergence of
bedbugs and invasive pest species such as the red imported
fire ant and Argentine ant pose special problems and chal-
lenges to the PMP. There is an increasing database and
public awareness of the medical importance and role of
cockroaches and other arthropods in inducing asthma and
related health issues. Environmental monitoring suggests
that outdoor perimeter treatments used to control ants may
be an important source of insecticides in urban waterways.
This development will likely result in major regulatory
changes and use patterns of insecticides around urban struc-
tures and present challenges to the PMP and homeowner.
Increasing awareness and environmental concerns of the
public have resulted in a movement toward so-called green
pest control. As a result, the use of botanicals, fragrance oils,
and inorganic compounds has increased dramatically. Other
new chemistries such as the neonicotinoids, phenylpyr-
azoles, and pyrroles have largely replaced the organophos-
phate and some traditional uses of pyrethroid insecticides.
In the future, there will be a continued emphasis on low
environmental impact strategies that incorporate the use of
reduced-risk insecticides.
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