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Textbook Effects and Efficacy

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 CHAPTER 28

Textbook Effects and Efficacy

Yvonne Behnke

Textbooks largely determine not only what topics and ideas are taught in the
classroom but also the way they are presented to students (Stern and Roseman
2004, p. 539). Thus textbooks affect learning and teaching in many different
ways. This chapter aims to provide a brief overview of current research
approaches on the effects and efficacy of textbooks, aligned to the major areas
of research in this field. In doing so, it summarises empirical evidence produced
in different fields dedicated to textbooks and educational media. The emphasis
here is on experimental and quasi-experimental studies.

Current Research Approaches

Textbook Language
Language influences the ways in which people construct their world, values,
social realities, and knowledge (cf. Ott 2014, p. 254). How language in text-
books may affect students’ knowledge construction is therefore one major
research area in textbook research that covers various scientific fields, such as
linguistics (i.a. Ott 2014), language studies (i.a. Hadley 2013; López-Jimenéz
2014), and education (i.a. Reichenberg 2013; Oleschko and Moraitis 2012;
Berkeley et al. 2012; Linderholm et al. 2000). Research on reading compre-
hension is located in this area because reading comprehension is one central
factor in the construction of knowledge through language and, in turn, crucial
for learning with textbooks. Ways in which learners can be supported in read-
ing comprehension was investigated, inter alia, in an experimental study by
Reichenberg (2013). The findings of this work show that readers of average
ability performed better when reading authentic texts, whereas for readers of

Y. Behnke (*)
Geography Education, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany

© The Author(s) 2018 383

E. Fuchs, A. Bock (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Textbook Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53142-1_28
384 Y. BEHNKE

below-average ability, text comprehension did not increase when reading

‘reader-friendly’ texts. This is in line with Linderholm et al. (2000), who
reported that both readers of average ability and readers of below-average abil-
ity benefited from causal structure repairs only with difficult texts. In this con-
text, Oleschko and Moraitis (2012) propose a linguistic sensibility approach to
fostering learning with textbooks in heterogeneous learner groups. These stud-
ies comprise only an exemplary section of this broad research field.
Further research has been conducted, for instance, on foreign language
learning (Hadley 2013; López-Jimenéz 2014) and the appropriateness of text
structures in history textbooks (Berkeley et al. 2012). The introduced studies
suggest two things in general. First, that both readers of average ability and
readers of below-average ability prefer interesting, stimulating, narrative, and
descriptive texts (Reichenberg 2013). Second, to foster learning and promote
motivation, textbook language should contain clear, accurate, coherent, and
consistent structures (Berkeley et al. 2012) and avoid oversimplification.

Socio-cultural and Socio-economic Factors

and Textbook Effects

Gender Representations in Textbooks

Textbooks are fundamental to the learning of gender systems as they can con-
tribute to the legitimation of gender roles (Brugeilles and Cromer 2009) and
may serve as a source for the acquisition of gender role models (Nofal and
Qawar 2015). UNESCO (Brugeilles and Cromer 2009) has produced a meth-
odological guide for promoting gender equality through textbooks. Müller
(2012) revealed that in recent years several German textbook publishers pro-
vided primary school textbooks with gender-specific colour coding, topics, and
learning tasks to support the diverse interests and special learning needs of male
and female students. Müller (2012) argues textbooks may contribute to rein-
force gender stereotypes. This is in line with Blumberg (2015) who still identi-
fied the presence of gender bias in textbooks virtually worldwide.
Recent studies examining how gender representations in textbooks affect
students’ achievement came to varying conclusions. Good et al.’s (2010)
experimental study with US high school students demonstrated that female
students had higher science comprehension after viewing counter-stereotypical
images (female scientists), whereas male students had higher comprehension
after viewing stereotypical images (male scientists). In contrast, Foulds’ (2013)
interview study analysed Kenyan primary students’ gender perceptions of text-
book images and revealed a continuum of gender stereotypes, particularly
manifest when images of gender roles were incongruent with students’ reali-
ties. Therefore, it can be concluded that the effects of gender representations
in textbooks are influenced, inter alia, by students’ cultural and social context.
Hence, Foulds argues, on the basis of the Kenyan cultural context, that any
effort to alter gender perceptions must come first from students’ lives and then
be brought into the classroom.
 TEXTBOOK EFFECTS AND EFFICACY 385

Socio-economic Factors
Textbooks have been proven to be a rather cost-effective way of improving
student attainment (Frölich and Michaelowa 2005). This fact notwithstanding,
many countries, specifically in Africa (Dremmeh 2013), still face a shortage of
textbooks. In this context, Frölich and Michaelowa (2005) investigated peer
effects of textbooks owned by classmates in sub-Saharan Africa and reported
that textbooks have a very wide reach through book sharing and knowledge
sharing.
Fischer et al. (2015) investigated the effects of no-cost open digital text-
books on the achievement of students from lower socio-economic backgrounds
in the USA. The study revealed that due to the cost savings associated with
open educational resources (OER), students in courses using OER enrolled in
courses worth a significantly higher number of credits in the next semester,
while student achievement was equal to courses using commercial textbooks.
Enrolment intensity is an indicator of student progress towards graduation
(Fischer et al. 2015). These studies, then, emphasise the importance of cost-­
effective access to textbooks for student achievement.
Overall, the studies on gender representation suggest that the effects of
gender representations in textbooks on students’ achievement are influenced
by cultural, social, and ideological structures featuring in students’ daily lives
(Foulds 2013; Good et al. 2010). Consequently, further research on ‘gender
fair’ textbooks is required, as they may support the remedying of gender bias
(Good et al. 2010).
In addition, the UNESCO Gender Review 2016 (GEM Report) emphasises
the role of education (and textbooks) in fostering gender equality and wom-
en’s empowerment. Moreover, the 2016 GEM Report remarks on the need for
more comprehensive data on gendered aspects of curricula, textbooks, assess-
ments, and teacher education (UNESCO 2016).

Textbook Design
According to Morgan (2014), well-designed textbooks have the potential to
make learning more fun, lasting, and meaningful and may actively engage learn-
ers’ cognition in many ways, through such mechanisms as visual processing,
analytical thinking, posing questions, testing hypotheses, and verbal reasoning.
Theoretical approaches for learning-effective textbook design principles can
be found, inter alia, in visual communications and psychology.
Wertheimer’s (1923) Gestalt theory summarises visual perception principles
such as figure-ground, proximity, similarity, and closure which are today well-­
established media design principles.
Mayer (2009) developed the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning,
supplemented by 12 principles of instructional design which discuss how peo-
ple learn effectively from combinations of static/dynamic images and written/
spoken text. Mayer’s principles of multimedia learning include findings from
Wertheimer’s Gestalt theory.
386 Y. BEHNKE

Information designers (i.a. Tufte 1990; Horn 1999) developed concepts to

visualise and communicate complex information (data or ideas) in a clear,
memorable, and understandable manner that attracts curiosity and attention
(Knemeyer 2006; Smiciklas 2012; Uyan Dur 2014). Gestalt theory, multime-
dia theory, and information design can provide methodological tools for
approaching textbook design, which includes layout, typography, and images.

Layout
Studies investigating students’ image-text comprehension have been primarily
based on Chandler and Sweller’s (1991) cognitive load theory, Mayer’s (2005)
cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML), and Schnotz’s (2005) inte-
grated model of text and picture comprehension. Within this context, Richter
et al. (2016) examined signals (pictorial, such as colour coding, and deictic,
such as text references) highlighting correspondences between text and pic-
tures to foster content comprehension. The findings support the signalling
principle (CTML), in particular for learners with limited prior knowledge. Eitel
and Scheiter (2014) investigated sequencing and report that it is not the
sequence of text and pictures that affects learning but rather underlying condi-
tions, such as prior knowledge or complexity. In addition, studies have revealed
students’ difficulties in interlinking complex image-text relations (Hochpöchler
et al. 2012; Schnotz et al. 2011).
The efficacy of textbook layout may be influenced by resource style, learning
objectives, and learner characteristics. However, clarity, coherence, consistency,
and aesthetics can be principles that learning-friendly layouts should take into
account. This is in accord with LaSpina (1998), who argued that good textbook
design provides visual guidance through the textbook content by means of a well-
articulated layout in which clarity and complexity are not mutually exclusive.

Typography
The potential influence of typography on learning with textbooks is currently
under discussion. Within this context, Rummer et al. (2015) have examined
the effects of hard-to-read (disfluent) fonts on students’ achievement. Whereas
previous studies revealed the presence of a more profound level of cognitive
processing for text in disfluent fonts (disfluency effect) (Diemand-Yauman
et al. 2010), Rummer et al. did not endorse the disfluency effect. Rummer
et al.’s findings are consistent with those of Meyer et al. (2015), who conclude
that ‘disfluent fonts don’t help to solve math problems’ (Meyer et al. 2015,
p. 16). Further, these two sets of findings are in line with Willberg and
Forsmann’s (1997) principles of ‘reading typography’.

Images
Crucial competencies related to the construction of knowledge from images
are the capacity to decode images, the ability to interlink images with related
 TEXTBOOK EFFECTS AND EFFICACY 387

content, and visual attention to images. Behnke (2015) investigated students’

visual attention while observing textbook spreads. The study revealed little
attention to photographs and a marked focus on text. This is in line with
Schnotz et al. (2014), who investigated learners’ focus of attention and choice
of text modality in multimedia learning (modality effect) and found that learn-
ers frequently show tendencies to ignore pictures. Pintó and Ametller (2002)
also report difficulties in interpreting textbook images, stating: ‘Teachers
should be aware that an image is worth a thousand words only if the student
knows the codes to interpret images’ (Pintó and Ametller 2002, p. 341).
Equally, Testa et al. (2014), and Bétrancourt et al. (2012) revealed students’
difficulties in decoding graphic visualisations.
Therefore, it can be assumed that, notwithstanding the omnipresence of
visuals in everyday life, students face challenges when learning with images.
Consequently, competencies in decoding visuals (visual literacy) should be
taught more thoroughly and practised regularly (Behnke 2016; Schüler et al.
2015; Scheiter et al. 2015; Testa et al. 2014). Visuals and image-text combina-
tions in textbooks should be designed and utilised in a manner more conducive
to supporting learning. In this context, Schnotz et al. (2014) suggest guiding
learners towards picture analysis by using paragraphs of text related to the illus-
trations featured.
Design, then, can be crucial for learning with textbooks; a design which
harmonises with the textbook’s content and has the learner and their needs in
mind may facilitate learners’ understanding of the meaning of information pro-
vided (Holmqvist Olander et al. 2014). Purposeful design includes, among
other aspects, the instructional, educational, technical, and aesthetic quality of
visuals (Pettersson 2015), the clarity and coherence with which the informa-
tion in graphic visualisations is presented, a layout that guides the reader
through the resources and enables them to identify relevant information, visual
and textual linking between related materials, and reader-friendly typography.

Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioural Effects

of Textbooks

Recent studies have investigated cognitive and affective aspects of multimedia

learning with the aim of integrating emotion, motivation, and attitude into
cognitive processing models (Park et al. 2014). The theoretical background
builds on Moreno’s (2006) cognitive affective theory of learning with media
(CATLM), which is an extension of Mayer’s CTML with the addition of moti-
vational and affective aspects, self-regulatory skills, and learner characteristics
(Park et al. 2015).

Emotional Design
The emotional design hypothesis assumes that visually appealing learning materi-
als support cognitive processing (Mayer and Estrella 2014). Within this con-
388 Y. BEHNKE

text, studies examining design principles supportive of learning revealed that

well-designed learning materials may foster positive emotions and comprehen-
sion (Park et al. 2015; Plass et al. 2013) and reduce the perceived difficulty of
learning tasks (Um et al. 2012). Conversely, the ‘cognitive load theory’ put
forward by Chandler and Sweller (1991) assumes limitations in learners’ work-
ing memory and suggests the avoidance of decorative elements to reduce cog-
nitive load. Magner et al. (2014) have investigated whether decorative
illustrations trigger learners’ interest and engagement or distract the learner.
This study found that decorative illustrations distracted students with lower
levels of prior knowledge, whereas students with higher prior knowledge ben-
efited. We might then conclude that well-designed learning materials contain-
ing meaningful and purposefully implemented decorative elements may support
learning if learner characteristics and learning objectives are taken into
consideration.

Achievement
Approaches to the improvement of student achievement with textbooks have
been proposed, for example, by Akyüz (2004), who investigated how textbook
style (conceptual) and the K–W–L reading strategy (K–W–L = what I know,
what I want to learn, what I learnt) affect students’ achievement and their atti-
tudes towards science. He reported that conceptual textbook text supported
positive attitudes, K–W–L increased achievement, and their combination
boosted both positive attitudes and achievement.
Approaches to improving students’ attitudes towards science have been pro-
posed by Foley and Mcphee (2008) and Willard and Brasier (2014). Foley and
Mcphee (2008) noted that students in ‘hands-on’ classes had a more favour-
able attitude to science than students in purely textbook-based classes. Willard
and Brasier (2014) compared the effectiveness of primary literature to that of
traditional textbooks in university science classes and reported that first-year
students are capable of making great progress through the use of primary lit-
erature. They assume that introducing students to primary literature early on
in their career can increase enthusiasm for science and improve their confidence
with scientific methodologies.
Djokic (2015) investigated how an innovative mathematics textbook whose
purpose was to support RME (Realistic Mathematics Education) affected stu-
dents’ learning outcomes. The results suggest that RME positively affects
­students’ achievement in geometry by encouraging geometrical and systematic
thinking. Slavin et al. (2008), by contrast, noted that schemes focusing on day-
to-day teaching practices and well-structured co-operative learning had a
greater impact on student achievement than those emphasising textbooks.
Beishuizen et al. (1994) investigated the influence of instructional support
(focusing on metacognitive or cognitive levels of task accomplishment) and
task constraints (exam preparation or searching for a particular text unit) on
the way students with different learning styles (deep processing versus surface
 TEXTBOOK EFFECTS AND EFFICACY 389

processing) completed a task. The study revealed that students who combined
self-regulation with deep processing and students who combined external reg-
ulation with surface processing outperformed students with complementary
combinations of regulation style and processing style.

Skills Development
Modern textbooks are called upon to go beyond the imparting of subject mat-
ter to students and to help teach competencies, skills, and ‘powerful knowledge’
(Young 2011), such as key scientific concepts. The current state of affairs barely
does justice to this lofty ambition; studies have revealed that US textbooks pro-
vide little support for the acquisition of key scientific concepts (Stern and
Roseman 2004); Finnish textbooks fail to foster global learning (Pudas 2013);
Turkish English-language textbooks do not develop all four key language skills
(listening, reading, speaking, writing) (Dogan and Zekiye 2015); and Iranian
textbooks do not provide socio-cultural constructs for the promotion of life
skills (Khosravani et al. 2014). In other words, numerous textbooks do not yet
satisfy the requirements of modern curricula in terms of attending equally to the
acquisition of competencies, important skills and ‘powerful knowledge’.
This work has found that innovative textbooks could improve student
achievement if they address day-to-day teaching practices and well-structured
co-operative learning. Engaging students more closely in research activities and
including primary literature could be useful approaches to textbook improve-
ment. However, the studies also highlight the importance of teacher prepara-
tion and the need for further research. To conclude this section, we might
observe that it is crucial when designing learning materials, and critical to
understanding and investigating learning, to give due consideration to affec-
tive, behavioural, and cognitive variables (Park et al. 2014).

Digital Textbooks
Technological innovations, such as digital textbooks, influence education in
various ways (Stone and Baker-Eveleth 2013, p. 984). This section summarises
findings and methodological approaches relating to the efficacy of digital
textbooks.

Learning Outcomes
Investigations comparing students’ attainment through digital textbooks with
that achieved using print textbooks reported differing results. Daniel and
Douglas (2013) emphasise that although students using electronic media gen-
erally took more time to read a text than those reading from traditional text-
books, student achievement was similar. Likewise, Szapkiw et al. (2013)
revealed no difference in learning outcomes between digital and print formats,
but higher perceived levels of affective and psychomotor learning for digital
390 Y. BEHNKE

textbooks. Conversely, a meta-analysis from South Korea reported limitations

of digital textbooks in terms of increasing student attainment, despite their
encouragement of motivation (Jang et al. 2015). Within this context, Jang
et al. (2015) highlighted classroom practices as crucial to students’ achieve-
ment through digital textbooks.

Students’ and Teachers’ Attitudes to Digital Textbooks

Technological innovations cannot be successfully implemented without con-
sidering users’ attitudes (Joo et al. 2014, p. 95). De Oliveira et al. (2014) inves-
tigated Spanish primary school students’ and teachers’ attitudes to digital
textbooks. The classroom observation they conducted revealed that whereas
the students valued the ease of access to information with which a digital text-
book provided them, the teacher rated the textbook negatively because of the
limited accessible information it provided. Nevertheless, the students contin-
ued to make use of printed textbooks as scaffolds supplementary to digital
resources.
Studies with university students reported a largely negative attitude towards
digital textbooks. Yalman (2015) established Turkish students’ preference for
print textbooks. Douglas et al. (2010) and Daniel and Douglas (2013) noted
that digital textbooks were unpopular with US college students. Students’ reti-
cence towards replacing print textbooks with digital textbooks was observed in
Ghana (Asunka 2013).
This leads us to the question of the factors that affect the acceptance or
otherwise of digital textbooks. In this context, Cassidy et al. (2012) note that
while college students do not favour e-books over printed books, they never-
theless value their convenience. The authors assume that many students might
be still unaware of e-books, whereas de Oliveira et al. (2014) find that accep-
tance of digital textbooks is affected by the institutional culture in which they
are embedded. According to Joo et al. (2014), student subjective norms relat-
ing to environmental variables, student self-efficacy, perceived ease of use, and
perceived usefulness affect students’ attitude to digital textbooks.

Technology-Enhanced Learning
Today’s school students are ‘digital natives’; they have grown up with gadgets
and constant connection to the Internet (Boeckle and Ebner 2015, p. 1510).
Researchers are investigating the ways in which these gadgets might be inte-
grated into teaching and learning. Thomas (2014) examined how textbook
format (game-based versus traditional) affected students’ mental effort and
time spent on a task. He reported that students spent significantly more time
on tasks carried out through game-based textbooks, whereas differences in
mental effort were not evident. Equally, Farha (2009) reported a tripling in
scores on learning outcomes for game-based learning compared with learning
via traditional textbooks. Likewise, an investigation of students’ achievement
 TEXTBOOK EFFECTS AND EFFICACY 391

through mobile learning (tablets) reported that mobile learning outperformed

traditional textbooks in learning outcome and cognitive load (Shadiev et al.
2015). Fotaris et al. (2016) found within a quasi-experimental study that the
application of a multidimensional gamified problem-based learning approach
positively affected students’ learning experience, motivation, recall ability, and
performance.
These findings suggest that technology-enhanced learning can be beneficial
if it is meaningfully integrated in learning environments using strategies such as
the embedding of a problem-based learning approach linked to effective peda-
gogy (Fotaris et al. 2016; Boeckle and Ebner 2015).
Digital textbooks have the potential to become effective tools in learning
and teaching because of their motivational, communicative, and technological
capabilities. However, their effectiveness is influenced by users’ acceptance of
these media, their perceptions of their usefulness and perceived usability (Joo
et al. 2014). (Further aspects of digital media are explored in the chapters on
theory and methods as well as in the new directions chapter).
One possible reason for the low acceptance of current digital textbooks is
that they are effectively, and primarily, enhanced digitalised copies of print text-
books. Acceptance of digital textbooks may thus increase if they differ from
printed textbooks in terms of their design, usability, the didactic concepts
behind them, and features they have that support learning.
Ryan and Deci’s (2000) self-determination theory supports these findings by
revealing three intrinsic motivational factors effective in learning: competence,
autonomy, and relatedness. Competence relates to the construction of self-­
efficacy. Autonomy (in learning contexts) is described as the ability to strive
towards one’s own goals, interests, and aptitudes. Relatedness is described as
the experience of interacting with and being connected to others (Hense and
Mandl 2012; Fotaris et al. 2016).
Therefore, useful features of digital textbooks should include interactivity,
connectivity, customisation, differentiation, immediate feedback, or playful ele-
ments meaningfully embedded in the learning context and as part of a thought-­
through and consistently implemented didactic concept. Possible approaches
could be found in technology-enhanced learning and game-based learning.

Summary of Current Research Approaches

Current empirical research dedicated to textbooks and educational media can
be summarised in five research directions.
The first of these relates to linguistic aspects, such as how language in text-
books may affect students’ knowledge construction, reading comprehension,
and foreign language learning. The second revolves around effects of socio-­
cultural and socio-economic factors, such as gender representations and effects
of access to or shortages of teaching materials.
Third, there are the effects of visual textbook parameters, such as design,
layout, typography, images, and information design, on learning processes.
392 Y. BEHNKE

Fourth are cognitive, affective, and behavioural effects such as student achieve-
ment, learning style, knowledge and skills acquisition, cognitive development,
and assignment. Fifth are new technological and/or methodological
approaches, such as digital learning environments, technology-enhanced learn-
ing, or game-based learning.
However, numerous scientific areas are currently investigating the effects
and efficacy of textbooks via manifold approaches.
Only a limited set of studies covering a range of research topics on textbook
effects and efficacy, such as the influence of textbooks on pedagogical practices
in classrooms, were identified. This suggests a need for further exploration and
indicates potential new directions in research.

Potential New Directions in Research

Several of the studies discussed earlier in this chapter had particular limitations,
which may highlight possible further directions for research in this field. First,
the research population consisted to a substantial extent of university students.
However, textbooks may affect school students’ learning differently due, for
instance, to lower levels of prior knowledge or their use of less elaborate learn-
ing strategies. Second, numerous studies in this field were conducted under
experimental conditions. Research on learning-effective textbook design,
where it takes place in the area of educational psychology, is largely based on
theories of cognitive information processing such as cognitive load theory
(Chandler and Sweller 1991) and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning
(Mayer 2005). However, more recent empirical studies do not always endorse
all aspects of these theories (Jarodzka 2016). Several observed phenomena,
such as the modality effect in multimedia learning, were found only in specific
conditions (Schnotz et al. 2014). As a consequence, these theories should be
tested in relation to new findings on perceptual processes underlying learning
and confirmed by research in real learning settings such as the classroom
(Jarodzka 2016).
Third, in many cases, the material examined consisted of experimental edu-
cational media rather than ‘regular’ textbooks. Modern textbooks exhibit com-
plex image-text relations and a broad variety of visuals. Therefore, the sole use
of experimental test material, which to a considerable extent is optimised to
meet specific test conditions, may fail to detect additional factors influencing
students’ learning with textbooks. The implication of this is the advisability of
conducting more classroom studies as well as research on ‘regular’ textbooks.
This is in line with Cheng et al. (2015), who noted a research gap in classroom-­
based research, particularly in primary and secondary schools (see also Hansen’s
chapter in this volume).
Fourth, various studies among those analysed here have mentioned limita-
tions regarding learner characteristics. Consequently, there is a need for further
investigation of the influence of learner characteristics such as learning style,
previous knowledge, and individual preferences on the efficacy of textbooks.
 TEXTBOOK EFFECTS AND EFFICACY 393

This is of particular importance because knowledge acquisition from textbooks

is a complex process that may be affected by various factors, such as students’
interests and learning strategies, media-specific skills, design preferences, and
the effects of textbook design on learning (Schnotz et al. 2011; Ainsworth
2006; Behnke 2016).
Finally, interdisciplinary approaches remain underrepresented in research on
textbook effects, and further investigation is required in relation to the visual
analysis of textbooks (cf. Morgan 2014); there is also a need for empirical stud-
ies of textbook effects (cf. Fuchs et al. 2014).

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