Chapter 2

Rocks and Minerals

Part 1
 Learning Contents

Classification of rocks.
Description and occurrence of rocks.
Properties and distribution of rocks.
The recycling of rocks
 Earth’s Molten Stage
– During the early formation of the Earth it was molten
– During this stage the heavier elements such as iron and
nickel, sank to the deeper interior of the Earth.
– This left a thin layer of lighter materials on the surface
that is mow called the crust.
– The majority of the Earth’s mass lies below the crust
 Chemical Analysis
– 8 elements make up 98.6% of the crust
– These 8 elements make up the solid materials of the
Earth’s crust and are known as rocks and minerals.
– A mineral is solid inorganic material of the Earth that has
both a known chemical composition and a crystalline
structure that is unique to that mineral
– A rock is a solid aggregate of one or more minerals that
have been cohesively brought together by a rock-
forming process.
• (A)The percentage by
weight of the elements
that make up Earth's
crust. (B) The
percentage by weight
of the elements that
make up the whole
Earth.
 Rock Formation
Geological cycle includes many processes acting
simultaneously. The most important of these begin
with molten magma from within the earth forming
into rock, then
continues with rocks
being broken down
into soil, and that
soil being converted
back into rock.

6
EARTH’S CRUST – Rocks and Minerals
 The earth’s crust is composed of rocks.
 Rocks are primarily composed of minerals (but may also
contain organic materials).
 The granite and basalt rocks of the continental and oceanic
crusts were the original, igneous rocks.
What is a Rock?
 A rock is an aggregate of mineral particles – but may also
contain organic materials

 So, minerals are essentially the building blocks of rocks

 Bedrock → Outcrop → Regolith → Soils

Rock Classification
• Igneous Rocks
form due to the cooling and
crystallization of magma

• Sedimentary Rocks
form through lithification of sediments
from other rocks

• Metamorphic Rocks
form via recrystallization of other
rocks due to heat, pressure, and
chemical alteration
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous Rocks Are Subdivided into Two Classes:

 Volcanic (Extrusive) Igneous Rocks

 Volcanic extrusive igneous rocks form on earth's surface as lava cools
 Basalt
 Basalt is the most widespread volcanic rock
 It is a dark, fine-grained rock
 Basalt is the rock of the sea floor
 Plutonic (or Intrusive) Igneous Rocks
 Plutonic igneous rocks form deep underground where magma cools
slowly; these rocks have a coarse crystalline texture
 Granite
 Granite is the most widespread of plutonic igneous rocks.
It underlies much of the continental crust.
Classification of Igneous Rock:
Hypabyssal Rock: Hypabyssal rocks are formed when
consolidation of magma takes place very close to the
earth’s surface in the form of smaller sheet like bodies
(known as sills and dykes) that fill cracks inside other
rocks.
Some extrusive generally have finer grained, smoother
surfaces. Some extrusive materials, such as volcanic ash,
bypasses the rock stage and forms
directly into sediment

11
 Dike and Sill igneous rocks
Sill: A sill is igneous rock which vary in thickness from a few
centimeter to several hundred meters. The sill is parallel to the
bedding of rock and may be horizontal, inclined or vertical
depending upon the strata.
Dike: A dike is vertical wall-like igneous body that cuts the
bedding of the rock. The thickness of the dike may vary from a
few centimeters to a hundred meter or more.
Igneous Rocks
Common Igneous Rock:
Some common igneous rocks include:
Granite: is coarse grained, an intrusive rock. It is the most
common and familiar igneous rocks. Granite contains primarily
orthoclase feldspar and quartz, with some biotite and amphibole.
It is mostly light in color with a white or pink tint according to the
color of the feldspar.
Engineering properties: Granite have absorption as low as 0.24 per cent. It has
an excellent frost resistance. Because of the minerals composition and
interlocking of crystals, granite is hard and abrasion resistant. The compressive
strength of granite is on average 24,500 psi. Granite can be used to support any
load of ordinary structures. Granite is also used as tiles for flooring in buildings.
Common Igneous Rock:
 Diorite: is coarse grained, an intrusive rock. It is mainly
composed of plagioclase feldspar (more than 50 %) and
hornblends. However, in some varieties augite and biotite may
be present. It is more abundant than syenites but less abundant
than granite. Diorite has been used for crushed stone for
monumental and decorative purposes than for structural
purposes.

 Syenite: is grained igneous rocks composed essentially of

potassium felspare (80-85 %). Biotite and hornblende are
commonly present. Quartz is present in small amount. The
general properties of syenites is similar to granite. Because of the
rarity of syenite, it is of little commercial use as structural
material.
Composition of some igneous rocks
Texture of igneous rocks
 Texture: Texture is size, shape and arrangement
of mineral grains in a rock. Texture of rock can
either of coarse-crystalline or it can be glassy or
amorphous. The texture of the rock is governed
by the cooling time of the magma.
Crystallization is governed by slow cooling,
however, glassy texture or amorphous form is
the result of rapid cooling.
 Types of rock: Holocrystalline, Coarse grained,
fine grained, cryptocrystalline and glassy
(amorphous)
Texture and color of igneous rocks
• Igneous rock classification scheme based on mineral
composition and texture. There are other blends of minerals
with various textures, many of which have specific names.
• Granite is a coarse-grained igneous rock composed mostly
of light-colored, light-density, nonferromagnesian minerals.
The earth's continental areas are dominated by granite and
by rocks with the same mineral composition of granite.
• This is a piece of obsidian, which has the same chemical
composition as the granite. Obsidian has a different texture
because it does not have crystals and is a volcanic glass.
The curved fracture surface is common in noncrystalline
substances such as glass.
 The Importance of Igneous Rocks in Engineering

•Plutonic rocks often become resistant to breakage and pressure

when they are fresh and although the rock is fractured. Therefore
they show high resistance.

•They can be used in material engineering services when their

resistance is between 1500-2000kg/cm2.

•The resistance of the rock depends on weathering and hence

degradation degree will vary inversely with the degree of weathering.
The Importance of Igneous Rocks in Engineering

•Since the volcanic masses have different physical properties, it

is necessary to thoroughly inspect them before construction
starts.

•Some lavas, agglomerates and volcanic rocks protect their

freshness, so their resistance maybe as high as deep rocks such
as basalt. But volcanic tuffs and breccias are hollow and
decayed, so they show a drossy structure. At the same time they
lose credibility because they show clay mineralization.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Most sedimentary rocks are formed of layers of materials that have washed into
lakes, rivers and oceans –
• Sedimentary rocks form strata
• Often layers are tilted by earth movements
• Sedimentary rocks contain fossils
How do sediments turn into hard rock?
 Through Lithification Processes:
 Compaction
 Cementation
 Crystallization
 Sedimentary rock is formed by deposition and consolidation of minerals and
organic materials and from precipitation of minerals from solution.
 The processes that form sedimentary rock occur at the surface of the earth and
within bodies of water.
 Rock formed from sediments covers 70-80 % of the earth’s land area, and
includes common types such as limestone, chalk, sandstone, conglomerate and
shale.
Fromation of Sedimentary Rocks:
Consolidation is a process by which soft and loose sediments are
converted into hard and firm rocks. Consolidation is of three
types:
1. Compaction and Dehydration: The squeezing out of water from
the pores of the sediments and its changing to solid mass by
cohesion between the particles and pressure from overlying
rock is called compaction and dehydration.
2. Cementation: Many coarse grained sediments are consolidated
by cementation, which is the process of precipitation of some
cementing materials, for example, silica, calcium carbonate,
iron oxides and clay minerals.
3. Crystallization: Chemically formed sedimentary rocks such as
limestone, dolomites, gypsum etc are consolidated chiefly by
the crystallization of their constituents.
– Compaction
• As sediments are laid down grain by grain, the mass becomes
greater.
• The increasing mass of the sediment layer above creates
pressure on the layers below.
• Eventually this pressure becomes great enough to compact the
existing layers into a cohesive rock layer.
– Cementation
• After, or during, the compaction process, the spaces between
the sediment particles become filled with a chemical deposit.
• This deposit holds the compacted layers into a cohesive mass
of sedimentary rock.
• Sedimentary Rocks
– Form from material from previously existing rock
• Material is provided by weathering of previously
existing rock
– Sediments
• Weathered rock materials
• Dissolved rock materials
– Clastic sediments
• Another name for weathered rock materials
– Chemical sediments
• Another name for dissolved rock material.
• The dissolved materials are ions from mineral and
rocks that have been completely broken down.
• Removed from solution by:
–Chemical precipitation from the solution
–Crystallization from evaporating water.
–Biological sediments.
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks:
1. Clastic: form from bits and pieces of other rocks

2. Chemical: consist of minerals deposited from a solution

3. Organic: consist of organic matter such as plants and animal remains

Organically-formed sedimentary rocks form from

the remains of plants and animals (fossil
limestone, coal)
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks:
Mechanically (Clastic) formed: consisting of materials (gravels, sand, silt and
clay) suspended in flowing water. The suspended materials are then
deposited and consolidated. The mechanically formed sedimentary rocks
are of three types:
1. Rudaceous rocks which is the cementing together of boulders, for example,
conglomerate.
2. Arenaceous rocks for example sandstone,
3. Argillaceous rocks which is clay rocks for example shale
Organically formed: Consisting of accumulated animals and plants remains.
They are:
1. Calcarious rocks, lime stone
2. Carbonaceous rocks, coal
Chemically formed: this type of rocks is formed by precipitation and
accumulation of soluble constituents. These are
1. Carbonate rocks, Limestone, dolomite
2. Sulphate rocks, Gypsum
3. Chloride rocks, salt
Formation of different types of Sedimentary Rocks
Texture and Formation of
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Common Sedimentary Rock:
 Conglomerate: The pebbles and gravels on consolidation and
cementation produce a rock known as conglomerate. Gravels are
deposited for the most part by water. Water circulating through
gravel deposits may precipitate out silica, calcium carbonate, or
iron oxides, which act as cements binding the gravels together
into conglomerates.
 Sandstones: Most sand is a water deposit. In arid regions,
widespread sands have been laid down by wind action. Volcanic
eruptions, glacial action, mechanical and chemical weathering,
and organisms produce sands. The sand particles are deposited
and then cemented together by materials like silica, calcite, iron
oxide or clay. Sandstones may be siliceous sandstone that is the
cementing materials is silica; it may be calcarious sandstone in
which the cementing materials is calcium carbonate; ferruginous
sandstone and argillaceous sandstone having iron oxide and clay
as cementing materials.
• This is a sample of breccia, a coarse-grained
sedimentary rock with coarse, angular fragments.
Compare the grain sizes to the centimeter scale.
• This is a sample of sandstone, a sedimentary rock that formed
from sand grains in a matrix of very fine-grained silt, clay, or
other materials. The grains in this sample are mostly the
feldspar and quartz minerals, which probably accumulated near
the granite from which they were eroded.
 Common Sedimentary Rock:
 The thoroughly cemented sandstone with quartz are termed as
orthoquartzite. Argillaceous rocks: variously called mudstone,
claystone, and shale (compacted or cemented) are among the most
abundant of sedimentary rocks. It is a laminated fine grained
sedimentary rock which is mainly composed of clay minerals and
some silt-size grains of quartz.
 The claystones, because they are characteristically soft and weak are
not suited to most construction purposes. The compacted shale lose
strength when wet and are subject to plastic deformation. Under
load they are subject to failure by flow. The cemented shales have a
strength comparable to concrete but have a relatively high elasticity.
Clay stones underlying the sites of heavy structures should be test in
both wet and dry conditions. Clay stone has a limited use. It serves
as a raw materials for the ceramic industry in some places and also
used as raw materials for cement production.
Common Sedimentary Rock:
 Carbonate rocks: The carbonate rocks are chiefly the products
of marine or fresh water sedimentation. They are
predominantly chemical sediments either formed by metabolic
process of organism or precipitated inorgainically.
Mineralogically, the carbonate rocks are comparatively simple.
There are two main varieties; the limestone composed chiefly
of the calcite, and the dolomite composed chiefly of dolomite.
 The carbonate rocks, particularly the limestones, have a very
wide use in modern industry. The largest single use is as
crushed stone. Limestone is one of the leading dimension
stones being utilized both for internal and external work.
Commercial lime is derived from the burning of limestone.
• This is a sample of limestone, a sedimentary rock made of
calcium carbonate that formed under water directly or
indirectly from the actions of plants and animals. This fine-
grained limestone formed indirectly from the remains of
tiny marine organisms.
 Structural Features of Sedimentary Rocks:
Structural features of sedimentary rocks are of great value in determining their
origin. The main structures are as follows:
Stratification: The deposition of sediments into layer or beds is called stratification.
The thickness of a single bed may vary from a few centimeters to many meters.
The stratification is formed due to the following.
I. Difference in the kinds of materials deposited for example shale and lime
stone
II. Difference in the size of particles deposited for example coarse grained and
fine grained sandstone beds
III. Difference in the color of the materials deposited for example light grey and
dark grey layers of limestone
Lamination: Thin bedding, less than one centimeter in thickness, are called
lamination. It is usually fined grained sedimentary rocks like shales.
Cross-bedding: It is also called current bedding or false bedding. Cross-bedding are
the minor bedding or lamination which lie at an angle to the planes of general
stratification. This structure is found in shallow water and wind formed
deposits.
• (A)In compaction, the
sediment grains are
packed more tightly
together, often by
overlying sediments,
as represented by the
bricks.
• (B) In cementation,
fluids contain
dissolved minerals
that are precipitated
in the space between
the grains, cementing
them together into a
rigid, solid mass.
 Textures of Sedimentary Rocks
Grain sorting: Sorting refers to the uniformity of grain size in a sediment or
sedimentary rock.

Rounding: During the transportation process, grains maybe reduced in size due
to abrasion. Random abrasion results in the eventual rounding off of the sharp
corners and edges of grains. Thus, the degree of rounding of grains gives us
clues to the amount of time a sediment has been in the transportation cycle.

Sphericity: It is controlled by the original shape of the grain. The longer the
sediment is transported, the more time is available for grains to lose their rough
edges and corners by abrasion.

Layering(bedding): One of the most obvious features of sedimentary rocks and

sediment is the layered structure which they exhibit. The layers are evident
because of differences in mineralogy, clast size, degree of sorting, or color of the
different layers. In rocks, these differences maybe made more prominent by the
differences in resistance to weathering or color changes brought out by
weathering.
 Textures of Sedimentary Rocks
Cross Bedding: Consists of sets of beds that are inclined relative to one another.
The beds are inclined in the direction that the wind or water was moving at the
time of deposition. Boundaries between sets of cross beds usually represent an
erosional surface. Cross bedding is very common in beach deposits, sand dunes,
and river deposited sediment. Individual beds within cross-bedded strata are
useful indicators of current direction and tops and bottoms. Note how the beds
become asymptotic to the lower boundary on which they were deposited.

Graded Bedding: As current velocity decreases, the larger or more dense

particles are deposited first, followed by smaller particles. This results in
bedding showing a decrease in grain size from the bottom of the bed to the top
of the bed. This gives us a method for determining tops and bottoms of beds,
since reverse grading will not be expected unless deposition occurs under
unusual circumstances. Note that reverse graded bedding cannot occur as
current velocity increases, because each layer will simply be removed as the
current achieves a velocity high enough to carry sediment of a particular size.
 Engineering Properties of
Sedimentary Rocks
Physical and especially mechanical properties of the existing
rocks should be determined by laboratory tests and tests. The
results should be numbered and used in basic and static
calculations.
The rocks have a certain carrying power. Rocks that are
overloaded by forces change structure and shape, so the upper
structures can be damaged.
The ground that is overloaded on the surface shows different
physical and chemical properties.
The factors affecting the cost and safety of the construction
which are known as the engineering properties of the rocks are
the specific gravity, porosity, water absorption, unit volume
weight, resistance corresponding to the press, resistance to
atmosphere effect, wear, fragmentation.
 Engineering Properties of
Sedimentary Rocks
With laboratory experiments;
It should be determined whether they are essential or not according to various rock and
soil conditions. Stability and resistance to depression should be determined.

The properties of storage (S) or permeability (K) and transmissibility (T) of groundwater
of various rocks and soils should be determined.
Whether or not the rocks are suitable for building materials should be determined.

 The resistance of the sedimentary rocks to breakage and pressures varies depending
on the hardness grades and the susceptibility of the minerals to water. For example;
Clay, marl, gypsum and limestone cemented sand stones and conglomerates show
little resistance to water pressures. Silica cemented ones are more resistant, like
granite and basalt. Good cemented rocks have high porosity and permeability
ratings, so their water storage capacities are high, while their resistance is low.
 Sedimentary rocks containing clay minerals such as clay and shale contain water in a
small or large amount depending on the type of minerals they contain. Their
indentations loosen or degrade according to the water content.As a result, resistance
and handling power are reduced.
 Engineering Properties of
Sedimentary Rocks
Limestones are used as building material for producing lime,
aggregate, gravel and building stone. The resistance of the
lime stones to be used in this area must be at least
200kg/cm2 with respect to water absorption, less abrasion,
and pore and porosity
The resistance of the limestones is low and high, so the
stratification of the limestones is effective.
Cracking systems and melting gaps should be avoided or
minimized in limestones if they are used in foundation and
dam construction.
Limestones must be cracked and melting space at ground
water investigations. Limestones which have high porosity
and cracked provides to generate high disharges karstic
springs.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed in form due to
heat, pressure, and chemical alteration.

FOLIATED NONFOLIATED
Slate Marble
Schist Quartzite
Gneiss

Slate: forms when shale is compressed by heat and pressure; splits easily
Schist: dominated by platy or needle-like minerals that form shiny layers
Gneiss: under pressure the minerals in granite recrystallize to form bands
of light and dark minerals
Marble: Limestone recrystallizes into marble – a denser and more
crystalline form of calcite
Quartzite: Sandstone changes into quartzite; Sand grains recrystallize to
form a hard mass of quartz
Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphic Rocks
– Rocks changed by heat, pressure, or hot solutions due
to:
• Movement of the Earth’s crust
• Heat generated by intrusion of hot magma
• Pressure can change rock by flattening, deforming, or
realigning mineral grains.
– Foliation
• When the pressure on flat crystal flakes tends to align the
flakes into parallel sheets.
• Gives the rock the property of breaking along the planes
between the aligned mineral grains in what is known as rock
cleavage.
Types of Metamorphism
 Types of Metamorphism
• Contact or thermal metamorphism
Driven by a rise in temperature within the host rock

•Regional metamorphism
Occurs during mountain building
Produces the greatest volume of metamorphic rock

•Burial metamorphism
Occurs at bottom of thick sedimentary rock piles

•Hydrothermal metamorphism
chemical alterations from hot, ion-rich water
Effect of
temperature in
metamorphism
• Increasing metamorphic change occurs with
increasing temperatures and pressures. If the
melting point is reached, the change is no longer
metamorphic, and igneous rocks are formed.
 Metamorphic Rock Textures
1.Foliated Rock - Bands of minerals in parallel layers
Foliation –any planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural
features within a rock
• Parallel alignment of platy and/or elongated minerals
• Foliation can form through:
• Rotation of platy and/or elongated minerals
• Recrystallization of minerals in the direction of preferred
orientation
• Changing the shape of equidimensional grains into elongated
shapes that are aligned
2. Non-foliated Rock - Without bands
• Metamorphic rocks that lack foliation are referred to as non-
foliated
• Develop in environments where stress (deformation) is minimal
• Typically composed of minerals that exhibit equidimensional
crystals.
• This is a sample of marble, a coarse-grained metamorphic
rock with interlocking calcite crystals. The calcite crystals
were recrystallized from limestone during metamorphism.
• This banded
metamorphic rock is
very old, it is probably
among the oldest
rocks on the surface of
the earth.
 Engineering Properties of
Metamorphic Rocks
Rocks showing foliation should not be preferred as construction
materials in terms of strength.
The strengths of the foliated metamorphic rocks, along with the
leavening and foliations that develop as a result of the
metamorphism, are decreasing along the foliage planes due to
clay minerals that swell in water like chlorite and epidote.
Marbles from metamorphic rocks are preferred as a good
building material. It is the building material that is required in
the building coverings.
The metamorphic masses provide a solid structure for the
foundation of the building, if it is not separated. Some slip
planes can be used without any support if the slip gaps are not
full with clays.
 Engineering Properties of
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphics can be exposed to change immediately
under favorable climatic conditions. Due to the changing
construction, volume increases and pressure increases.
Such features should be observed in tunnels and dam
constructions and other constructions.
Schist rocks along the schistosity plane cause shifts in the
excavations. This is especially the case for the dissociated
regions where the schistose and cleavage are opened
and weakened and the rock resistance is greatly reduced.
Schists and similar rocks create landslide hazards in road
constructions, dam abrasions and reservoirs lopes.
 Engineering Properties of
Metamorphic Rocks
Massive gneisses provide very good conditions for
large underground openings. Facilities for swimming
pools, theaters, skating rinks, industrial warehouses,
production plants and many other activities have been
created economically and safely in large openings to
such rocks.
Schistosized and competing gneisses can create
stability problems in underground openings. Even in
the ravaged schist and the small tunnels opened in the
phyllite, the ceiling may collapse. As the metamorphic
rocks are cracked and contested on the surface,
excavations cause the rock blocks to move.
HOW ROCKS RECYCLE ?
 The rock cycle is a general model that describes how
various geological processes create, modify, and influence
rocks

 The origin of all rocks can be ultimately traced back to the

solidification of molten magma

 Magma consists of a partially melted mixture of elements

and compounds commonly found in rocks

 Magma exists just beneath the solid crust of the Earth in an

interior zone, the mantle

 The Rock Cycle shows how rocks of any rock class can be
recycled into rocks of any other rock class.
The Rock Cycle
Stages in the Rock Cycle
 All rock types physically and chemically decomposed by a variety of surface
processes collectively known as weathering

 The debris thus created often transported by erosional processes via

streams, glaciers, wind, and gravity

 When this debris is deposited as permanent sediment, the processes of

burial, compression, and chemical alteration over long periods of time produce
sedimentary rocks

 Geologic processes like tectonic folding and faulting exert heat and pressure
on both igneous and sedimentary rocks, altering them physically or chemically –
rocks modified in this way are termed metamorphic rocks

 Any of the rock types can eventually be returned to Earth's interior by

tectonic forces at areas known as subduction zones

 Once in Earth's interior, extreme pressures and temperatures melt the rock
back into magma to begin the rock cycle again
 Driving mechanisms of the rock cycle

• Earth is a dynamic planet with the surface and

interior in a constant state of flux.
– Internal changes alter the surface by moving the
Earth’s plates, building mountains.
– Seas advance and retreat over the continents brining
in new materials and taking other materials away.
– Rocks are continually being changed by Earth’s forces.
• A schematic diagram of the rock cycle concept,
which states that geologic processes act
continuously to produce new rocks from old ones.
END