Roo General flow diagrams of treatment of water @ principles of and flocculation @ coagulants and chemical equations in © clari-flocculator e Filtration - principle @ constructio filter @ Head loss in filter @ negative head e air binding @ mu © Disinfections - objective @ disinfectants @ chlorine TreaTMENT OF WATER plain sedinrentation @ coagulation volved in chemical coagulation 1n and operation of slow and rapid sand id ball formation and remedies dose @ chlorine demand and residual chlorine pre and post-chlorination e super chlorination @ break point chlorination and chlorination technology in rural water supply @ Miscellaneous treatment - removal iron, manganese and hardness. 6.0 INTRODUCTION of taste, odour, colour, The types of treatment required for different sources are given in Table 6.1. Table 6.1 Treatment required for different sources * UDR Ground water and spring water fairly free from contamination. 2. Ground water with chemicals, minerals and gases 3. Lakes, surface water reservoirs with less amount of pollution 4, Other surface waters, such as rivers, canals and impounded reservoirs with a considerable amount of pollution. ee No treatment or chlorination Aeration, coagulation (if necessary), filtration, and disinfection Disinfection Complete treatment processes used for their removal. Table 6.2 Treatment process Pind . Floating matters as leaves, dead animals or its parts Suspended impurities as silt, clay sand ete. Fine suspended matter Micro-organism and colloidal matters Dissolved gases, tastes and odours Hardness . Pathogenic bacteria The following Table 6.2 states the common impurities present in water and corresponding used for removal of impurities Ecko) Screening Plain sedimentation Sedimentation with Coagulation Filtration Aeration and Chemical Treatment Softening like Permutit method etc. DisinfectionTREATMENT OF WATER 7 HE ee PE es OF 6.1 GENERAL FLow DIAGRAMS oF TREATMENT OF WATER ‘The various steps in which the treatment of water may be effected are : (i) Screening, (ii) Plain Sedimentation, (iti) Coagulation and Sedimentation, (iv) Filtration, (v) Disinfection, (vi) Softening and (vii) Aeration. 2 The various components of a water treatment plant have been derived from unit operations. Every unit operation aims at the removal or reduction of specific objectionable substances to the desired degree. Depending upon the kinds and magnitudes of the treatment required, proper unit operations are selected and arranged in the proper sequential order for the purpose of modifying the quality of raw water to meet desired standards. The combination of such units is called a water treatment plant, a schematic diagram of which is given in Fig, 6.1 (that illustrates proper sequence). The typical functions of each unit treatment are given in Table 6.3. Table 6.3 Functions of Water Treatment Units BTC CL) ‘Aeration, use of chemicals | Colour, odour, taste Screening Floating matter Chemical methods Iron, Manganese etc. Softening Hardness Sedimentation 2 Suspended matter * Coagulation Suspended matter, a part of. colloidal matter and bacteria Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter, bacteria Disinfection Pathogenic bacteria, organic matter and reducing substances Rar er from Source: | ree | —+(2)}—4 3. eS eg.River Intake — Pump Point House Storage (in overhead 6 reservoir and pumping to Distribution System) 4Pre-chloritiation (if required) $ Filtration 2 Aeration ~6, Post-Chilorination Unit (disinfection) ‘A, Flocculation (mixing of coagulants) 7. Water Softening Unit 7 Plain Sedimentation or Sedimentation with coagulation fi Fig. 6.1 Layout of Water Works System xe98 WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING 6.2 PRINCIPLES OF PLAIN SeDIMBNTATION 6.2.1 Taory oF PLAIN SEDIMENTATION Most of the impurities suspended in water possess the aout pater than that a water, ie., unity (ie., 1), These are held in suspension due to turbulence in water. When i, turbulence is retarded by offering storage in the water, the suspended matter tends to gy down at the bottom of the tank. oan fine soreens, is removed by “sedlmentaty» Whatever is not taken away by coarse and ee d (which is the theoretical time of; which depends upon size of particles, detention perio i setting basin for which the water is detained in it, shape of sedimentation basin and veloiy of flow. The particles heavier than the water will try to settle under the force of gravity. Ty particles Tike sand, silt, clay and suspended organic matter present in a turbid water hae specific gravity between 2.65 and 1.04. The particles having specific gravity more ‘than 1.2 ey settle very easily while the lighter particles do not settle readily and offer a difficulty. Te: velocity of flow transporting a particle horizontally, the viscosity of liquid offering frictional resistance (viscosity varies inversely as the temperature) and the size_and_shape.of partis oppose the settlement of particles. [The suspended particles are of two types, viz. (i) “granular” or “discrete” particles whic do not change their size, shape and weights and (ii) “flocculated particles” which change their size, shape and weight and lose their identity during the process of sedimentation ‘When coagulant reacts on the colloidal matter, it produces a spongy, gelatinous mass called “floc”. The “floc” attracts and agglomerates very fine particles and forms clusters, which are of different, shape, size and weight and are settled easily i i in th tion followed by sedimentation. ] y in the process of coast The process of plain sedimentation (which means storage of water in a tank for a cet time) may remove about 60% suspended matter and 75% bacteria. Thus it reduces load 0 filters. Very fine particles can be removed by coagulation. ‘The highe ve gure sae value, proper inlets and outlets, large detention periods and well er temperature, © ae the favourable conditions of effective sedimentation, eapied tank Ck 6.2.2. DETNTION PERIOD The detention period of a settling tank is the theoretical time for which-the: water r whi detained in it. It is the ratio of the volume of the basi throus ‘ In practice, it has varied from a few minutes to se aaa ae toa nf ve settling particles and their desired percentage of remo ‘e days, depending upon the nature days for a detention period of several days, unless the However, no tanks are designed storage is requi quired.TREATMENT OF WATER 99 6.2.3 Desicn oF SETTLING TANKS Following points are considered for design 6.2.3.1 Type and Shape Sedimentation tanks can either be of intermittent type (quiescent type) or of continuous type. Intermittent types are not in use these days because a lot of time and labour are wasted and a number of units are required The tanks may be (i) rectangular [Fig. 6.2] or square with horizontal flow, (ii) circular [Fig. 6.3] with (a) spiral or radial flow (b) Circumferential flow [Fig. 6.4 (a)] or (iii) hopper shaped [Fig. 6.4 (b)] with vertical flow The long narrow rectangular tanks are preferred for rural supplies to the circular ones with radial or spiral flow for their low cost, easy operation and maintenance. It is more in use. However, they have a disadvantage that during cleaning, whole of the tank water is to be drained out, hampering the supply in addition to the water wastage. Scum Skimmer Operating Handwheel Cross Collector i Weir Crest Collector Dive Effluent Weir Influent i) (Adjustable), if ‘Walkway ee eee: ‘Skimmer t =A atl Intuent = Chennel Infuent Poeine | Concrete = - = Hd eS effunt Re Hesse Grout Fright Tough Shear Spracket sestion Travel Primary 3 Recess Sludge ‘suit Equipment Fig, 6.2 Typical Rectangular Sedimentation Tank Bafle ‘Swinging Skimmer Drive Unit ~ Sa TN Bie anncticibpar| Vf Jusiste sure Skimmer/P2%_ ae als Ee of / as W/o tan ; five 7 Bel channel Cental Pier ana ifuent Pe ‘Sludge Draw-ofl Pipe—#— Influent Pipe ®é Fig. 6.3 Typical Circular Sedimentation Tankw WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING peli =s a 3 [J tet pit Pe Inet Sti oe ! Sludge Sup Fig. 6.4 (b) Vertical Flow Hopper Fig. 6.4 (a) Circumferential Flow Bottom Settling Tank Settling Tank 6.2.3.2 Capacity The capacity of the tank is designed by the detention period according to old practice. Detention period in hours, + = “22 (A) where L,B,D and f are the length, breadth, depth and rate of flow (per hour) of tank. The detention period is usually kept as 2 — 8 hours, The depth is also an important factor and should be 3.5 - 6.0 m. The allowance for deposition of silt or sludge must also be made according to turbidity of water. The width should not exceed 12 m. ‘The sedimentation depends upon the surface area of the tank and not on the depth. ‘The shallow basin must be more efficient because the particles have a shorter distance to travel to settle on the bottom. So, in this light in addition to equation (A), another relationship, D j ane ” ®) (where, V is the velocity of settlement) may also be considered. From equations (A) and (B), we get IBD _D oo = £. _ Rateof flow ONS Te 7 Suits ares ~ . © From Eq. (C), it is clear that the velocity is independent of depth; instead it varies inversely as the surface area. For plain sedimentation and for normal waters, the capacity should be 500 —750 litres! har/m?: and for a thoroughly flocculated water it should be 1000 - 1250 litres/ur/m? th of tank in this case may be 2,0 ~ 3.5 m, eau The length of rectangular tank is limited to four times the bi travel, Ae es; cabo provided by batles ening te readth; hence the longer flow round their ends.TREATMENT OF WATER 104 w= Problem 6.1 : Design a sedimentation tank to treat 9.09% MI per d ‘Assume the detention period as 5 hours and velocity of flow as 15 rdnin ge td water. tank as 4.0 m and a free board of 0.5.m. ‘minute. Take depth of A Solution : Quantity of water to be treated in 24 hours = 9,092 x 109 titres antity of wa : = 2.092108 Quantity of water to be detained in 5 hours = 2092%10°%5 tire, = 9.09210 x5 240 XS cum. = 1895 cu. m. Velocity of flow = 15 cm/minute = 15; m/minute Length of the tank required = yelocity of flow x detention period = (5 = 60) x a ‘Area of cross section of tank required = Depth of water in tank = 4.0 - 0.5 = 3.5-m, Width of tank = 422° = 12:1 m. or say 12.5:m Adding 20% of length for overcoming inlet and outlet conditions, net length = 54 m. Thus, the sedimentation’ tank’ is 54 m:* 12.5 m. x 4m. in size. 6.3 COAGULATION FOLLOWED BY SEDIMENTATION 6.3.1 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION ‘The very fine and light particles and colloidal matter cannot settle in sedimentation tanks of ordinary detention period. By addition of certain chemicals these smaller particles are coagulated into larger ones, which possess higher hydraulic. settling -velocities. : “Thus, the coagulation is the addition of certain chemicals to.a turbid water (or sewage) in order to produce a gelatinous, flocculent precipitate known as “floc”, for absorbing and entraining suspended and colloidal matter. It is observed that ions ftom floc possess’ positive electric charge. Colloidal particles possess negatively charged ions. The floc thus attracts the colloidal particles and makes them settle down, The coagulation is followed by sedimentation so that the floc, which is formed, may settle at the bottom. ‘The coagulation becomes necessary when the turbidity is more than 30~ 50 ppm, The detention period in coagulating basins is 2 — 6 hours. 6.3.2 CoAGULANTS AND CHEMICAL Equations INVOLVED IN CHEMICAL CoaGuLaTION “The chemicals Wkich are generally used as coagulints are : (alumi [orale sulphate Al,G0,);.18H0 or filter alum], and (ii) the iron salts like ferric ‘chloride or copperas i.e. ferrous ‘sulphate (FeSO4.7H,0) or chlorinated copperas [Fe,(SO,)3.FeCls]-a oe WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING ~ | The reactions of these chemicals may be understood by the following chemical equations, [a] Alum : The impurity of bicarbonates is generally present in water, which imparts natural alkalinity in it. The alum requires the alkalinity in water for flocculation. (Treatment of water with alum increases acidity and hardness.) The normal dose of alum in practice is 7-20 ppm, which should produce visible floc. Al,(SO,)s.18H,0 + 3 Mg(HCO,), + 2AI(OH);/ + 3MgSO, + 18H,0 + 6CO, In case the water does not have the alkalinity, the lime is added and following reaction takes place. AL,($O,)3.18H,0 + 3Ca(OH), > 2/AI(OH)s! +3 CaSO, + 18 HO [b] Ferrie Chloride: If water possesses natural alkalinity, the reaction is as follows : 2FeCl, + 3Ca(HCO,), + 2 Fe(OH)y! + 3CaCl, + 6CO, If lime is added, 2FeCl, + 3Ca(OH), > 2 Fe(OH),) + 3CaCl, [c} Chlorinated Copperas : The liquid chlorine is passed in solution of ferrous sulphate and the ferric sulphate & ferric chlorides are formed which are called chlorinated eopperas. 6FeS0,.7H,0 +.3Cl, > 2Fe,(SO,);! + 2FeCl, + 2H,0 ~ When chlorinated copperas are used with lime, the reactions are as under : Fe,($0,); + 3Ca(OH), > 3CaSO, + 2Fe(OH);! ZZ 2FeCl, + 3Ca(OH), > 3CaCl, + 2Fe(OH),+ The ferric hydroxide formed in second and third case is a fine floc. ‘The alum reduces the pH value of water and hence sometimes the lime is added. The ferrous sulphate is. cheaper than alum and produces heavier floc, which settles more rapidly. But it requires a high alkalinity, i.e., the pH value should be 8 - 10 and hence the lime should be added. (3 PROCEDURE OF COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION ‘The coagulation mainly consists of two processes, viz, [i] Feeding and mixing the coagulant [ii] Flocoulation. ; [i] Fedding and Mixing the Coagulant : In this, the solution of coagulant of desifed strength is prepared and collected in’ large vessels. The feeding is done with a constant rate of flow in the mixing basin. It is normally done by violent agitation. [ii] Floceulation + It isthe second process after mixing. It is done with reduction in sped i.¢,,-at lower velocity (about 30 mvs), but for longer periods during which the suspended matter comes in contact with chemicals added. The particles grow in size to settle readily.TREATMENT OF WATER 103 } Inlet al Wi) WP UAW Sw LS mp ia a Way WS IL Tout i [secon] Fig. 6.5(a) Around the Baffle Type Fig. 6.5(b) Up & Down Baffle Type Mixing Basin Mixing Basin 6.3.4 Mixinc Basins & CLARIFLOCCULATORS + Baile type mixing basins are examples of gravitational flocculation, They are shown in Figs. 6 5(a) and 6.5(b). Water flows by gravity. If the baffles are provided in the basins, those induce the required velocity gradients for achieving floc formation. 3 “The mechanical mixing, basins are used to a large extent. In these the walet is first subjected to violont aaitation when the coagulant is added (in a mixer) and then the water is subjected tos gentle action when the floc is formed (in @ floceulator) “The basins may be square or Groular in plan. The water enters at the bottom and leaves at the toP in-about a minute, Such an arrangement is provided in a flash mixer [Fig. 6.6] ip ‘which the rapid mixing is effected in rectangular chamber when propeller fixed to a propeller shaft driven by an electric motor revolves in the chamber. q fake Ph Unit L- Motor support ~ Efiuent Bafle Plate Impeller Shaft SL impeller =|rain Valve Fig. 6.6 Flash Mixer04 WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING In a flocculator the slow motion: is mechanically caused in a circular tank provided with paddles revolving in a vertical shaft. The-shaft is rotated at a speed of 2 revolutions per minute, A detention period of 30 - 60 minutes is sufficient for flocculation. For example, the Dorr Co, [designed by M/s Dorr Oliver and Co., USA] has manufactured a mixing basin, which actually combines the process of mixing, i.e., agitating, flocculating and clarifying. Small scrapers are attached to radial arms in the clarifier, which move towards the sludge sump from where the sludge niay be disposed of continuously [Fig. 6.7]. Turbo Flash Chemical 4 Mixer Feed~ & Dorr Clarifier Influent ‘Sludge Sludge Return ~ Discharge Fig. 6.7 Dorr Co. Clariflocculator 6: EstIMaTION OF Optimum DosE or COAGULANT BY JAR TEST The jar test is carried out in the laboratory to estimate the optimum dose of a coagulant. The apparatus consists of (a) four or six agitating paddles, power driven to operate at a speed of ten to hundred rpm, (b) beakers of one or two litre capacity, and (c) an illumination arrangement to observe the floc formation. The procedure is as follows: 1. Measure the turbidity of the samples and pour them in the beakers, Add the coagulant dosages of different concentration to each sample. 2. Mix the contents thoroughly with agitating paddles operating at a speed of 100 rpm for a period of one minute (rapid dispersion of coagulant in the sample), 3. Stir the contents (20 - 50 rpm) over a period of 10 ~ 30 minutes, to increase the size of the floc. 4, Stop the’ gentle agitation after the specified period and wait for 5— 15 minutes to allow the flocs to settle. Driving Mechanism suchas an Electic Motor frtical String Rods Driving Shaft Tas Fig. 6.8 Apparatus for Jar Test for Determining Approximate Optimum Coagulant DoseTREATMENT OF WATER TS, 105 5. Measure the turbidity of the supernatant of each sample and sample and calculate the % of turbidi Measure % of turbidity 6 Draw a graph of % turbidity removal versus the dose of coagulant, and from th read the optimum dose of coagulant, ic., minimum dose corresponds to maxi fa sh removal. t 6.4 FILTRATION 6.4.1 PRINCIPLE The process of filtration is performed through mainly four types of actions : “Ail Action of mechanical straining, + The fine particles are arrested by the sand grains during their passage through the pores. ‘Action of flocculation and sedimentation ; The particles arrested in the interstices or voids are in the form of gelatinous material derived from the colloidal matter in the turbid ter The gelatinous mass attracts other particles and settles down more effectively. ‘Actually the interstitial pore spaces act as minute settling basins where the clariflocculation _,_ action takes place. {Ai] Blectrolytic action : A certain amount of suspended and dissolved matter in water (as electrolyte) is ionised. Some of the particles of sand are also ionised in the filter and possess electric charges of opposite polarity. When these are neutralized, the character of // water is changed. {| Bacterial action : The sand grains are coated v ith zoogleal film, which contains living organisms that feed on the, organic impurities present in the water and thus purify the water. /O Types of filter + Broadly there are two types of filters : (i) Gravity Filters : which are further sub-divided as: (a) Slow Sand Filters and (b) Rapid Sand Filters or mechanical filters and (ii) Pressure Filters. 6.4.2 Stow Sanp FILTERS ‘These are the first inventions but are obsolete now-a-days in the sense they are not usually builtin modem plants except for small community, supplies in. Third World Countries. They however stil exist in cities where installations were made before the rapid sand filter WAS developed. They cover a larger area and also their rate of filtration is low, 42.5 55 Mi/d/ha while the rapid filters have a rate of 1400 MV/d/ha. ‘The gravity type filters are more suited fer municipal water supplies while the pressure filters ave suited for isolated buildings like swimming pools, hotels ete. Basically all the filters have the graded layers of grave] or other porous material (sand) through which water filters. An under-drain system is provided for collecting the filtered water.pit areas os WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING The Slow Sand’ Filter is described below [i] Adaptability : Though they are not preferred now-a-days and rapid sand filters are replacing them in modern plants, however still they are economical and more suited to warm climates where covers on the filters are not required to protect the filters from freezing, They are simpler in mechanism and operation and have a high bacterial efficiency as compared to rapid sand filters, Its bio-filtration (filtration is mainly done on top algal mat called “‘Schmutzdecke” formed on the sand layer) produces the most hygienic effluent among all types of filters. {ii] Rate of filtration : It is about 45 - 60 Ml/d/ha. “ [iii] Bacterial removal efficiency : It is 99% (approx.). liv] Turbidity limitation : The raw water from lake or river has turbidity up to 100 ppm. ‘The slow sand filters cannot handle this load and even 50 ppm or 0.5 mg/l turbidity, (maximum limit) gives unsatisfactory results. The pre-scdimentation is the solution of the problem. [vy] Colour limitation : The raw’ coloured water over 30 ppm cannot be treated satisfactorily. [vi] Flexibility : A rapid change in rate is not permitted. They are not flexible fo change in load. : 6.4.2.1 ConsTRucTION oF SLow SAND FILTER [vii] Bed layout : The beds are usually rectangular and are arranged ini rows. Usually, the size of filter varies from 0.1 to 0.4 ha. For large works the suitable size of filter bed is 60 m.x 45m, to 95 m.x 60m, The number of units should be such that it allows one unit in a small plant and two units in medium to large plants to be as extra. One unit is always under repair because once it is chocked, it takes a long time to bring it in service. ‘The arrangement of layers is as follows : (See Fig, 6.9 above) (a) 0.9 ~ 1.5 m. water depth (supernatant) at top (b) 15 em, very fine sand (©) 60 om. fine sand } 90 om, sand ud) 15 om, coarse, sand 5 (&).15 om. large gravel iutve a) 15 em, broken stone } 20.¢m. sraysl The total depth of filter box is about 3m. ‘The effective size (90% particles more than the particular size, referred to as do) should be 0,25 0.35 mm, and the uniformity coefficient should be between 2 and 3. The depth of water is adjusted depending upon rate’ of filtration, turbidity and thickness of biological film.TREATMENT OF WATER 107 Nee Sy) | eee \\ | _ Sand (@0.em. = 90 om) Xi Well 2 ie rahe BE \ | Be Gravel 30 cm. s RENN ia un TTT = eee ae : e aurea Fig. 6.9 Slow Sand Under-drains : The under drain is simply an. arrangement below the layer of gravel on the floor to collect the filtered water and to convey it (through main drain) to the pipe leading to the clear water well. It mainly consists of a central drain which is connected by lateral pipes as shown in Figs. 6. 10 (a), (b) & (©): The laterals are constructed with open jointed pipes, usually placed 3.5 m apart on the bottom of the floor sloping towards the main central drain. These lateral to the main drain. {viii} Perforated Conerete Block ‘Open Joint Under Drains Cement Conerete Bed (b) Enlarged section at AB Showing Details of Under-Drains Fi ‘is collect the filtered water Open’ Joint Under Drains 6.10 Under-Drainage S| = Filled Weter Enters “S Under-Drains the Wel attr Filtration Filter © g-Longitudinal Drain ({T f Open Joint A | under 4 | Grains # rh D (a) Plan Showing Under-Drainage System of Slow Sand Filter through the gravel bed and discharge it Perforated Concrete Blocks ‘Cement Concrete Bed (c) Enlarged Section at CD Showing Details of Under-Drains ystem of Slow Sand Filter108 WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING — | $$ _____WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING - | lix] Cleaning : The cleaning of slow sand filter is done at 2 to 4 months interval depending upon the type of water, its turbidity and the extent of algal growth at the top of sand layer. When the loss of head is 1.2 - 1.5 m,, it indicates that the filter needs cleaning In this case, the provision of backwashing is not made but the cleaning is done by scraping 5 cm. top layer or a thick depth upto which the turbidity (i.e., the turbidity causing particles) has penetrated. Thus, in this case less amount of water is consumed in washing the sand (i.e., only scraped sand which is to be reused) as compared to rapid sand filter, N.B. The filtration in $ $.F. is important as a final process after Rapid Sand Filtration of highly polluted waters. The fier sand removes more bacteria but requires a greater head to pass water through the bed ai a yiven rate; also the finer the sands, the quicker the bed clogs. 6.4.2.2 Operatiox or SLow SAND FILTERS To render the filter fit for operation, the filtered water should be filled in it for about 10 em. above the sand before the water to be treated is introduced in it. When the normal level above the sand is reached, the filter should be allowed to stand for at least 12 hours. The filtrate should be run at one-fifth of normal filtration rate to the waste water drain for 12— 15 hours unless the biological film of sediment is formed. The water should then be diverted to filtered water reservoir at reduced rate, i.e., say one-third of normal rate which may be increased gradually to normal rate in 3 or 4 days. 6.4.2.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SLow SAND FILTERS ‘The advantages of slow sand filters may be summarized as follows : 1. There is’no need for coagulation facilities. 2, Equipment is simple and need not be iniported. 3, Suitable sand is readily secured. 4. Supervision is, simple and less maintenance cost. 5. The effluent is less corrosive and more uniform in quality than chemically treated ‘waters. 6. They give effective bacterial removal. The disadvantages as compared to rapid sand filters ate as follows 1. A large area is required, with coirespondingly large structure and volume of sand and ig? igher initial costs initially. 3. They have less flexibility in operation. be 3, They are‘not economical with raw waters having turbidities over about 30 units for prolonged periods, unless preliminary plain sedimentation will secure such turbidities in the settled water. They. aré'less effective ‘in: removing: colour. 5, ‘They give'poor results with water of high algal content, unless pre-treatment is practised. In general, the adyantages of these filters justify their use for small plants not under technical supervision where relatively clear surface waters are to be treated.TREATMENT OF WATER 109 ‘ Problem 6.2 : Design a Slow Sand Filter for a communit assuming the water supply as 90 litres per capita per day, A Solution : Maximum demand = 1,8 x (90 x 20000) Va = 3.24 Mild Assuming the rate of filtration as 45 Mi/d/ha, we get 'y of 20,000 persons (population) we Om * Area of filter bed = 324ha = 3 = 720 sq.m. Providing 2 units for the quantity to be removed and one unit more as extra, i 720 : Area of each unit = 25° = 15 m x 25m (say) (ée., 375 m?) Thus, three such units will be necessary. 6.4.3 RaPiD OR MECHANICAL SAND. FILTERS eo eee Effective size : It is defined as that sieve opening size which will permit the passage of 10. percent, by weight, of the sand grains, also denoted as Do, It is called effective size because it is believed to be effective in producing the head loss through the filters. Uniformity Coefficient : It is the ratio of the sieve sizes which- will pass, 60 percent and 10 percent respectively, i.¢., U.C. = Déy/ Dio: For rapid sand filters, effective size of sand = 0.45 ~0,70 mm.; uniformity coefficient = 1,3 - 14: 6.4.3.1 ConsTRUCTION OF Rap SAND FILTER Rapid Sand Filters were developed in America about 80 years ago, and are similar 19 slow sand filters but have coarser media, Sedimentation with coagulation is invariably used as @ preliminary treatment to rapid sand filtration, This allows a high rate of filtration usually 3000 to 6000 litres/square metre/hour. : f size-about 3 x 4 m or of surface area 10 to 30 m* It consists of rectangular tank units 0 t and are provided with media of very hard sand and gravel of different grades i layers (Fig. 6.11). The depth of different media in rapid sand filters generally adopted from top to bottom are given as follows : % (j) Top layér of fine sand; 0.40 to 0.5 m depth of 1.5 to'3 mm size (ii) Next layer of sand; 100: mm depth of 3 to 6 mm size (ii) Next layer of sand; 100 mm depth of size 12 to.18 mm (iv) Next layer of gravel; 100 mm depth of 6 to 18 mm size (v) Next layer of gravel; 100 mm depth of size 18 to 25 mm (vi) Next layer of pebbles; 100 mm depth of size 25 to 40 mm. (vil) Next layer of pebbles; 100 mm depth of size 40 t0 50 mm... i110 ee WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERIN This gives a total depth of about Im or more. The flocculant matter which remains in water cven after coagulation and sedimentation enters filtering media during filtration, and this forms @ mat at the surface of the sand and acts as mesh in the straining action which removes the bacteria and other suspended matter, The rapid sand filter is provided with an under-drainage system, also known as the strainer system for collecting filtered water, and carried through a Pipe to the clear water basin, The under-drain pipe consists of a central main cast-iron pipe, called manifold pipe, with perforations (holes) of 50 mm diameter at 200 mm apart and steel Pipe laterals branching from the manifold pipe. Perforations in lateral pipes hold strainers, Which are screwed or fixed at the top of the laterals. A strainer is a small brass pipe with holes of 5 to 7.5 mm diameter on its sides. A rate-control automatic device is used to maintain constant rate of filtration. Rapid sand filters clog rather rapidly and cleaning is, therefore, necessary at intervals of 24 to 72 hours. This is accomplished by an arrangement of pipes, which allows a reversal of the water flow through the filter called “back-washing” of filter Wash Water Storage Tank Water Level While Fitering Water Level while Backwashing Filter Rate Controller Influent from Clarifier leer Water Reservoir (a) By Laleral ito i El len i (b) Fig, 611 (a) Section through a Rapid Sand Filter (b) Plan View of Under-drainage System ig. 6TREATMENT OF WATER AN 6.4.3.2 FUNCTIONING AND OPERATION OF Rapip SAND Fiuters Fig, 6.12 shows the operational diagram for a Rapid sand filter Starting with a clean bed of filter, 1. Open the valve A to allow the influent to flow into the filter. 2. Open the valve B to allow the water to flow through the filter and into the ‘Filtered Water Reservoir’. the effluent moves During filter operation all other valves are closed. ‘As the filtration proceeds the pore volume is decreased and resistance to flow becomes more and loss of head across the bed increases. The top layer offers maximum resistance and tithe loss of head due to friction in this layer exceeds the static head or depth of water above this aver, a vacuum is created below this layer and this is called ‘Negative Head” in filter. Due to its auction effect, dissolved gases are released from water: this reduces the rate of filtration to a sreat extent. The filter has to be backwashed before negative head builds up ‘To backwash 1. Close the valve A. 2. Close the valve B when water drops down to top of overflow. 3. Open valves C & D to allow water to flow from wash water tank up through the filtering medium, loosening up sand ang- washing the accumulated solids from the surface of the sand, out of the filter Before a fresh filter rum, initially a portion of filtered water is led to, waste, This is done by opening the valves A and E while all other valves_are kept closed. 6.4.4 Heap Loss IN FILTER, Necative Heap & AIR BINDING AND REMEDIES ‘The water percolating through the filter moves downward under the force of gravity, This motion is opposed by the resistance offered by the sand grains and the impurities arrested in WASH WATER TROUGH (FREE BOARD) Fig. 6.12 Diagram for Rapid Sand Filter Operation112 WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING them, ee ae net therefore, looses some of its head. The loss of head can be easily ing the water level i i e Ted eee in the filter and the pressure of water in the outlet pipe, ions ‘een the two heads will give the loss of head, called filter head or filtration Th i 4 . : his loss of head is measured by inserting two piezometers, one in the water standing over the filter and the other in the outlet. The difference in the readings of these two piezometers will give the loss of head. When the filter is newly commissioned, the loss of head is generally very small, and-is of the order of 15 to 30 cm. However, the loss of head goes on increasing as the time passes, and aS more and more impurities get trapped into it. A stage is finally reached when the frictional resistance offered by the filter media exceeds the static head of water above the sand bed. Most of this resistance is caused by the top 10 to 15 cm. sand layer. The bottom sand then acts like more or less a vacuum, and water is sucked through the filter media rather than getting filtered through it. The fall of mercury level in the piezometer inserted in the outlet pipe below the centreline of the pipe, indicates the presence and extent of negative pressure. The negative pressure so developed, tends to release the dissolved air and other gases present in water. The formation of bubbles takes place, which stick to the sand grains, and thereby seriously affecting the working of the filter. The phenomenon is known as “air binding”, as the air binds the filter and stops its functioning, thereby reducing the-rate of filtration considerably. In order to avoid such troubles, the filters are cleaned as soon as the loss of head exceeils the optimum values. On an average, the loss of head is generally limited to 2.5 to 3.5 m, and the negative head to a maximum of 1.2 m. 6.4.5 Mup BALL ForMAaTION ETC. AND REMEDIES Besides air binding (explained above), the-two other common troubles, which are generally encountered during the operation of rapid gravity filters, are : (1) Formation of mud balls; and (2) Cracking of filters. Formation of mud balls : The mud from the atmosphere usually accumulates on the sand surface, so as to form a dense mat. During inadequate washing of the filter, this mud may sink down into the sand bed. This mud then sticks to the sand grains and other arrested imputities, thereby forming mud balls, ‘These mud balls slowly and steadily go on increasing in size and weight, They may then sink down into the gravel, thus interfering with the upward movement Of wash water during cleaning, They cause turbulence around them, and thus hinder with the niform application of wash water. The high velocities created around the edges of these balls, flso displace the gravel, and thereby fonning mounds; while above the balls, the sand is improperly washed and mud accumulates. Thus, when once the mud ball formation starts, they increasing in number, until the entire space in the filter box gets filled up with them. M ad balls are also formed when cracks (the development of shrinkage cracks occur as the fine es contained in the top. layers of the filter bed, shrinks) appear in the bed surfaceTREATMENT OF WATER 413 The use of surface wash technique instead of old conventional back ack wast proved very successful in eliminating, mud ball formations. They hing technique removed by hey may otherwise be redveed (i) Breaking them up with rakes or some other equip particles. quipment, and then. ‘washing off the (ii) Washing the filter with a solution of caustic soda 1 \ or some other s i (ii) Removing, cleaning and replacing the damaged filter sand saath cele 6.4.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN SLow Sano AnD Rapm Sanp Ficters a Commstruction : (i Base material : (gravel) Size 3-65 mm 3-40 mm Depth. 300-750 mm 450 - 600 mm (i) Filter medium : Effective size 02-03 mm , 0,35 - 0.6 mm Uniformity coefficient 2-3 12217 (iii) Under-drainage system Simple drains Perforated mainforld pipe UL | Efficiency (@ Loss of head 150 = 750mm 3-35m ii) Cleaning method Scraping top. layer | Back-washing with or 4 15 25 mmthickness ; time | without compressed air ; easy to clean, takes 15 consuming ‘minutes (iii) Period between cleanings 13 months 2-3 days (iv) Bacterial suspended matter Very efficient Less efficient removal (v) Rate of filtration /sq m 100 = 200 litres/hr 3000-6000 litres/hr Filter head 150 t0750 mm 2.0 04.0 m Flexibility in operation Not possible Possible Suitability Suitable for small towns | Suitable for bigh cities as land cost is high and rate of whereland is chep and rate h ‘of demand is less demand is high (vi) Amount of water required for | 0.2 -.0.6% of filtered water | 2 - 4% of filtered water “| back-washing MW. | Beonomy : (@ Area required for installation | Large Smaller Very essential Gi) Coagulation Not essential Giii) Skilled supervision Not essential Very essential iv) Cost Less More114 WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING % Problem 6.3 : Calculate the area of filtering media required for treating water by means of rapid sand filters given the data 2 (i) Population = 80,000 - (ii) Rate of supply = 200 litres/head/day” (iii) Maximum demand assuming suitable rate of filtration = 1.5 times the average 4 Solution : Maximum daily’ demand = 80,000 x 200 « 1.5 4,000,000 litres Assuming rate of filtration as 5000 litres/hour/m? of filter area,” 24x10% 000% 24 200 m? Let size of the unit be 5 x 8 m. Area of filter required Then number of units required = = 5 units Provide six units of rapid sand filters including one standby unit. 6.5 DISINFECTION 6.5.1 OBJECTIVE The effluent after filtration, ie., the filtered water may still contain a small percentage of disease producing bacteria or micro-organisms, and, therefore, the disinfection or sterilization becomes necessary which destroys bacteria etc. If the source is of good quality and the municipality cannot afford exhaustive treatment of water, or in case of emergencies when the ‘complete treatment is not possible to be given (like water supply to armies in war time), the sterilization is the only treatment given to the water. But in normal cases it is a final safeguard after filtration, etc. The disinfecting materials should be harmless and unobjectionable to the consumer and should be capable of retaining a residual disinfecting effect for a long time so as to provide protection against recontamination. 6.5.2 DISINFECTANTS ‘The following methods are available for disinfection : m Boiling water (Boiling for 15 - 20 minutes kill harmful bacteria, however, boiling changes taste of water and impracticable for large treatment plants] i HM Ozone gas treatment [Does not produce any taste or odour, but (i) treatment costly, (ii) Ozone is unstable and not storable for long time, & (iii) no residual disinfecting action] mm Excess lime treatment [Increases the pH of water, not usable for public water supply scheme as such water cannot be consumed directly & excess lime has to be removed by some suitable method]\TMENT OF WATER THEATMENOEWATE/ Asie SSN Ss @_ lodine and Bromine treatment [Available in the form of pills or pellet = pools, army troops during war, et.; treatment costly & Se used for swimming odour] y es certain taste and B Ultraviolet rays treatment [Powerful disinfectant, but (i) treatment costly, (i disinfecting action & (ji) incffective when turbidity is greater than eee 5 Potassium permanganate treatment [Very offective in Killing cholera aa a other bacteria; widely used for disinfecting village wells; produces coating on ee vessels and stains difficult to remove] poreelain @ Chlorination [It is largely practised in waterworks or water treatment plants], 6.5.3 CHLORINATION & Cuorine Dosr Chlorination has several advantages over other methods > The process is economical. and cheap. > It is harmless to human beings. os > It is reliable and effective. > Residual Cl, can be maintained in the water. The quantity of chlorine to be applied should be right. Too little will not Kill pathogenic bacteria; too much of it ‘will cause bad taste and odour. Chlorination is done by a chlorinator. The chlorine is automatically fed into the water in proportion to the quantity of water flowing. 30 minutes before it reaches “The chlorine should.be in contact with water for at least 20 - the consumer, The reasons for it are 0 It gives time for chlorine to kill the pathogenic bacteria. O It reduces the effect of possible over-chlorination, which causes odour and taste. Treatment with Chlorine or Its Compounds [Funct of application of chlorine dose] : Chlorine. in its. various forms is disinfecting water. It is reliable, cheap and not very diffic ‘water and forms hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid Cl, + H,0 == HCl + HOC! Hoc] > HO +OCcr ‘The HOCI ionises into hydrogen ions (H) and hypochlorite ions (OCI). Thus, the hypochlorous acid and the hypochlorite ions [also knows. 2§ “free available chlorine’) accomplish the disinfection, The disinfection is rapid when the pH value is about 7 or slightly more. "The chlorine’ éan be employed generally in three forms, V5 * (i) in the form of bleaching powder or chloride of lime for small supplies, (ii) liquid chlorine or solution of sodium hypochlorite (containing chlorine, 10 weight of chlorine) for small town, and Gii) in the form of gas by gaseous chlorinator for medium or: large size waterworks. The chlorine is added to the water in pipe leading from the filtered water reservoir 10 distribution mains so that the sufficient contact period is ensured. However, if the water 18 highly polluted it will be more advantageous to ‘add some chlorine into the suction pipes of raw water pumps before any other treatment is given ‘This is called the “pre-cblorination - the most widely and universally adopted product for alt to handle. The chlorine reacts with = 15% by RAT ‘ion of chlorine as disinfectant; methods: al116 WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERIN Ss ime». Ea_namese ING = __. The dosage of chlorine depends upon (i) organic matter present, (ii) pH value of water, and (iii) amount of CO). In addition, it also depends upon temperature, time of contact and chlorine present in the organic matter. The actual dosage should be such that a residual chlorine of about 0.10.2 ppm is obtained. Generally, 1.0 ppm is added. During epidemics and rainy season, the dosage of chlorine is increased. The dosage for ground water for disinfection is 0.1-0.2 ppm, 0.5~ 1.5 ppm for surface water and it may be as high as 3 ppm for highly polluted waters. Generally, the chlorine is supplied in steel cylinders compressed into liquid form (ie., liquefied gas). A number of dosing apparatus are available for applying chlorine either by manual control or to give a fixed dose, etc. The chlorine is generally allowed to come in contact with water at least for 10-15 minutes and water is thoroughly agitated. Usually it takes 30-45 minutes to kill the bacteria. © Using Bleaching Powder as disinfectant : This is the hypochlorite. of lime [CaOCI2] and is employed for temporary or emergency chlorination. It contains about 30 - 35% chlorine when fresh and loses its chlorine content with age and exposure to air. For application, the bleaching powder is dissolved in water and the solution is added to filtered water according to requirement, A dose of 1.54.0 kg/MI is common. The solution of 5% powder and 95% of water by weight is prepared in the form of paste and then thinned to a slurry and injected in the service mains. The bleaching powder requires 24 hours for its action the treatment with bleaching powder is also called “hypo-chlorination”. “The other forms of chlorine compounds used are : Chloramines [Duses of ammonia and chlorine applied to water are | : 4 whereby NH,Cl (mono-chloramine) and NHCl, (di-chloramine) are formed] and Chlorine dioxide [C10,] cI ae 5.4 CHLORINE DEMAND Chlorine demand is defined as the difference between the amount of chlorine added 10 water and the amount of chlorine (free available and combined available) remaining at the end of a specified contact period 6.5.5 RESIDUAL CHLORINE AND BREAK Point CHLORINATION ‘The chlorine when passed into water : (i) removes or kills bacteria (i.e., disinfection is effected), and (ii) oxidizes organic matter. The chlorine is first used up for disinfection. During the disinfection process, the amount of residual chlorine will be less in the beginning and will gradually increase as the demand for disinfection is satisfied. After sometime, the demand (ii) starts to be satisfied, /.e., the oxidation of organic matter starts and the chlorine again starts to be used up and water contains less and less amount of residual chlorine as the process continues, When this demand is also satisfied the amount of residual chlorine again builds up. The stage at which both these demands are satisfied and residual chlorine just tends to increase js called the “break-point”, i.e., any further dose of chlorine re-appears as free chlorine, The Chlorine is added in such amounts, which gives the residual chlorine as 0.1 ~ 0.2 ppm. The break point chlorination is also clear from Fig. 6.13.TREATMENT OF WATER 1 From Fig. 6.13. plied chloring 1 will be equal t are no organic impurities and bacteria, which is not possible, end Hen eel Chlorine if there hence fine First at point B, the residual chlorine gradually inereases but soon aftey fn tai oxidize the organic matter tll the residual chlorine at D is available after whic eco increase in residual chlorine. The taste and odour disappear at t here is marked - $ point. The bre: : be detected by instantaneous yellow colour if the orthotolidine solution toxic alae — BREAK POINT RESIDUAL CHLORINE, ppm APPLIED CHLORINE DOSE, ppm Fig. 6.13. Breakpoint Chlorination 6.5.6 PoInTs OF CHLORINATION : PRE- AND Post-CHLORINATION Chlorination is done at various stages of the water supply system right from raw water collection to the distribution network. Depending on the stage at which chlorine is applied, chlorination is, classified. as: (i), Pre-chlorination, (ji) Post-chlorination & (iii) Rechlorination. <6 Pre-chlorination ; Pre-chlorination .as described already is the application of chlorine before filtration. It improves coagulation and reduces the load on filters. It also reduces the taste, odour, algae and other-organisms. The normal dose varies from 5 - 10 ppm so that the residual chlorine of 0:1 — 0.5 ppm is available at all points z Post-chlorination ; The addition of chlorine after all the other treatments is called post- chlorination, The chlorine in this case may be added in the suction line of service pump but preferably it is added in the filter effluent pipe or filtered water well to ensure the adequate tune of contact (the minimum contact period being 30 minutes). The dosage in this case varies from 0.25 ~ 0.50 ppm depending upon the character of water to give 0.1 ~ 0.2 ppm residual chlorine. It is useful for protection against contamination from cross-cohnection. : .&Rechlorination : When the distribution system is long and complex, it may be difficult to maintain the residual chlorine content of 0.2 mg /I at the farthest point. A very high dosaae of chlorine at the post-chlorination stage makés the water unpalatable and also is costly. Therefore, the chlorine is applied at different stages ithe distribution system. This is called rechlorination- lorination is carried out in service reservoirs, booster-pumping stations oF at points where ‘mains supply water to zones. 5 .118 WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING — | —SS—}A Aamir ENGINEERING ~| 6.5.7 Super CHLORINATION Super-chlorination is defined as the administration of a dose of chlorine considerably in excess of that necessary for the adequate bacterial purification of water. Under certain circumstances such as during epidemics of water-borne diseases, as a Precautionary measure, high dose of chlorine is given to the water, generally 2 to 3 ppm beyond the break-point. ‘The contact period is generally 10 ~ 30 minutes. It is also used before filtration if the water contains a large amount of organic impurities or turbidity (i.¢., heavily polluted). It is also practised in waters where the water is coloured or iron and manganese have to be oxidised. The adding of chlorine in excess is called “super-chlorination” and gives a strong odour and taste of chlorine in the treated water, which can be removed by dechlorination. ‘Problem 6.4 : Calculate the quantity of bleaching powder having 20% strength to disinfect a storage tank of 1000 litres capacity with a chlorine dose of 3 p.p.m. [WBSCTE Semester Exam 2006] A Solution : Chlorine dose = 5 ppm. = 5 mg/l + Amount of chlorine required for 1000 litres = " = 5000 mg = 5 gm Since the strength of bleaching powder is 20% implying chlorine content in bleaching Powder is 20%, it means that 20 em of chlorine is contained in 100 gm of bleaching powder ++ Amount of bleaching powder required = 100 gin. 6.6 CHLORINATION TECHNOLOGY IN RURAL Warer Suppy scale, during epidemics of the cholera, etc. The most effective and cheapest method of disinfecting wells is by using bleaching powder. O Steps in Well Disinfection : 1. Find the volume of water in the well : (a) Measure the depth of water column (h metres). (b) Measure the diameter of the well (4 metres). (©) Volume (litres) = Aldxd? Aeration > Use of activated carbon [a] Aeration : Acration is the process by which water a'ssorbs oxygen. Aeration at the beginning of water treatment removes undesirable gases like hydrogen sulphide, C0; CH, etc. and volatile matter. By this, detrimenta. dissolved compounds also turn innocuols - through oxidation performed by oxygen pres mixed with it. [Fig. 6.16 (a)] (ii) By passing water over cascades (i.., like falls over steps in the form of ‘film’ throu! a tower, as in the waterfall aerator, where during fall, wate thoroughly mi with atmospheric ait). [Fig. 6.16 (6)) > t gets thoroug! (iii) By spraying the water through nozzles which rod aerato’ <7 aeration fountain) thus permitting the escape er ae ope (eg, pry ane Z so of the CO, present in water). [Fig, 6.16 ©] ved gases (ike abo (iv) By passing through trickling bed, 1e., filte ‘mnt size) supported over perforated bottomed tobe of coke or slag (50 3 container. Water is applied from it are atranged vertically it the t ‘i in contact with the air. [Fig. 6.16 or and allowed to trickle down so that itATMENT OF WATER jee residual chlorine at the pre-chlorination and post-chlorinaion stages 1d odour. Chlorine dioxide is sometimes used as a powerful es taste ank sn ; Activated Carbon is finely divided carbon whose particles are i & The Fig. 6.17 Activated Carbon lied its applied before sedimentation. The carbon beds sre 7.2 Mernops or REMOVAL oF CoLouR Z Colour in water may be due to algae, ofganic matter, industrial » iad should Be ie srg cn ese Fo SO ers or wchvatd carbon suse fr moving colour ae — ms a—_________, = WATER & WASTEWATER ENGINEERING 6.7.3 REMOVAL oF IRON AND MANGANESE Tron and manganese occur in ground waters and in deep lakes in ferrous forms. They may also occur in water due to certain industrial wastes. Treatment consists of converting ferrous compoun' € by oxidation. This is done by asain in fountains ‘and trickling filters and then sent fo | filtration, or sedimentation & filtration, When pH is lov, lime is added and then aerated, When ferrous iron is in combination with organic substances, oxidation of the iron jg difficult, Tn such cases Chlorination is done to oxidise the organic substances first, which enables the iron to be oxidised later. Chlorination is done before coagulation, sedimentation ang filtration at pH values between 6,7 = 8.4. 3 : Manganese is also removed by oxidation through aeration process. ‘When in combination with organic matter, pre-chlorination at pH level 9.4 - 9.6 will precipitate the manganese. Chlorine dioxide and potassium permanganate, which are strong oxidants, are also used for manganese. bearing waters. : ds, which are soluble, to ferric comp. 6.7.4 REMOVAL oF HARDNESS Hardness in water causes Corrosion and incrustations in pipes Consumption of more soap Scales in boilers Bad taste in water Difficulties in dyeing industry é Creates bubbles in the manufacturing process of paper making, textile finishing, ice making, etc. : Hence hardness has to be removed before water is supplied to public. The compounds, which introduce the temporary or permanent hardness, are : (i) Calcium bicarbonates or carbonates } “temporary” or “carbonate” (ii) Magnesium bicarbonates or carbonates VYVYVVY hardness (ii), Calcium sulphates, chlorides and nitrates Seca ees (iv)-Magnesium sulphates, chlorides and nitrates hardness The total of (i), (i), (ii), and (iv) is called “total hardness” 6.7.4.1 MetHops or Removinc Temporary Harpness ‘Temporary hardness is removed by : [i] Boiling the water [ii] Addition of lime to the water }: Boiling : In this process only calcium carbonate i F int water as calcium bicarbonate) can'be mers only slightly soluble, usually ess! A : insoluble preci allo. uation] while carbon dioxide gas will get ible precipitate [see sedimentation. Bet out. The precipitate formed is remoTREATMENT OF WATER ’ Ca(HCO,), + Heat > Caco. = ‘The magnesium bicarbonate and magnesium ¢ removed under the above type of reaction Moreover, large scale boiling of public su addition of lime is resorted to. fii] Addition of Lime : Lime (CaQ), generally hydi water, The following reactions take place : rated Time [Ca(OHDa] is added to the MgCO, + Ca(OH), + CaCO, + M 3 Ig(OH)1- Mg(HCO,), + Ca(OH), > Ca(HCO,), + Mg(OH) yl Ca(HCO,), + Ca(OH), > 2CaCO,1 + 2H,0 ‘The calcium carbonate and magnesium hyd: it ! droxide are precipitated, and in the sedimentation tank. ea realise yl + CO, +1,0 arbonate, however, cannot sine MgCO, is fairly plies is practically unfea be satisfactorily soluble in water, sible. Hence the This method is only for softening of temporary hardness while: special methods (described below) are needed for softening of water, which contain temporary as well as permanent hardness 6.7.4.2, METHODS OF REMOVING PERMANENT HARDNESS Permanent hardness is removed by any one of the following processes : (1) Lime-Soda process; (2) Base-Exchange process, generally called Zeolite process; and (3) Demineralisation process. (1) Lime-Soda Process : In this process, hydrated lime [Ca(OH),] and soda ash [washing soda, Na,CO,] are added to the water to remove permanent hardness. The resulting precipitates are not soluble and are removed. Lime also helps in removing the free dissolved carbon dioxide if and when exists in the given water. Examples are given below. @ Ca(HCO;), + Ca(OH), > 2CaCO,1 + 2H,0 Carbonate Lime hardness of Ca (iia) MgSO, + Ca(OH), > Mg(OH),/ + CaSO, Non-carbonate - Lime ‘Non-carbonate hardness of Mg hardness of Ca Gib) CaSO, + Na,CO; > CaCO; + Na,SO, Non-carbonate Soda ¥ hardness of Ca (iii) CO, + Ca(OH), > CaCO,1 + H,0 (Free Dissolved CO,) Lime ineral) (2) Zeolite or Base-Exchange Process : Zeolites are the natural (found as a rock mil ili i aluminium. or the synthetic cation or base exchange hydrated silicates of soda ee ee When zeolite is brought in contact with hard water, a simple exchang' Rus= WATER &WASTEWATER ENGINEERING SS eee SS place. The calcium and magnesium ions in water exchange places with the sodium jon, Present in the zeolite. No precipitate is formed. Thus magnestum and calcium salts are Converted to magnesium and calcium zeolite. The sodium zeolite is converted to carbonaty and sulphates of sodium, which do not produce hardness. Ca ( (HCO,), (HCO) Ca NaZ + $0, + Na, ¢ SO, ie rr Zz Mg { a, Ch, 8 A Zeolite Softener (or a cation exchange unit) resembles a sand filter in which the filtering medium is a Zeolite rather than sand. The hard water enters through the top, ang is evenly distributed on the entire Zeolite bed. The softened water is collected through the strainers at the base. When a significant portion of the sodium in the Zeolite is exhausted, it is regenerated by first washing it with water by reversing the flow, and then treating it with 10 percent solution of brine (i.., sodium chloride or common salt) [when the Zeolite is again converted into sodium Zeolite]. The waste product is then washed out with fresh water. Ca Ca \ Zoot ey DNaCh NaZ + Zz Mg Mg Used Zeolite Sodium Chloride Regenerated Solution Zeolite The process is used for public water-supply schemes. Cylinders containing Zeolite are introduced in the pipes and regenerated periodically (Fig. 6.18] Hard Water Inlet. Manhole Filtered Soft Water Outlet Fig. 6.18 Zeolite Water Softener (3) Demineralisation Process : As its very name implies, den; i : the, minerals from the water. Sinée this process helps alee ra on reducing the sineral content by any desired extent, itis very giao ‘producing will,qAeATMENT OF WATER ne 125 of any desired hardness or even mineral free water. This dlemineralised water, , sometimes called de-ionised water, is as pure a: , isa as distilled water, and is vi ae ie : ater, a el i if purposes, especially for steam raising in high pressure boilers eel This hci i removal of minerals present in water can be carried out by fi the water through a bed of cation exchange resins [examples given below], aa ae through a bed of anion exchange resins ee ‘The cation exchange resins, in fact, are phenol aldehy i on sulphonation produce resinous mass faviig bad’ Seinige imac tore ae HR. The anion exchange resins are formed by the condensation at aise mH formaldehyde, represented by ROH] and are capable of replacing the anions (ich as Cr or $0," ions) with their hydroxyl ions. Ca(HCO,), + HR > CaR + 2H,0 + 2C0, Fresh cation — Exhausted exchange resin resin MgSO, + HjR — MgR + H,SO, ‘The water coming out of the cation-exchanger contains diluted carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, etc. (instead of originally present minerals and salts) wa ean be removed by passing through a bed of anion exchange resin. [One example is given below.] 2ROH + H,S0, > R,S0, + 2HOH Fresh anion Exhausted ‘Water: exchange resin resin ‘The water coming out fom this anion exchanger will then be free from minerals: ‘When the use of the resins have been in progress for a sufficient time, they besome exhausted. and can be regenerated by treating the cation exchangers with dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acid and anion exchangers with sodium carbonate solution QUESTIONS WITH HINTS 0 O Descriptive type Questions : ; 1. Dratw the flow diagram of.a water treatment plant for a medium sized municipal town having a river as the source of water supply. [WBSCTE 1995, °98, 2004 (Annual), 2004 (Semester), 2006 (Semestet)] Ans, Draw Fig, 6.1 under Article 6.1. a 2. Draw a flow diagram of surface water treatment plant for a small municipal town. [WBSCTE 1994, 2000] ‘Ans, Exclude the step of Pre-chlorination from Fig. 6.1. re 3. Write notes on: Plain Sedimentation, or, What do you mean ns, Write Art. 6.2.1 but exclude the paragraph in [ we 4 i 5, '96] 4. Write notes on : Coagulation [WBSCTE 1995, "961 Ans, Write Art. 6.3.1 by Plain Sedimentation?