Intake Works & WATER TRANSPORTATION OF it C @ ste Types of intake @ type of pipes used for conveyance of water @ cast fon Oe 7 © concrete © prestressed concrete and GI pipes @ laying of pipes and their joints. 4.0 IntRopucTION to facilitate the conveying of water, An intake is a structure, constructed at a surface source, aed wired. to the treatment plant, either by gravity or into a sump when pumping is Ted! A water intake consists of the following components : 1, Intake structure 2. A conduit with protection works 3. Inlets 4. Screens or gratings 5. Gates and valves to regulate the flow. An intake may be a relatively simple submerged one or a more elaborate structure, which rises above the water surface. It should be so placed and designed, to draw water that is relatively clean and palatable. The type of design of an intake structure depends on [i] The source of supply (whether river, canal or impounding reservoir) [ii] The depth of water at currents, flood level and low water level, of the source. 4.1 Types OF INTAKES Depending on their positions with respect to water, intakes are mainly classified as (a) Submerged intakes and (b) Exposed intakes Depending on the source of suppl, intakes are classified as canal intake, reservoir intake Jake intake and river intake, A lake or reservoir intake may be of the wet or dry type. A wet saesce is one, which is filled with water to the level of source of supply: The take cet conduit pipe terminates uptumed in the middle of the wetvell with a bell and strainer protected ei oie Jen anchorage. Inthe dry intake, te intake structre is not filledsup with water Pace coe are connected to a common vertical pipe of the intake at diferent intervals. The mouths of ese srt terminate outside the intake structure with bellamouths. These ports convey wnge to ake Central vertical pipes. xy water to the 1. Canal Intake : A canal intake (submerged type) consists of a wel concrete (Fig. 4.1)..A pipe with a bell mouth is placed in the well with conetde. (Since a canal maintains « more of less constant level, there fs no ene at diferent depths). The bell-mouth location is about 625 mu above a ll constructed with its mouth opening need of providing Pipe diameter. The Scanned with CamScannerINTAKE WORKS & TRANSPORATATION OF WATER 55 total perforated area of the bell is equal to 1/3rd of the bell-mouth area. A’ fine screen is provided on the top of the bell-mouth to prevent small fish and floating matter from entering the pipe. The well is provided with a side opening and a coarse screen to prevent heavier matter from entering the end of the conduit pipe, The outlet pipe is regulated by means of a valve, which is operated from top. As these structures occupy about one-third bed width of the canal, to protect the bed and banks from erosion due to the increased velocity of water at the intake (which results duc to reduction in cross-section area of flow), bed-pitching and revetment are provided for some distance upstream and downstream of intake, Bell Mouth Inlet Outlet Pipe 40cm V= Valves Pipe Outlet Earthen Dam Fig. 4.2 Reservoir Intake Scanned with CamScanner56 WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING ~| WATER A WASTEWATER ENGINEERING ~1 4.2), with its floor 2. Reservoir Intake : A reservoir intake consists of a circular val Fig. 4 a eaince SutTiciently below the lowest water level (LWL) of the reservoir 50 that te tower located on the even in dry season, In an earthos dam, the intake consists of a concret eesti Waterside at the deep portion with a separate foundation. In a vets an earthen dam is intake is located in the body of the dam itself, Access to the intake Provided by means of a foot-bridge, y clear water as The intake pipes (i.e., penstocks) are provided at different depths to draws ans take pine the level in the reservoir fluctuates. All the penstocks are connected to a vertical arent which is connected to the intake outlet conduit, at the bottom of the well. The eS can be controlled by a gate valve, which can be operated from the top RCC maa! i eciey aris Nell. Penstocks are also provided with control valves. Screens arc provided over the entry of penstocks to prevent floating matter entering the penstocks. pPuneing Unit ST Treatment Plant Fig. 4.3 Lake Intake 3. Lake Intake : A submersible chamber (made Of wood and someti concrete) is constructed at the bed of the lake (preferably in the centre of the Water can be available throughout the year. The top cover of the chamber holes having gratings on it to prevent the entry of debris, weeds, aquatic lives, etc. into the chamber. One or more bell-mouthed pipes, containing screens ap the top are placed on the ea of the lake. The whole arrangement is covered by square or octagonal crib or cage mule et wood and protected by rip-rap (broken stones). The bell mouth je Fonnected to the pumping unit through the suction pipe as shown in Fig. 4.3. The pump house draws water from the chamber and delivers that to the treatment plant 4. River Intake : These are devices to draw water from a riy on the upstream side from the points of discharge of waster, within the river to draw water from higher depths. It must be debris. River intakes are classified into four types . [i] Intake vee ine ae Sain prc ton, v0 to six metres in d on the bank as shown in Fig 4.4, ‘ater flows into the intake. the aed located at different levels. The Penstocks can be cise or Sl thou valves. These penstocks face downstream to avoid the cntry of silt. This of ii te is adopted for rivers, which have sufficient flow throughout intake Imes of masonry or basin) from where consists of several r. River intake ‘ater. The intak Protected aga 's are constructed © may be placed Host flood and river the year. Scanned with CamScannerINTAKE WORKS & TRANSPORATATION OF WATER 57 :* Floor of Pump’ House Valve Stem: Suction Pipe Approach Channel Penstocks ta with Screens: we River Bed Fig. 4.4 River Intake-Intake Well [ii] Weir Intakes : If the difference of water level in the river in the monsoon season and in summer is very high and the river almost runs dry in the summer, small weirs are constructed across the river to store water for use during summer. The water is drawn from the weir through a channel into a sump well and further pumped to purification works. These intakes are located on the upstream side of the town to avoid contamination by sewage or sullage. [iii] Floating Pontoon Intake : In case of wide rivers with great fluctuations in flow, weir intakes are not economical. In such cases, floating intakes with a strained bell-mouth are adopted. The bell-mouth is protected by a floating crib. The position of the bell-mouth and crib is located at a place in the river, where water is available in all seasons. Along with the variations in the water level, the floating crib also rises or falls accordingly, thus ensuring water supply during low water levels also. [iv] Pipe Intakes : When a sinall quantity of water is to be drawn, the pipe intakes are economical. A required number of intake pipes are laid across the river bed. The pipes are supported on masonry blocks at regular intervals. The ends are provided with strainers and anchored firmly by masonry blocks. The pipes carry water to a jack-well from which water is pumped to purification works Scanned with CamScannerGINEERING : WATER & WASTEWATER EN' 4.2 Type or Pires Usep ror Conveyance OF WATER r A pipe is a circular conduit used for conveying water from one place to a ia Sravity or under pressure, In most of the eases the purified water, which > subjected to: the Pressure also, is conveyed through pipelines laid underground, The ae cas at Pressure of water that is conveyed, the earth pressure, impact and vibrations du he handii their top, the temperature Stresses and the stresses due to shocks etc. during the i rik carriage and construction etc, Thus, the pipes should be so designed that they resist all these stresses, In general, the pipes are circular and are pre-cast. The materials for these pipes should be strong, durable and cheap. While choosing the materials for piping, the character of water to be conveyed, the nature of the ground in which pipes are to be laid, relative cost compared with the life of pipes, resistance to Corrosion, etc., should be considered. The materials are like cast iron (CI), galvanised iron (GD), Wrought iron, steel, cement lined copper, lead, brass, concrete, Wood, reinforced cement concrete (RCC), asbestos cement (AC), prestressed concrete, polythene and polyvinyl (PVC), ete, The RCC, AC and prestressed concrete are greatly used now-a-days. When pipelines are laid to convey water from source, the materials used are RCC, CI or steel. When used in the distribution system, the pipes used are Cl, stel, plastic or AC. Materials like lead, zinc, copper, brass etc, are used in addition to ferrous materials for valves, joints, small pi machinery. For water-supply in buildings, Gl pipes are used Wooden {0 tropical conditions in India; however, plastic pipes are widely domestic works), as they are cheaper. pipes are rarely used due being used (especially for 4.2.1 Cast Iron Pipe In India at present, cast-iron pipes are widely used as street-mains for conveying water. CI Pipes were earlier cast vertically but this type has been largely Superseded by spun iron pipes that are manufactured by spinning or centrifugal action and are now universally used, Recently developed are centrifugally ductile cast-iron pipe, produced by combining molten iron of suitable composition with magnesium [IS : 8927 - 1977 & IS : 12288 1987], Cl pipes are available in lengths of 3.7 and 5.5 m and diameters of 50 ~ 900 mm, They are usefitl for working pressure up to 240 m of water depending on the diameter of pipe. Sats Pressure “The advantages of this pipe are : > Cost is moderate ‘* Economical as it lasts long [Some of the CI pipes used are Satisfactory even after 100 years of use] "> Strong and durable ® Corrosive-resistant when coated & Easy to join. Service connections are also casi > They can resist impact without damage. YY made with these pipes. Scanned with CamScannerINTAKE WORKS & TRANSPORATATION OF WATER 59 $$$ ———errrrrancewaTeR The disadvantages of this pipe arc : > Inside of pipe becomes rough with age and discharge-carrying capacity is reduced > Large-diameter pipes are heavy and hence uneconomical > Being brittle, likely to break during transportation or while making connections, When the water contains corrosive clements, the cast-iron pipes are lined with cement to protect them against corrosion. Lining of 1:2 cement mortar is applied centrifugally inside the pipe, thickness of lining varying from 3-6 mm, 4.2.2 WroucuT IRON PIPE ‘The wrought iron pipes are manufactured by rolling flat plates of the metal to the required diameter and welding the edges. They are made up to 500 mm diameter. They can be easily cut and threaded. These are costly but neat in appearance, however, not much durable. The pipes are affected by corrosion and hence these are generally used inside the building. To increase the life of these pipes sometimes these are galvanised with zinc, 4.2.3 GALVANISED IRON PIPE These are widely used for internal connections in buildings and suitable for service connections. They are available in diameters ranging from 60 to 750 mm. 1 Advantages : = They are cheap ® They are lighter and stronger than Cl pipes; hence easy to handle and transport ™ They are easily jointed by sockets © Frictional losses are less due to smooth intemal surface © Disadvantages : > Their life is short : 7 to 10 years > They are easily affected by acidic and alkaline waters and hence incrustations form easily inside the pipe 4.2.4 STEEL PIPE Steel pipes are used for large diameters and high pressures. They are manufactured in standard lengths and diameters. Steel pipes are sometimes encased in 1 : 2 cement mortar (from inside as well as outside) and used for mains and trunks. Owing to difficulty in making connections steel is seldom used in distribution system. © Advantages : © They are strong = Lighter in weight than Cl pipes © They are easily laid and jointed = Can withstand pressures higher than 70 m of water. Scanned with CamScannerWATER & WASTEWATER ENGIN: RING OF Disadvantages : > Fasi ly affected by acidic or alkaline waters ha > Life only 25 to 30 years unles special coating is cause collapse or distortion, > A partial vacuum caused by emptying a pipe rapidly may 4.2.5 Concrete Pipe Plain concrete pipes are used when they are not under pressure and when leakage in the Pipe will not matter. Concrete Pipes are used up to a diameter of 610 mm. ae RCC pipes are used in diameters beyond this and of up to 2.5 m and, can be designed for a head of 30 m. Steel is provided in the form of Tings and longitudinal steel bars. When reinforcement is placed in the mould and concrete poured, and rotated at great speed along its longitudinal axis, the pipe is called hume Pipe or spun pipe. For heads greater than 30 m, the prestressed Pipes of diameters 80 to 1800 mm are used. The RCC pre-stressed Pipe is laid with a welded steel cylinder to ensure water tightness and high-tensile wire is round around it lightly to cause Pre-stressing of the core. The concrete is laid centrifugally. Advantages of cement concrete pipes over other types are ‘* Inside of the pipe is smooth and hence friction losses are the least; carrying capacity remains high They are durable and are not easily biodegradable Easy to construct either at site or at factories and with local ingredients They do not rust nor are incrustations formed inside Low maintenance cost Life is at least 75 years bok SER Bek J i Disadvantages : > Pipes are heavy and difficult to handle > Likely to crack during transportation > Repairs difficult > Unless they are well executed at site, there ig pipes. “Possibility of seepage in large diameter 4.2.6 As ‘os CEMENT Pipe AC pipes are made by mixing 4 diameter varies from 50 ~ 900 mm, and also in house connections as rising m head of water depending on the cl presently banned in USA, Europe an, cement Hey are used in ne It under main, ete. They can tion system 4n withstand sys lass ° 7 : a and type of manufacture res from 50 - 250 other develop countries Pipes are, however, Pressure, Their distribut Scanned with CamScannerTAKE WORKS & TRANSPORATATION OF WATER u 6 CO Advantages : = They are light (25% of Cl) and easy to handle They are resistant to alkali and acidic waters ® Inside surface of pipe is si smooth a esi i i : ies with time and resistant to incrustations; carrying capaciiy does not = Large lengths available, hence fewer joints . They can be cut to any length and jointed like CI pipes Highly flexible and may permit as much as 12° deflection in laying them around curves. C1 Disadvantages : > They are brittle and break easily; unsuitable in locations subject to vibration and subsidence } Cannot be used for high pressures > Leaks are difficult to detect and repair > Joints with rubber gasket spoilt easily by water with time. 4.2.7 PLASTIC PIPE Plastic pipe manufactured of both uniform and fibre reinforced materials is now widely used both in domestic plumbing and water distribution systems. Such pipes are far easier to install, more easily handled, and generally cheaper in material cost than traditional materials. Other advantages claimed for plastic pipes include freedom from corrosion and bacterial contamination, acid-resistant to solution about 10% concentration; light weight, about 11% that of cast iron pipes, easy to bend and to join; have adequate strength; unaffected by age; resistant lectric insulators; resilient and flexible; and some may be transported in coils. to shock; good ell Cold flow, age embrittlement, and effect of installation stresses are suggested difficulties which idered in their selection. might occur and taste & toxicity of plastic materials must be consi finding increasing use for potable water supply in India. These are low density polyethylene pipes (L-D.PE.), high density polyethylene ride (PVC) pipes. Accepted life is 50 years Because ially the unplasticized PVC and H.D. P.E. [available © 350 mm] are becoming increasingly for use in buildings. oy dor tuberculated and are. Plastic pipés are now manufactured in 3 types—| (HDPE, and unplasticized polyvinylchlo of their excellent merits, these pipes espe in sizes 15 150 mm in diameter and occasionally up n popular and offer effective alternatives to the conventional Gl pipe’ Besides being light in weight, PVC pipes do not become pitted or tubere " unaffected by and bacteria. Rigid PVC is resistant to most iors ie acids, alkalis and salts, and organic chemicals. It is sistant to corrosive soils too. These pipes are widely used for cold-water services for internal and external water-supply system, soil-waste piping system and upderground drainage. They are available in different sizes and are designated by outside 4,3 JomTs IN PIPES Since pipes are available only in specified lengths, say 2 to 6 m, so jointing is necessary to lay a water main or distribution Tine. The pipes are aligned properly and then jointed. The Scanned with CamScannerENGINEERING TEWATER 62 WATER & WAS the next pipe and the joint is upward end of a pipe is brought to fit into the downward en oe ideal material for jointing made watertight with any jointing material. The requirements are as follows : 1 It must be impervious in nature IL It should be elastic ML. It must have sufficient strength and must be durable IV. It should have adhesive characteristics \. It should be available in the market VI. It must be capable of being worked easily. 4.3.1 Joints iw CAST IRON PIPES The following joints are used : [a] Bell-and-Spigot or Spigot-and-Socket Joint : This is the most commonly used sat [Fig. 4.5]. The yam is folded Sufficiently around the spigot (smaller end) of one pipe an shrinks on cooling, which is then caulked, i.e., ms and hammer, Gasket Go y Hemp Yam Socket LZ ae Yr, Fig. 4.6 Bell and Spigot Joint [b] Flanged Joint : In these joints, the two smooth- jointed by placing a hard rubber gasket between These joints are used where the water Pressure is high, and .° 300 mm or where the pipes are to be remore for te eeamete ot ip: pumping chambers); however, this type shovta Not be useq to bear deflection or vibrations, They are strong, gid and egg laces Wy le] Expansion Joint : This special 'ype of joint is provide When 2 “isioine, high changes in temperature. A rubber gasker inserted in pone PIPES are Subjected to” ends, which makes the joint watertight [Fig. 4.7 ret ; ed to w “dA flan, ing jc 1\° SPigot which expands, and contracts along with tke bell eng, °d ting ig bolted and bell machined and them and ti vieed end here it has the han Scanned with CamScannerNTAKE WORKS & TRANSPORATATION OF WATER 63 CL. Follower Ring C1. Follower Ring — Space for bolt INNS ANS Bead \ EI, NSS ZINN WLLL LLL LL Fig. 4.7 Expansion Joint Fig. 4.8 Flexible Joint {d] Flexible Joint : (Fig. 4 8] These joints are used where settlement is likely after laying or laying pipes on curves. The rubber gasket is enclosed held on one side by a retainer ting and on the other by a split cast iron gland ring with its outer surface made to conform the inner surface of socket end of pipe. The gland ring and the socket are drawn by bolts, which are tightened after desired deflection has been given to the spigot end of the pipe. [e] Mechanical Joints : Where the two ends of the cast iron, steel or wrought iron pipes are plain or spigot, a mechanical coupling is required to make a water-tight joint. (i) Victaulic Joint [Fig. 4.9 (a)] is a well-known type of mechanical joint. It consists of a U-shaped leakproof rubber ring, enclosed by a metal housing made in two halves, each half engaging shoulders or grooves on the pipe. These are then bolted together so as to form a ring around the pipe. The clearance between the keys of the housings and the grooves allows for any expansion, contraction or deflection. Such joints are frequently used on exposed pipes, especially where considerable vibrations are expected, Middle Ring (ron) Bolt. Rubber Ring tron half {a) Victaulic Joint (b) Dresser Coupling Joint Fig. 4.9 Mechanical Joint (ii) Dresser Coupling Joint: (Fig. 4.9 (b)] In this joint, an iron ring and a gasket are slipped over each of the abutting ends of the pipes, and an iron sleeve is inserted between the gaskets. The iron rings are then tightened by means of bolts. Capable of withstanding vibrations, these joints are useful for pipes to be carried over bridges or below bridges in hangers. Scanned with CamScanner64 sed for connecting small have threads on outside, While socket t both the ends of the Screwed and socket Joint ‘Wrought iron and galvanised pipes, The eads of the pipes hi of coupling has threads on the inner side. ‘The same socket is screwed on Id be placed in the Pipes to join them. For making watertight joint zinc paint or hemp yaco should be pl threads of the pipe, before screwing socket over it joint is mostly u Socket Jute Soaked in White Lead Fig. 4.10 Screwed and Socket Joint 4.3.3 Joints IN RCC Pipes RCC pipes are jointed by cement collar joint or by a spigoted socket joint. Grooves are Provided at the ends of the RCC pipes. Hemp is placed in the grooves and both the ends are brought together. A collar made of concrete is slipped on. The space between the collar and the Pipes is filled with cement mortar (1:1) and finished at an angle of 45° (Fig. 4.11 (@)]. Collar Cement ‘Mortar Mince Hemp —+} Thickness (a) Matar placed after Mortar Rubber gasket installation. Spring steel wire anes PPE) I coating «Steel bell ring Coating thickness z Stee! spigt ring Sota placed ater ; Concrete instalation Nonina pipe lining o) diamatae Fig. 4.11 (a) Collar Joint (b) Prestressed Conerate Cyting : Rubber & Stee! Joint yinder Pipe— Scanned with CamScanner“a INTAKEWORKSETRANSPORATATIONOFWarER 8 s : Je oe comers pipes are provided with spigot at one end and socket at the other. Ft S mo soit with hemp and neat cement, The prestressed concrete pipes are also jointed by first placing a rubber gasket between stecl rings and then filling the gap from the outer as ‘ell as inner sides with cement mortar [Fig, 4.11 (b)] 4.3.4 Joints IN Asbestos Cement Pipes Simplex joints, shown in Fig. 4.12, are used for jointing asbestos cement pipes. A sleeve that fits over the two butting ends is provided. Two rubber rings are compressed between ‘the sleeve and the pipe ends, and thus water-tightness being obtained. Laying and jointing of these pipes should be done according to IS : 6530 - 1977. Force AC. Coupling AC, Pipe Rubber Ring : Woden Block SSS Crow Bar Fig. 4.12 Simplex Joint Fig. 4.13 A.C. Coupling Joint ‘The AC coupling joint consists of three rubber rings and an AC coupling (Fig. 4.13]. The rubber rings should be sealed in their respective grooves. The machine ends of the pipe and end Tings in the coupling should be suitably lubricated with soft soap solution. Then the assembly should be made by pushing with a crowbar or using a pipe puller. 4.4 Layinc oF PIPES Pipes are laid either above the ground or below the ground Generally, the pipes bringing water from the source to the city are laid on the ground, whereas the distributing mains taking the water within the localities are laid below the roads and streets. The pipelines, in general, should follow the profile of the ground, and that location is chosen which is most favourable with respect to the resulting construction costs and pressures. Pipes above ground level : Pipes.are laid on or above the ground for conveying water from the source to the treatment plant and from there to the pumping reservoir near distribution areas. All pipes on or above the ground should be of CI and RCC. The ground is prepared along the alignment to required slope to form the formation level. It should be well-compacted formation of suitable width and is allowed to settle for about 6 months to avoid future settlements. The pipes are laid with masonry or cement concrete supports at 6 to 12 metres apart. Anchor blocks should be provided at every bend and subjected to pressure test before commissioning. Pipes below ground level : The laying of pipeline should be done according to the following steps : Scanned with CamScanner4 WASTEWATER ENGINEER Ig 66 wares sition of kerbs, howing po kerbs, stripes, telephone and clectrical cong pes, 28s ae “marking centreline and wig, » round PF ang, centrally stakes 30 my, iving é by divi ats with kerbs the Gistang! [a] Preparing detailed maps of roads 3 Underground tines-sewers, existing water PIPE (b] Locating Proposed alignment on fhe er the trench [Fig. 4,14]. The treneh line is a surves..O1 on straight reaches and 7.5 to 15 m apatt aM Of the kerbs fiom the centrelines should be s si Block ee pom Position of Joint Trench . -y i tion Fig. 4.14 Marking of Trench Fig. 4.15 Side Protectio {c] Excavating trench, with width sufficient to allow the pipes to be properly laid ay jointed, and depth sufficient to give adequate protection to the pipes against impact of traffic and other factors. Width is usually kept 30 cm to 45 cm more than the outside bor of the pipe and depth such as to give a ground-cover of about 90 cm from the top of the barrel of the pipe. Side Protection of Trench : Apart from hard soil, when the excavation runs along the loose soil, the side protection against collapsing should be done by sheet piles (woodes planks or iron sheets) which are supported by timber struts, timber blocks and wedges as shown in Fig. 4.15. {a ~ 3 3 3 3 2 3 e Ss 2 eg a & = 8 z g & z 2 5 a = 3 g F 3 3 £ s & 5 § 3 s 8 & 3 2 3 s g 3 8 3 Ps le] Provided which should be rammed properly (Fig, 4.16 (@)] ation SEE Compacted Moorum (a) Brick Soiting b Fig. 4.16 Preparation of Subgrade : (a) smay Diameter p (b) T Pil Pe (b) Large Diameter Pipe Scanned with CamScanner-_— INTAKE WORKS & TRANSPORATATION OF WATI For large diameter pipes the subgrade is prepared by 15 cm thick foundation (1:3:6) over a layer of brick flat soling ~ all these to provide adequate protection against possible settlement. Conerete benching should be provided to hold the pipeline in position. Grooves should be provided on concrete foundation or moorum subgrade at the places of joints [Fig. 4.16 (b)]. [f] Lowering of pipes into the trench : After transporting to site, pipes are stacked on either side of the trench. These should be gently lowered into the trench so as not to their outer protective coatings or their ends. Before lowering, pipes should be wiped clean to remove any dirt or foreign matter sticking to them. [g] Laying of pipes : Pipes are seldom laid with a flat slop‘ Laying is done with a continuous rise to high points or should proceed in an ‘uphill’ direction to facilitate joint-making. [h] Jointing of pipes : It should conform to the operation detaile particular joint required for the pipe. ‘YatAnchoring of pipes : At all bends, tees, valves and other branch connections, it would be necessary to provide ‘thrust blocks’ [Fig. 4.17] of concrete to transmit the hydraulic thrust and distribute it over a wider area of the Concrete ¢ to avoid any air lock troubles. continuous fall to low points. It din Art. 4.3, for the Direction of 7 nut on Bend ground. Where the hydraulic thrust is Thrust Block upwards as in the case of pipes on sloping grounds, ‘anchor blocks’ of peactif of Wal concrete would be required to be Thrust Block rovided at regular intervals and pipes Eo we y Fig. 4.17 Thrust Block would be firmly secured to them with steel straps. [i] Back filling : Backfill material should be free from cinders, refuse, or large stones. Stones up to 200 mm in the largest dimension may be used from 300 mm above the top of the pipe. Backfill from the trench bottom to the centreline of the pipe should be by hand with sand, gravel, shell, or other satisfactory material laid in 75-mm layers and tampered. This material should extend to the trench sides. From the pipe centreline to 300 mm above the pipe backfill should be by hand, or if by machine, very carefully done. The top of backfill either brought flush with the road level or a little projecting above it for later consolidation by the traffic. Scanned with CamScannerQuatiry oF WaTER Common impunties in water and their effects @ water for human consumption —wholesome- ness and palatability @ water for industrial use @ physical, chemical and biological tests of water @ water quality standard e water borne diseases. 5.0 INTRODUCTION No water on earth is 100% pure. During precipitation, rainwater absorbs many impurities from the atmosphere, such as dust, gases and floating bacteria. When it flows on the earth's surface, in the form of surface water, it picks up suspended, colloidal and dissolved organic and inorganic impurities. The runoff from forests and agricultural lands contain a considerable quantity of silt and colloidal solids which add colour, organic impurities and turbidity. Drainages from agricultural soils contribute fertilizers and pesticides. Flood discharges from mines increase the mineral content and acidity. Discharges from swampy areas contribute colour, odour and taste. Storm water from inhabited areas and wastewater, either raw or treated, from cities increase the suspended solids and contaminate the water with organic matter and pathogenic bacteria. The discharge of industrial effluents increases toxicity, acidity, alkalinity, organic matter, etc. A part of the surface water which percolate into underground, is comparatively free from some of these impurities, but may possess objectionable dissolved impurities like iron, manganese, nitrate, calcium, magnesium, and chlorides. The water used for drinking purposes should be free from these impurities or contain them in permissible limits. So 'Water Quality’ is used to define those physical, chemical, biological or radiological characteristics by which one evaluates the acceptability of water. 5.1. Common Impurities iN WATER AND THEIR EFFECTS The impurities in water may be classified into inorganic and organic impurities, which may be present in the form of suspended, colloidal and dissolved states. Living organism may also be present in water, which includes bacterial life, aquatic life and the microscopic form of plant life or planktons. The suspended impurities include salts, algae and bacteria. These impart turbidity, colour, taste and odour to water. Some bacteria cause diseases. The dissolved impurities in water are also large in number. These include carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, chloride, nitrate salts of calcium, magnesium and sodium which impart alkalinity, hardness, salinity, bad taste etc. The iron oxide and manganese impart red, black or brown colour, The colloids are particles in a finely divided state. These are midway between particles in suspension and solution. Since these are very fine, their removal by ordinary sedimentation is not possible. Sometimes heavy metals like As, Pb, Cr etc. may also be present as impurity. um —_ Scanned with CamScanner72 WaT! cal, (ii) chemical ped under: (i) Phy b ang Hine be grou so All the above-mentioned impurities may be & ‘gal aspects like size « (ii) bacteriological impurities, + forms from phys Impurities may be present in water in three solved particles @r Gi) Colloidal partic! ii) Suspended particles 10-3 - 10% nue Greater than 10" mm 10-3 mm) cause turbigi 5 aan an | micron (i-¢., sta Particles having diameter greater was ater than one are the settleable typ. in water. Suspended impurities with specific gravity gre: i it ating type: while those with specific gravity less than one are the floating Suspended Bacteria — Some cause diseases Odour, turbidity impurities Algae, Protozoa & certain organic matters 7 Silt or clay — Milkiness or turbidity Dissolved and colloidal particles cause colour in the water. Bacarbonate : alkalinity, hardness Calcium and Carbonate : alkalinity, hardness Magnesium Sulphate : hardness Chloride : hardness, corrosiveness Bicarbonate : alkalinity, sofetening Carbonate: alkalinity, softening Sulphate: foaming in steam boilers Fluoride : mottled enamel of teeth Chloride : taste Iron and Taste, red Water, corrosion, hardness Manganese Black and brown water Vegetable Dyes : Colour, acidity Salt Sodium: Oxygen : corrosiy © 10 meta Is ad Carbon dioxide : ': Corrosive, Ys ness Hydrogen sulphide . odour, Nitrogen acidity, corrosion Scanned with CamScannerQUALITY OF WATER, 73 , and usable for domestic A potable water is one that purposes. Potable water necessarily s the drinking water quality standards [as laid down in Table 5.2 later]. A contaminated water is one that contains micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial or other wastes, or sewage so that it is unfit for its intended use. ‘The term polluted water is synonymous with contaminated water. 5.2 WATER FOR HUMAN ConsuMPTION—WHOLESOMENESS AND PALATABILITY To meet the general requirements of sanitation, water supplies must possess two attributes- wwholesomeness and palatability. These are intertwined. If water is not attractive to the sense of ight, taste and smell, if it disgusts the consumer, people will stop its use and either drink amounts which are insufficient to meet physiological needs or seek water from sources that, although they deliver a liquid which is more pleasant to the senses, may in fact be contaminated or otherwise hygienically unsafe and dangerous. So, the requirements of water for human consumption : 1. It should be wholesome (or) potable 2. It should be palatable (or) aesthetically acceptable. Safe or protected water implies water that is potable and palatable. 1. Wholesomeness of Water : To be wholesome, water must be (a) uncontaminated and hence unable to infect its user or cause water-borne diseases, (b) free from poisonous substances, and (c) free from excessive amounts of mineral and organic matter. [a] Safety from infection : The waterborne disease fall into five categories according to the nature of organisms that causes infectious diseases - bacteria, protozoa, worms, viruses and fungi. Water itself would not become the means of spreading diseases, however, were it not for its pollution by the excrete of (i) persons actually ill with an intestinal or related infection or (ii) of apparently healthy carriers of responsible organism. ‘Some bacterial infections are typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever, bacillary dysentery and cholera. ‘A water-borne disease caused by protozoa is amoebic dysentery. The larvae and eggs of the jntestinal worms that are present in water cause sporadic infection under grossly polluted conditions. Examples of such diseases are schistosomiasis and swimmers itch. Some viral infections are infectious hepatitis, infantile paralysis, viral fevers and gastro-intestinal disorders. A common is histoplasmasis. disease of fungal origi [b] Freedom from poisonous substances : Four types of toxic contaminants may conceivably be encountered in public water supplies under normal condition : ({) natural contaminants in water that has come into contact with poisonous mineral formations, (ii) natural contaminants in water associated with specific aquatic growth, Scanned with CamScannerEERING ~ /ATER ENGIN 74 WATER & WASTEW! incipally metallic ve ructures pri Gd) acquired contaminants that enter water from water work st Pipes and from water treatment practice, and d similar wastes that have been (iv) acquired contaminants traceable to industrial and s discharged into water-courses. alent chromium, 7 cyanide, hexavalk Substances nature are selenium, arsenic, boron, cyanii other hand, lead, etc. Excessive fluoride leads to mot ing of teeth and crippling of ait eae poisonous Muoride deficiency causes “dental caries. Some specific varieties ofa peste ‘An encensive uids into water. The products of corrosion of water pipes are toxic in Fe Quantity of nitrate, causes “nitrate eynosis” or “blue babies” or “Methaemog! The chemical employed in chemical treatment of water, €-g.. cong ety Sremesion eS are ordinarily harmless in themselves or so low in concentration as to be n Ie] Freedom from excessive amounts of mineral and organie matter : Whereas the harmfulness of infecting organisms and toxic contaminants is self-evident, there are certain fluantities of water supplies that touch upon the fringe of wholesomeness but that cannot be directly incriminated. Excessive mineralisation is one; excessive presence of organic matter living and dead is another, Highly mineralised waters frequently possess laxative properties, These are particularly associated with the presence in water of magnesium and sulphate ions, Highly mineralised or hard waters consume much soap before lather is sited: here is no direct evidence ofthe harmfulness of exe¥ssive amounts of organic matter in water. Bad odours, tastes and appearance however, issue warnings to our primitive Protective instincts. It seems only reasonable to heed them in the absence of Proof to the contrary. 2. Palatability of Water Turbidity is due to suspended clay particles, banks but also to the discharge of industrial Waters, th and the growth of algae and other plankton organisms, Coagulation, sedimentation and filtration makes j contains almost no colouring or dispersed matter, [b] Taste and odour : Tastes following : (D decaying organic matter, (ii) living algae and other micros odorous compounds, 4 / eSSential oils and other (iii) iron and manganese ani metallic products °f corrosion, ‘meddo tea’. due to the erosion of clay of products of corrosion, and odours are associated With the Copic organisms that Contain Scanned with CamScanner