Validated Peda Manual

OROMIA EDUCATION BUREAU
STUDENTS LEARNING, ASSESSMENT AND

DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT
A Pedagogical Training Manual Prepared for Applied

Science Graduates
June, 2022
Finfinne
‘’A teacher is not a sage on the stage; but a guide on the side!’’
STUDENTS LEARNING, ASSESSMENT AND DIVERSITY
MANAGEMENT
A Pedagogical Training Manual Prepared for Applied

science graduates
Writers
1. GadisaTerefe
2. Tesfaye Fekadu
3. Tesfaye Tadesse
Editors
1. Andinet Tibabu
2. Gossa Burayu
3. Samuel Abera
Contents Page
1. MANUAL INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................v
ii
2. PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL...........................................................................................................vi

3. OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................................................vi
4. HOW TO USE THE MANUAL..........................................................................................................vi
SECTION ONE.........................................................................................................................................1
1. DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE(Total period allotted: 16 period )................1
1.1. Concepts of Human Development......................................................................................1
1.2. Adolescence..........................................................................................................................2
1.3 Aspects of Adolescents Development..........................................................................................3
1.3.1. Physical development during adolescence..........................................................................3
1.3.2. Cognitive Developments during Adolescence......................................................................4
1.3.3. Psycho-Social development.........................................................................................5
1.3.4. Psycho sexual Development during Adolescence.....................................................7
1.3.5. Moral Development during Adolescence...................................................................8
SECTION TWO......................................................................................................................................11
2. LEARNING AND ITS MAJOR THEORIES (Total period allotted: 21).................................11
2.1. The concept of learning............................................................................................................11
2.2. Factors Affecting Students’ Learning..............................................................................12
2.3. Major Theories of Learning.................................................................................................14
2.3. Classroom Implication Learning Theories......................................................................18
2.3.1. Behaviourism...............................................................................................................18
2.3.2. Constructivism and social Constructivism...............................................................19
SECTION THREE...................................................................................................................................24
3. ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS LEARNING (Total period allotted: 43)............................24
3.1. Concepts of Assessment and other Related Terms..........................................................25
3.2. Principles of Assessment....................................................................................................29
3.3. Types and Tools of Assessment........................................................................................30
3.3.1. Types of Assessment..................................................................................................30
3.3.2. Commonly used Assessment Tools...........................................................................32
3.4. Planning Classroom Tests.................................................................................................34
3.5. Constructing Classroom Tests...........................................................................................38
3.5.1. Constructing Objective Test Items...........................................................................38
3.5.2. Essay Test Items.........................................................................................................49

3.5.3. Assembling, Administering, and Scoring Test..........................................................53
iii
SECTION FOUR.....................................................................................................................................59
4. CLASSROOM DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT (Total period allotted: 10)............................................59
4.1. Overview of Classroom Diversity.....................................................................................59
4.2. Major Areas of Individual Differences in Classrooms....................................................60
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................62
iv
1. MANUAL INTRODUCTION
National development all over the world has continued to be closely tied to educational
development in which the teacher is the critical element. This is because it is believed that no
economy can develop higher than the level of its educational development, as no educational
system can rise above the quality of its teachers. The quality of a teacher is dependent on the
level of preparation for professional role as a distinct practitioner, which can be attained
through comprehensive and standard teacher education.
It is obvious that teacher is important in the scheme of developing the educational potential
of any nation. He/she is a person recognized and employed to help learners in a classroom
situation in order to achieve set educational goals. Teachers therefore, are the major
instrument for achieving educational goals .and national development hence no nation can
rise above the standard of its educational system.
Teacher qualities can take different forms depending on the perspectives at which someone is
looking at it. Teacher qualities can be based on teacher personal character, educational
qualification or professional competence which is brought about by extensive training and
qualification.
However, the shortages of well trained and skilled teachers in content knowledge and pedagogy
are among the major problems that have been challenging the teaching profession. There are
thousands of applied science graduates who have been teaching in Secondary schools of
Oromia without any pedagogical training. A study conducted by Oromia Regional Education
Bureau revealed that these teachers encountered serious problems of instructional planning,
methods of teaching, assessment of students’ learning, diversity management and class room
management. This material is developed to alleviate these problems.
This manual has four sections. The first section deals with concepts related to development
during adolescence while section two is about learning and its major theories. The third
section is about assessment of students learning and the last section presents concepts related to
classroom diversity management.
v
2. PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL
The main purpose of this manual is to present intervention packages that help fill the pedagogical
skills gap identified through the gap assessment study in the practices of applied science
graduates. To this end, the manual intends to address the topics developmental issues during
adolescence, issues related to human learning, students’ learning assessment and classroom
diversity management that are believed to equip the applied science graduates with the necessary
knowledge and skills required to teach effectively in secondary schools of Oromia Regional State.
3. OBJECTIVES
After studying this manual the trainees will be able to:

 Understand the concept of development during adolescence;
 Know the issues related to human learning;
 Appreciate the different assessment types and techniques;
 Develop the skills of planning and constructing classroom tests;
 Develop the skills of managing classroom diversity.
4. HOW TO USE THE MANUAL
This manual has four major sections dealing with psychological issues relevant with
secondary school instructions. Each section start with learning outcomes that addresses
contents to be treated, activities that actively engage the trainees in the materials to be
learned, followed by brief notes that could shape their learning. Finally, a check-list that
helps the trainees assess their understanding has been presented after each section.
The trainers and trainees should consciously deal with all the activities included in the
manual for successful attainment of the training objectives. Teachers should continuously
assess and follow-up the learning progress of the trainees. The trainers are, hence, required to
implement the activities as per the instructions stated for each.
Please note also that:
 A period has 50 minutes.
 The contents of this manual are taught for 90 periods.
 6 periods are allotted for a day.
 The material is assumed to be covered in 6 weeks.
vi
SECTION ONE
1. DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE(Total period allotted: 16 period )
Introduction
This section presents the concepts of human development, different aspects of development
(Cognitive, physical, social, emotional, moral, etc) associated with the age of adolescence.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, the trainees will be able to:
 Define human development
 Describe different aspects of development during adolescence
 Explain the implication of developmental changes during adolescence to classroom
instruction.
1.1. Concepts of Human Development
Activity 1.1
1. What does development mean? Tell your partner the definition of development from
your prior experience?
2. Describe your own development focusing on the ways you have changed over your life
time.
3. Read the following scenario and discuss in groups of 4 or 5 on the questions that
follow.
Chaltu is a secondary school student who has recognized a lot about her development, or the
way that people grow and change as they age. Chaltu thinks about her life so far and realizes
that she's developed quite a lot. As an infant, she couldn't walk or talk or do much of anything.
Then, as she grew into a kid, she learned how to walk, run, and jump rope. She was able to
talk, learned how to express her thoughts and tell people what she wanted. She learned how to
recognize when she was feeling sad or lonely and how to deal with those emotions.
As a teenager, Chaltu learned more complex things, like algebra and human anatomy and
different systems in human nature. She has observed different changes on her body: first
menarche while she was grade ten, pubic and facial hair on boy, enlargement of her
breast and slight change on her voice. She also learned how to think about others' needs, as
1
well as her own, and to recognize that just because she wants something, it doesn't mean that
she'll get it.
1. What do you understand from the above case?
2. Explain what developmental changes have happened to Chaltu in her life time?
3. What developmental changes did Chaltu recognize as a teenager?
Human development refers to change in structure, form or shape and improvement in

functioning. It refers to a progressive series of changes in an orderly, coherent pattern.
Human Development or Lifespan Development is the scientific study of the ways in which
people change from conception to death. It examines changes and stability across multiple
domains of psychological and social functioning. These include physical and neuro-
physiological processes, cognition, language, emotion, personality, moral, and psychosocial
development, including our relationships with others.
1.2. Adolescence
‘You know your children are growing up when they stop telling you where they came
from and refuse to tell you where they are going.’
P.J Orourke
What do you understand from this saying? (Think-pair-share)
Activity 1.2
1. Consider your own life experience and provide examples that describe multi-
dimensional nature of your development during adolescence.
2. Give contextual definition of the adolescence age.
Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by overall physical

growth spurt and sexual maturity known as Puberty. Adolescence is a developmental period
in which hormonal changes cause rapid physical alterations in the body, culminating in
sexual maturity. Although the timing varies to some degree across cultures, the average age
range for reaching puberty is between 9 and 14 years for girls and between 10 and 17 years
2
for boys. In terms of cognitive development, it is the time when adolescents commonly
begin to think of new possibilities and consider abstract concepts like love, fear
freedom and etc.
1.3 Aspects of Adolescents Development
Activity 1.3
1. Explain how adolescents are perceived in your community.

2. What aspects of developments are observed among adolescents? Discuss in groups the
behaviors associated with this age in your locality.
3. What differences can be observed between adolescent boys and girls in the different aspects of
development?
Aspects of human development could be many, but the most important ones are
physical development, cognitive development, language development, social development,
emotional development and moral development.
1.3.1. Physical development during adolescence
Activity 1.4
1. Explain the physical changes that occur during adolescence by comparing the different
physical changes observed in male and female adolescences.
2. What do you think are the implications of physical development of the adolescents to the
teaching and learning?
Physical development refers to the changes in height, weight, muscles and other
body changes. The change is mainly quantitative. The development in the sexual
characteristics is one of the physical developments observed in the adolescents. Young teens
develop secondary sexual characteristics that are brought about by hormonal changes.
3
Classroom implications of adolescent’s physical development

Teachers should:
 Plan activities that provide continuous physical development of adolescents in the
school programs through adapting their curricular/co-curricular activities and
physical environment to individual variations and gaps such as health and physical
disabilities.
 Arrange sitting sites for adolescents who might have physical/sensory impairments.
 Realize events that can happen to female students during adolescence age.
Example, menstruation
1.3.2. Cognitive Developments during Adolescence
Activity 1.5
1. What do you think is cognitive development?

2. Do you think the cognitive development during adolescence differs from that of early
ages? If difference exists could you explain the characteristics of cognitive development
during adolescence?
3. What is the classroom implication of understanding cognitive development during
adolescence?
Cognitive development is the progression of thinking from the way a child does to the
way an adult does. There are three main areas of cognitive development that occur during
adolescence. First, adolescents develop more advanced reasoning skills, including the ability
to explore a full range of possibilities inherent in a situation, think hypothetically (contrary-
fact situations), and use a logical thought process.
Second, adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly. Adolescents move from being
concrete thinkers, who think of things that they have direct contact with or knowledge about,
to abstract thinkers, who can imagine things not seen or experienced.
This allows adolescents to have the capacity to love, think about spirituality, and participate
in more advanced sciences.
Third, the adolescents are able to think about thinking or meta-cognition. This allows them to
develop the capacity to think about what they are feeling and how others perceive them.
4
Classroom implications of cognitive development during adolescence
According to Piaget the pattern of organizing information from the surrounding made
the leaner to be an active learner, not a passive one, because problem-solving skills cannot
be taught, they must be discovered.
Within the classroom, learning should be student-centered and accomplished through active
discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition.
Therefore, teachers should encourage the following within the classroom:
 Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it.
 Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths."
 Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each
other).
 Devising situations that present useful problems or tasks.
 Evaluate the level of the child's development so that suitable tasks can be set.
1.3.3. Psycho-Social development
Activity 1.6
1. Explain how adolescents understand themselves.

2. Why is contradiction of adolescents with their family a common problem?
3. How can we help adolescents develop a sense of identity?
4. What factors do you think can affect identity development during adolescence?
5. What is the classroom implication of understanding psycho-social development
during adolescence?
As adolescence is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood, teens may begin

to feel confused or insecure about themselves and how they fit into society. As they seek to
establish a sense of self, they may experiment with different roles, activities, and behaviors.
According to Erikson, this is important to the process of forming a strong identity and
developing a sense of direction in life.
5
One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego
identity. It is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction, which
is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily
interactions with others.
Erikson believed that the primary psychosocial task of adolescence was establishing an
identity. Teens struggle with the question “Who am I?” This includes questions regarding
their appearance, vocational choices and career aspirations, education, relationships,
sexuality, political and social views, personality, and interests. Erikson saw this as a period of
confusion and experimentation regarding identity and one’s life path.
The least mature status, and one common in many children, is identity confusion.
Adolescents who are not allowed to explore and test out different identities might be left with
what Erikson referred to as role confusion, which can result in, being unsure of who they are
and where they fit, drifting from one job or relationship to another, feeling disappointed and
confused about their place in life.
There are various factors that contribute to whether a person forms a strong identity. Friends,
family, schoolmates, other social groups, societal trends, and culture all play a role in shaping
and forming identity.
Classroom implications of Psycho-social development during adolescence
The teacher should encourage his students to build a stronger sense of identity. For example,
he/she can advise his/her students what core values can help them solidify their identity. The
core values are those things that are really important and meaningful for students to motivate
them and guide their decisions.
More specifically,
 Teachers and concerned others should try new things to discover what adolescents
like and thinking about their passions and interests.
 Help adolescents make commitments and set goals. If they are overpowered by the
number of decisions facing them, help them understand that decision making is a skill
and that decisions can be reversed. Set up hypothetical and/or real situations to give
them practice at making decisions. For example decisions on future career, choosing
a mate, on friendships, potential relations,
 Be a good listener. Owing to the turmoil of the adolescent stage of development,
there is need for empathy, sensitivity, patience, understanding and open
communication on the part of teachers
6
 Present positive role models from a variety of backgrounds that are in widely
divergent careers and exhibit a multitude of interests. Show how gender should not
limit one's choices (for instance, in athletics, trade, education, diplomacy). Invite
these model persons as guests if not present their biographies who have adopted non
traditional roles and are satisfied with their lifestyles.
1.3.4. Psycho sexual Development during Adolescence
Activity 1.7
1. What makes adolescence stage different from other stages of human development with
regard to psycho-sexual characteristics?
2. What is the classroom implication of understanding sexual development of adolescence
for a teacher?
3. What common problems associated with sexual behavior are observed among
adolescents in your locality?
The adolescence stage is referred to as the genital stage (in Freudian term) in which
heterosexual desire becomes more active and a person is preoccupied with sex and
reproduction. The stage is characterized by the entry into matured sexuality wherein the
adolescence is on the way towards adult life. According to Sigmund Freud, this is a time
when the sexual desires that were repressed during the early stage become abrupt. Freud and
his followers believed that adolescents need to break away from their parents in order to
develop into healthy and mature adults, a process known as detachment.
Over time, psychoanalytic theories of adolescence began to emphasize the skills and
capabilities adolescents develop in order to resolve inner conflicts and establish and maintain
mature relationships with others, especially others outside the family. More recent theories on
adolescent’s psycho-sexual development emphasize the growth of emotional autonomy from
parents, a process called individuation and a growing need and capacity for intimate, sexual
relationships with peers.
Early adolescence is another transitional point that seems to be especially important in gender
development. Young adolescents have to cope with the enormous changes of puberty. These
7
changes are intensified by their expanding cognitive abilities, which make them acutely
aware of how they appear to others. As female and male experiences the physical and social
changes of early adolescence, they must come to terms with new definitions of their gender
roles. During the early adolescence, individuals develop the adult physical aspects of sex.
This puberty related physical and emotional changes coupled with the detachment from
families, might result in less emphasis given to education by focusing more on heterosexual
relationships, the result of which might complicate their achievements and future life as
adults.
Thus, schools need to adjust their setting and procedures in a way that host the new changes
observed on adolescents, some of which could be:
 Arrange culture sensitive and age appropriate sexuality education which could help
adolescents to overcome problems related to adolescence.
 Encourage them to participate in gender and other clubs in the schools that improve
their understanding and attitudes towards sexuality and its consequences.
1.3.5. Moral Development during Adolescence
Activity 1.8
1. What do you think is moral development? What are the basic values that are
respected/ approved and what adolescent behaviors are condemned in your
community? Explain why they are respected or condemned.
2. Describe the sources of adolescents moral development
3. What the major characteristics of moral development during adolescence?
4. What do you think are the classroom implications of morality during adolescence
period?
Moral development, in simpler terms, refers to the knowledge of what is right and
what is wrong. Furthermore, it is the ability to judge things. Reactions and feelings as right
or wrong depend on explaining or reasoning ability which is directly related to cognitive
development.
8
Society could not function without rules that tell people how to avoid hurting others, and how
to get along in life generally. If you remember back to your own years in junior high or high
school, you may recall being shocked to find that people sometimes break rules on purpose,
and that the rules that apply to some people may not apply to others. These experiences
probably changed your concept of rules. Your idea of laws might also have changed when
you learned how they are made. People meet and debate and vote.
Adolescences moral development was explained by stage of development called Post

conventional moral reasoning (young adolescence -Adulthood) in which adolescents judge
actions as right or wrong based on universal, abstract principles that take precedence over
laws and conventions and even a person’s peers and family.
According to Kohlberg, adolescents regard right and wrong as a product of social contracts
and the set of rules/agreements that originate from the discussion, negotiations, and a
compromise that can be changed.
Moral reasoning during adolescence stage requires the ability to think abstractly (i.e. to view
laws as a system of governance), to weight competing claims, to take into account both the
logical and emotional domains, to take a stand and yet remain open to future and more
adequate interpretations of social justice. Since rules of society are mutually agreed for the
benefits of all, rules that are destructive or broken by one are judged no more binding for
others. For example, students may judge coming late to class as correct if the teacher does
same and they may often not carry out assignments if the teacher is not well prepared to give
the necessary correction.
Classroom implication of moral development during adolescence
 Adolescents should be encouraged to interact with peers in joint activities in which

they share a common goal.
 Teachers have to give due emphasis to moral issues presented in citizenship
education of secondary school curriculum and values in the Geda system to help
adolescents develop optimal level of moral reasoning.
 Parents and teachers should select the appropriate behaviors exhibited by the students
and nurture these through a system of rewards.
9
 Teachers and parents as a caregiver need to create an enabling environment to

challenge adolescents to reason about moral issues. It is not enough to preach moral
dogmas; they must also “walk the talk”.
Self-assessment questions
Now it is time to see your understanding of the basic concepts in the assessment of students’
learning. Read the following items and answer them by checking in one of the boxes under
alternatives ‘’yes ‘or ‘’no’’.
No. Items Yes No

1 Can you define human development?
2 Can you list the major aspects of development during
adolescence?
3 Can you explain and give examples of the major aspects of
development during adolescence?
4 Can you explain the classroom implications of the different
aspects of development during adolescence?
If there are boxes that you marked ‘’No’’ go back to the manual or any other material that can
give you further explanation and read about it.
10
SECTION TWO
2. LEARNING AND ITS MAJOR THEORIES (Total period allotted: 21)
Introduction
In the previous section we have seen some basic concepts and aspects of human development
focusing on the period of adolescence. In this section you will be briefly introduced to the
concepts of learning, the major theories that tend to explain how learning takes place and
some factors that can affect learning.
Learning outcomes
At the end of this section the trainees will be able to:
 Explain the concept learning using various scenarios;

 List common factors that may affect students’ learning;
 Identify the main influences of different teaching strategies on students’ learning;
 Operationally define terms relevant to theories of learning.
2.1. The concept of learning
Activity 2.1
Discuss on the following learning related concepts with your partner and share your views
to the whole class. Learning is often conceptualized as a change. What kind of change do
you think does it involve? Is learning something done to students, or something that
students themselves do?
Learning is usually defined in general terms as an enduring change in behavior, or in

the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of
experience (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).
It is conceived, in the philosophy of teaching and learning, stated in the newly developed
general education curriculum framework of Ethiopia (MoE, 2020) as a tool that:
 Inspires learners to take ownership of their learning, become motivated and

challenged when they find meaning in their learning.
11
 takes every learner as an individual who possesses diverse learning needs and
capacities and bring with them a wide range of experiences, beliefs, knowledge, and
skills.
 takes place in caring, safe and stimulating educational environment which provides
learners the conditions essential to advance physically, mentally, emotionally, and
socially.
 helps cultivating positive peer relationships in order to achieve a culture of support
and mutual respect in classrooms, where learners learn to appreciate diversity and
unity.
 encourages learners to take risks, learn from their mistakes and from one another, and
be confident in expressing their views and doing things independently.
 takes place individually and collaboratively, as learners construct and co-construct
meaning from knowledge and experiences.
 promotes the development of thinking skills and dispositions as well as meta
cognitive skills helpful for learning to learn.
 helps to connect what learners already know with that being acquired and extending
that knowledge through intellectually challenging work.
 encourages learners to engage in activities that are purposeful, relevant, inquiry
stimulating, action-oriented, reflective, and enjoyable.
2.2. Factors Affecting Students’ Learning
Activity 2.2
1. Write and post on the wall as many common factors as you can that may influence
the rate, amount or quality of secondary school students’ learning.
2. Categorize the factors you have listed as physiological, psychological,
environmental and methodological, and in a group of four discuss on one each and
share your ideas to the whole class.
3. Discuss in groups of 4 or 5 on the ways teachers and schools can manage and
minimize the impacts of these factors?
12
The following points highlight four main factors influencing learning. The factors are:
I) Physiological factors II) Psychological factors III) Environmental factors and IV)
Methodology of instructions.
I. Physiological Factors:
The physiological factors that may influence students’ learning include sense-perception,
physical health and fatigue, substance use, and diet.
Sense-perception: Sensation and perception are the basis of all cognitive learning. The
weaker the power of perception, the lesser the amount of learning will be. For example, a
blind student learns far less than his/her non-visual partner.
Physical Health and fatigue: Ill health and fatigue hamper learning. Sound mind is only in a
sound body. Sound physical health gives vitality to pursue learning activities for learning.
Diet: Nutrition is responsible for efficient mental activity. Poor nutrition adversely affects
learning. The type of food also has some effect.
Substance use: The alcoholic drinks, caffeine, chat, tobacco and such addictive items have
adverse effect on neuro-muscular system, and consequently upon the learning capacity.
II. Psychological Factors

Mental Health: Mental tension, post traumatic effects, anxiety, conflicts, etc, hamper
learning. A maladjusted child finds it difficult to concentrate. Concentration needs good
mental condition and absence of mental conflict or stress. Some pupils find it difficult to
prepare for the university examination, simply because of fear of the examination and anxiety
neurosis. A calm, quiet and balanced mind has the power to concentrate and learn better.
Motivation and Interest: Learning takes place when the learner is motivated. Purposeless
learning is no learning at all. Every child is impelled by some motive to learn new things. In
the absence of motivation, he/she does not feel interested in the act of learning. A child’s
behaviour in learning is energised, selected and directed by motives.
Rewards: Rewards of all sorts are powerful incentives to learn. Rewarding good attempt
using verbal praise, material rewards (when possible), etc strengthens better learning.
III.Environmental Factors
13
Atmospheric conditions, among others, such as high temperature and humidity lower the
mental efficiency. Low ventilation, lack of proper illumination, noise and physical discomfort
(as we find in overcrowded classes) hinder the learning capacity. Distractions of all sorts
affect power of concentration and consequently the efficiency of learning. Moreover, the
classrooms, textbooks, equipment, school supplies, and other instructional materials greatly
affect students’ learning.
IV.Methodology of Instructions
Presentation and Organisation of Material: The learning material should be properly
planned and organised. It should be graded to suit the mental level of the pupils and be
presented in a meaningful and interesting manner.
Learning by Doing: ‘’Practice makes a man perfect’’. Repetition and practice is important
for learning. Students engage in learning through activity. Theoretical teaching should be
replaced by practical application of knowledge, experimentation and personal application.
Children learn better through personal experience.
2.3. Major Theories of Learning
Activity 2.3
1. Form a group of 4 or 5 and discuss the methods and approaches that teachers can
use to conduct effective classroom instruction.
2. List the main theories of learning that you know and describe their key features.
First work individually, then discuss in pair and finally share your ideas to the
whole class.
An important part of teacher training understands of the different ways of learning.

There are many solidified learning theories that teachers can learn from as they prepare to
help students in the classroom. Teachers who understand learning theories can use different
techniques in their classrooms to cater to different kinds of learning. This can help all
students find success in learning.
An understanding of the concept and theories of learning helps teachers connect to all
different kinds of students. Teachers can focus on different learning styles to reach different
students; creating teaching that focuses directly on student needs and aptitudes.
14
Learning is a complex activity and an innate part of human development. Blyth (1984)
describes learning as the product of continuous interaction between development and
experience through life. Philosophers, psychologists and educationalists have analysed how
learning takes place and have put forward various theories to describe the process of learning.
Learning Theories simply means how the students are exposed to learning experiences,
process them and apply them in different situation to solve problems. Students’ learning
highly depends on the extent to which teachers understand and employ appropriate learning
theories. Accordingly, in order to provide a better learning atmosphere teacher should use
different learning theories like Behaviourism, constructivism, social constructivism, and etc.
According to Pollard (2008) three theories of learning have had ‘particular influence’ on
teaching and learning:
 Behaviorism (B.F. Skinner)

 Constructivism (Jean Piaget)
 Social constructivism or cognition (Lev. Vygotsky)
Behaviorism has been greatly influenced by Skinner who developed the ideas of stimulus–
response–reinforcement- consequence. According to this theory, the learner has a passive role
in the learning process and the teacher as the subject expert is in control of the learning
process.
Constructivism suggests that people learn through interaction between experience and
thinking. Piaget considered the interaction between people and their environment. The
learner is an active and independent role and negotiates with the teacher who in turn becomes
the manager of the learning environment rather than teaching. If a teacher wants to teach
about wheat plantation, for example, it is advisable to organize trip to places where wheat is
planted or to show them video showing wheat plantation, to make learning meaningful.
Constructivism theory affirms the importance of recognizing and building on students’

existing knowledge and culture, while emphasizing the role of teaching and instruction in
extending such knowledge. These theories can be divided in to two approaches, individual
(psychological constructivism) and social constructivism. The former considers that the
students are urged to be actively involved in their own process of learning and the latter
emphasizes the role of experienced participants in supporting learners.
Activity 2.4
15
Think individually about your own learning journeys from childhood to the present and
write on a blank piece of paper the significant things that helped/ encouraged you and the
significant things which may have stopped or hindered your learning at any point. Use 30
minutes for this. After 15 minutes, now work in groups of 4 or 5 and tell your ideas each
to the others. Then, read the brief notes below and individually complete the task that
follows.
Read the information in the following table adapted from Pollard (2008, p182), cited in the
higher diploma program (HDP) manual (MoE, 2011) which summarizes the effects of the
following three influential approaches to teaching and learning:
Behaviorism (Pavlov, Constructivism (Piaget) Social constructivism

Skinner, Thorndike, (Vygotsky, Bronfenbrunner)
Watson,...)
Image of  Passive  Active  Active

learner  Individual  Individual  Social
 Extrinsically  Intrinsically  Socially motivated
motivated motivated
Images of  Teacher transmits  Teacher gives  Knowledge and skills
teaching knowledge and student are constructed
and skills opportunity to gradually through
learning  Learning depends construct experience, interaction
on teaching and knowledge and and peer support
systematic skills gradually  Learning occurs
reinforcing of  Learning can be through the
correct behaviors independent of interdependence of
teaching teacher and students
Typical  Listening to the  Individuals  Discussion with other
student teacher learn by students
activities  Working on an doing(experime  Group problem
exercise nting, solving
exercising,
project work,
16
etc.
Choose one term from each box in the table above which best describes your learning
experience at the different stages of your education and write them in the box below:
Stage Behaviorist Constructivist Social constructivist
Primary
Secondary
College
University
1st degree
17
2.3. Classroom Implication Learning Theories
Activity 2.5
1. What do you think are the role of teachers and students in secondary school
classrooms?
2. Explain the role of teachers and students in behavioral, constructive and social
constructive classrooms?
3. Discuss in your groups what strengths and limitations each theory of learning has
with respect to effective classroom instruction.
Teachers can create specific strategies and techniques to apply these learning theories in their
classrooms. They need to first focus on getting a well-rounded education to learn about all
kinds of techniques for teaching and classroom management. Teachers need to understand
learning theories to be prepared to utilize them in their classroom teaching.
2.3.1. Behaviourism
Teachers Role in Behaviourist Classroom
Teachers can use Behaviourism to increase learning and decrease distracting student
behaviour. To this end,
 When writing lesson plans, identify what knowledge and skills they want students to
master.
 Determine how they'll objectively evaluate performance.
 Develop a system for tracking student progress, and intervene if problems arise.
 Communicate to students their academic and behavioural expectations.
 Use exams and grades to encourage students to do their best work. For instance, if
they suspect students aren't completing assigned readings, they could start giving
quizzes to motivate students and reward those who work hard.
 To control disruptive behaviour that can affect teaching and learning, they can
praise/reinforce/ positive behaviour, ignore mildly irritating behaviour and
consistently enforce consequences for breaking rules.
Student’s Role in Behaviorism Learning Theory
18
In behaviorist theory, learners are more passive in the learning process. The learners' role is
simply to respond to the learning content and demonstrate a level of performance on specific
goals and objectives
Evaluation of Behaviorism
Strengths
 Useful for classroom management and behavior modification via the application of
the concepts of reinforcement and punishment.
 Enables organized presentation of new materials that may not be easily compiled by
students.
Limitations
 Does not account for processes taking place in the mind that cannot be observed
 Advocates for passive student learning in a teacher-centered environment
 Considers the ‘’one size fits all’’ disregarding students learning preferences
 Does not consider the application of ongoing students learning assessment
 Considers knowledge as something absolute and imparted by teachers
2.3.2. Constructivism and social Constructivism
There is a great deal of overlap between a constructivist and social constructivist classroom,
with the exception of the greater emphasis placed on learning through social interaction, and
the value placed on cultural background. For Vygotsky, culture gives the child the cognitive
tools needed for development. Adults in the learner’s environment are conduits for the tools
of the culture, which include language, cultural history, social context, and more recently,
electronic forms of information access.
In the constructivist classroom, the focus tends to shift from the teacher to the students. The
classroom is no longer a place where the teacher ("expert") pours knowledge into passive
students, who wait like empty vessels to be filled. In the constructivist model, the students are
urged to be actively involved in their own process of learning.
In the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge as a dynamic,
ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability to successfully stretch and explore
that view - not as inert facts to be memorized.
The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use inquiry
methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find solutions
19
and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as exploration
continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more questions.
Role of the teacher
Constructivist teachers do not take the role of the "sage on the stage." Instead, teachers act as
a "guide on the side" providing students with opportunities to test the adequacy of their
current understandings.
 The educator should consider the knowledge and experiences students bring to class
 Provide assistance with assimilation of new and old knowledge
 Present learning activities that enable active construction of knowledge
 Facilitate discovery by providing the necessary resources
 Create situations where the students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their own
processes
 Support collaboration in constructing knowledge, not competition
 Providing Scaffolding at the right time and the right level and target both the level of
actual and potential development.
 Promotes collaboration between teacher, learner and community.
 Use active, challenging, authentic and multidisciplinary tasks.
 Focus on knowledge construction, not reproduction.
 Use telecommunication tools.
 Use ‘simulation’ to make learning meaningful
Role of the student
The expectation within a constructivist learning environment is that the student plays a more
active role in, and accepts more responsibility for his/her own learning.
The constructivist process helps the learners-
 To develop their own goals and assessments.

 To create new understanding, attitude and skills.
 To reflect on their own learning.
 Collaborate among fellow learners.
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 Appreciate different perspectives

 To pursue personal interests and purposes.
 To develop life-long learning.
Evaluation of Constructivism
Strengths
When implemented well, a constructivist approach to teaching and learning can bring about
several benefits:
 Learners are pushed to clarify and organize their ideas when they explain them to
others.
 Learners gain exposure to different views when interacting with other learners.
 Through interactions with others, learners can identify errors and inconsistencies in
their thinking.
 Learners are encouraged to ask questions, develop hypotheses, and draw inferences
from information and experiences.
 Learners collaboratively reach conclusions or solutions through distributed cognition.
 Learners can develop deeper understanding.
 Learners can reach higher levels of creativity.
 Learners gain skills needed for independent problem solving in the future.
 Learners can improve their meta-cognitive skills.
Limitation
 Doesn’t give much emphasis for affective characteristics
Social Constructivism
In a social constructivist classroom the focus shifts from the teacher to the students, and
discussion and interaction on the topic is actively encouraged. The teacher's main function is
to begin or direct a discussion amongst the learners and to maintain its direction and focus. In
social constructivist classrooms collaborative learning is a process of peer interaction that is
mediated and structured by the teacher. Discussion can be promoted by the presentation of
specific concepts, problems or scenarios, and is guided by means of effectively directed
questions, the introduction and clarification of concepts and information, and references to
previously learned material.
Critiques of Social Constructivism
 Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute
21
 Often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction

 May not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters
22
Checklist
You need to check whether you have acquired adequate theoretical knowledge and
experience concerning learning or not. Put a ““mark for those behaviors or performances,
which you can do, and an “X” marks for these activities which you don’t perform.
Can you
1 Define ‘learning?
2 Explain the classroom implications of behaviorism,
constructivism and social constructivism?
3 Give examples of teacher’s roles and students’ roles in
behaviorist, constructivist and social constructivist classrooms?
4 List and briefly describe the factors that can influence students’
learning?
If there are boxes that you marked ‘’X’’ go back to the manual or any other material that can
23
SECTION THREE
3. ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS LEARNING (Total period allotted: 43)
Introduction
In section two of the manual concepts related to learning and its major theories have been
discussed. This section intends to acquaint the trainees with issues related to assessment of
students’ learning. To this end, topics like concepts of assessment and related terms, types of
classroom assessment, planning classroom assessment, construction of classroom tests, test
administration, scoring of classroom tests and other related topics are briefly addressed. Thus,
engaging actively in the activities included under this section is believed to equip the
trainee’s with the necessary skills and knowledge that help them prepare appropriate and
quality assessment instruments and use in their classrooms.
Learning outcomes
Up on successful completion of this section, the trainees will be able to:
 Describe the basic concepts related to assessment of students learning;

 Identify various types of Classroom Assessments;
 Explain the major assessment tools employed in classroom assessment;
 Develop the skills necessary to plan Classroom tests;
 Acquire the basic skills needed to construct different test items;
 Implement the guiding principles in test preparation, administration and scoring;
 Construct quality classroom test items.
24
3.1. Concepts of Assessment and other Related Terms
Activity 3.1
Dear trainees! Form a group of 4 or 5 and discuss what you know and want to learn about
the concepts test, measurement, assessment and evaluation. Dear trainer! Make them list
everything they know about these concepts. You can let them use the following chart. Be
sure that the third column will be filled at the end this section.
KWL- Chart
What do you Know about What do you Want to What have you Learned?
test, measurement, assessment know about these
and evaluation? concepts?
3.1.1. Test
Activity 3.2
From your experience as a student and now as a teacher, how do you perceive classroom
tests? For what purposes do we use tests?
Perhaps test is a concept that you are more familiar with than the other concepts. You
have been taking tests ever since you have started schooling to determine your academic
performance and now you have been using it to assess the performance of your students.
Thus, test in educational context is meant to the presentation of a standard set of questions to
be answered by students. It is one of the instruments that is used for collecting information
25
about students’ behaviors or performances. Please note that, there are many other ways of
collecting information about students’ educational performances other than tests, such as
observations, assignments, project works, portfolios, etc.
3.1.2. Measurement
Activity 3.3
In our daily lives we buy or sale materials or different commodities by measuring it using kg,
meters, cm or any measurement unit and very traditionally using foot, rope, arms and the like.
Having this in mind, how do you perceive the term measurement in educational setting? What
needs to be done to improve the accuracy of information obtained by measurement? First, think
individually, then share your ideas with your partner and finally to the whole class.
Measurement: In our day to day life there are different things that we measure. We
measure our height and put it in terms of meters and centimeters, and measure some of our
daily consumptions like sugar in kilograms, and liquids in liters.
Similarly, measurement in education is the process by which the attributes of a person are
measured and described in numbers. It is a quantitative description of the behavior or
performance of students. Measurement permits more objective description concerning traits
and facilitates comparisons among students. Hence, to measure we have to use certain
instruments so that we can conclude that a certain student is better in a certain subject than
another student. How do we measure performance in mathematics, for instance? We use a
mathematics test which is an instrument containing questions and problems to be solved by
students. The number of right responses obtained is an indication of performance of
individual students in mathematics. Thus, the purpose of educational measurement is to
represent how much of ‘something’ is possessed by a person using numbers. Measurement is
not the same as testing. While a test is an instrument to collect information about students’
behaviors, measurement is the assignment of quantitative value to the results of a test or other
assessment techniques. To get accurate information we should take care of the measuring
instruments and units we use.
26
3.1.3. Assessment
Activity 3.4
In the teaching learning process teachers are expected to have information regarding their
students learning. Taking this in mind, what is classroom assessment for you? How do you
get information regarding your students learning? What instruments do you use to collect
information about students learning? What do you think is the purpose of classroom
assessment? Why do teachers assess their students?
In educational literature the concepts ‘assessment’ and ‘evaluation’ have been used
with some confusion. Some educators have used them interchangeably to mean the same
thing. Others have used them as two different concepts. Even when they are used differently
there is too much overlap in the interpretations of the two concepts. Generally, educational
assessment is viewed as the process of collecting information with the purpose of making
decisions about students. We may collect information using various instruments including
tests, observations, checklists, questionnaires and interviews. Rowntree (1974) views
assessment as a human encounter in which one person interacts with another directly or
indirectly with the purpose of obtaining and interpreting information about the knowledge,
understanding, abilities and attitudes possessed by the person assessed.
3.1.4. Evaluation
Activity 3.5
After we have collected information regarding students learning, we are expected to make
overall evaluation. Based on this idea, what does classroom level evaluation indicate?
Explain in your own words.
Evaluation refers to the process of judging the quality of student learning on the basis
of established performance standards and assigning a value to represent the worthiness or
27
quality of that learning or performance. It is concerned with determining how well they have
learned. When we evaluate, we are judging if something is good, appropriate, valid, positive,
and so forth or not. Evaluation is based on assessment that provides evidence of student
achievement at strategic times throughout the grade/course, often at the end of a period of
learning. It is rather a final process that is determined to understand the quality of the process.
Generally speaking, the main purpose of classroom teaching is to change students’ behavior
in desired directions. That is to improve the knowledge, behavior, and attitude of students.
When viewed in this light, evaluation becomes an integral part of teaching-learning process.
The ‘’desired directions’’ are the educational objectives established by the school, and the
teacher’s evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which these objectives are
being achieved.
The following diagram depicts a summary of the relationship among the above common
terms. Testing can be replaced by any assessment tools.
Dear trainee! At the beginning of this section you have been asked to discuss what you know
and want to know about test, measurement, assessment and evaluation. Now briefly describe
what you have learned about those concepts.
What do you Know about What do you Want to What have you Learned?
test, measurement, assessment know about these
and evaluation? concepts?
28
3.2. Principles of Assessment
Activity 3.6
1. You have seen that assessment mainly focuses on collecting and analyzing
information regarding students learning. Do you think that assessment should
follow certain principles so as to provide the necessary information? If so, what
major principles of assessment do you know?
2. What is the importance of each of these principles of assessments to the teaching
and learning process?
3. Based on your experiences, discuss the extent to which each of these principles was
practiced at secondary school levels.
Assessment principles consist of statements highlighting what are considered as

critical elements of a system designed to assess student progress. Assessment principles guide
the collection of meaningful information that will help inform instructional decisions,
promote student engagement, and improve student learning. The main principles of
assessment are:
 Assessment should be relevant. Assessment needs to provide information about

students’ knowledge, skills and understandings of the learning outcomes specified in
the syllabus.
 Assessment should be appropriate. Assessment needs to provide information about
the particular kind of learning in which we are interested. This means that we need to
use a variety of assessment methods because not all methods are capable of providing
information about all kinds of learning.
 Assessment should be fair. Assessment needs to provide opportunities for every
student to demonstrate what they know, understand and can do.
 Assessment should be accurate. Assessment needs to provide evidence that accurately
reflects an individual student’s knowledge, skills and understandings.
 Assessment should provide useful information. The focus of assessment is to establish
where students are in their learning. This information can be used for both summative
purposes, such as the awarding of a grade, and formative purposes to feed directly into
the teaching and learning cycle.
29
 Assessment should be integrated into the teaching and learning cycle. Assessment
needs to be an ongoing, integral part of the teaching and learning cycle. It must allow
teachers and students themselves to monitor learning. From the teacher perspective, it
provides the evidence to guide the next steps in teaching and learning. From the
student perspective, it provides the opportunity to reflect on and review progress, and
can provide the motivation and direction for further learning.
 Assessment should draw on a wide range of evidence. A complete picture of student
achievement in an area of learning depends on evidence that is sampled from the full
range of knowledge, skills and understandings that make up the area of learning. An
assessment program that consistently addresses only some outcomes will provide
incomplete feedback to the teacher and student, and can potentially distort teaching
and learning.
3.3. Types and Tools of Assessment

3.3.1. Types of Assessment
Activity 3.7
Dear trainees! Based on the knowledge you have got in section 3.1., discuss in a group of
four or five the different types of assessments you know. Which assessment type have you
been practicing in your teaching?
There are different approaches in conducting assessment in the classroom. However,

here we are going to see formative and summative assessments.
I. Formative Assessment/Assessment for Learning/
Activity 3.8
What do you think is the main purposes of assessment for learning or formative
assessment? Form a group based on the subject you teach and prepare a lesson plan of 20
minutes as a group. Present the 20 minutes lesson to your class and practically show how
you carry out formative assessment.
30
Formative assessment is a process used by teachers and students during instruction

that provides feedback to adjust ongoing teaching and learning to improve students’
achievement of intended instructional outcomes. Formative assessment is most appropriate
where the results are to be used internally by those involved in the learning process (students,
teachers, curriculum developers).
Formative assessment is not an adjunct to teaching but, rather, is integrated into instruction
and learning with teachers and students receiving frequent feedback. This type of assessment
is about getting better.
Formative assessment mainly employs informal assessment tools. Informal is used here to
indicate techniques that can easily be incorporated into classroom routines and learning
activities. Informal assessment techniques can be used at anytime without interfering with
instructional time. Their results are indicative of the student's performance on the skill or
subject of interest. An informal assessment usually occurs in a more casual manner and may
include observation, inventories, checklists, performance and portfolio assessments,
participation, peer and self evaluation, and discussion.
Assessment for learning:

• Is an integral part of the learning process and help pupils learn.
• Clarifies for students what is to be learned and what success would look like.
• Gives useful and timely feedback to students
• Uses questioning, feedback (marking and oral), assessment (peer and self )
II. Summative Assessment/Assessment of Learning/
Activity 3.9
What do you think is the main purposes of summative assessment/assessment of learning/

and what makes it different from formative assessment? How can you apply summative
assessment in activity 3.8 above?
31
Summative assessment is used primarily to make decisions for grading or determine

readiness for progression. Typically summative assessment occurs at the end of an
educational activity and is designed to judge the learner’s overall performance. In addition to
providing the basis for grade assignment, summative assessment is used to communicate
students’ abilities to external stakeholders, e.g., administrators and employers. Summative
assessment:
 Happens after the learning takes place
 Requires teachers to gather information
 Usually involves transforming information in to marks or grades
 Looks back on past learning
 Mainly employs formal assessment techniques/tools.
3.3.2. Commonly used Assessment Tools
Activity 3.10
1. List and describe the assessment tools you often use in your classroom
instruction and
discuss with your partner, then share your ideas to the whole class.
2. Among the commonly used assessment tools are: observation, demonstration,
presentation, question and answer, portfolios, one minute paper, the muddiest point,
self-assessment, performance tasks and student generated questions. How are these
implemented in classrooms to assess students’ learning?
3. Read the following key note on assessment tools and prepare a 10 minutes
presentation. Dear trainer! Evaluate the presentation and tell them that they can use at
least one of these tools in their presentation.
From among the various assessment tools that can be used by classroom teachers,
some of the commonly used tools are described below.
Observation: Observation is a process of systematically viewing and recording students

while they work, for the purpose of making instructional decisions. Observation can take
32
place at any time and in any setting. It provides information on students' strengths and
weaknesses, learning styles, interests, and attitudes. Observations may be informal or highly
structured, and incidental or scheduled over different periods of time in different learning
contexts.
Classroom presentations: A classroom presentation is an assessment strategy that requires

students to verbalize their knowledge, select and present samples of finished work, and
organize their thoughts about a topic in order to present a summary of their learning. For
example, students can be made to present a report after an educational visit.
Performance tasks: During a performance task, students create, produce, perform, or

present works on "real world" issues. The performance task may be used to assess a skill or
proficiency, and provides useful information on the process as well as the product.
Questions and answers: Perhaps, this is a widely used strategy by teachers with the
intention of involving their students in the learning and teaching process. In this strategy, the
teacher poses a question and the student answers verbally, rather than in writing. It helps the
teacher to determine whether students understand what is being, or has been, presented; it
also helps students to extend their thinking, generate ideas, or solve problems. Strategies for
effective question and answer assessment include:
 Apply a wait time or 'no hands-up rule' to provide students with time to think after a
question before they are called upon randomly to respond.
 Ask a variety of questions, including open-ended questions and those that require
more than a right or wrong answer.
Exhibitions/Demonstrations: An exhibition/demonstration is a performance in a public
setting, during which a student explains and applies a process, procedure, product, etc., in
concrete ways to show individual achievement of specific skills and knowledge.
Portfolios: A portfolio is a collection of samples of a student’s work over time. It offers a
visual demonstration of a student’s achievement, capabilities, strengths, weaknesses,
knowledge, and specific skills, over time and in a variety of contexts. For a portfolio to serve
as an effective assessment instrument, it has to be focused, selective, reflective, and
collaborative. Portfolios can be prepared for different subjects in any educational level.
Students’ self-assessments: Self-assessment is a process by which the student gathers

information about, and reflects on, his/ her own learning. It is the student’s own assessment
33
of personal progress in terms of knowledge, skills, processes, or attitudes. Self-assessment

leads students to a greater awareness and understanding of themselves as learners.
One- Minute paper: During the last few minutes of the class period, you may ask students to
answer on a half-sheet of paper: "What is the most important point you learned today?" and,
"What point remains least clear to you?" The purpose is to obtain data about students'
comprehension of a particular class session. Then you can review responses and note any
useful comments. During the next class periods you can emphasize the issues illuminated by
your students' comments.
Muddiest Point: This is similar to ‘One-Minute Paper’ but only asks students to describe
what they didn't understand and what they think might help. It is an important technique that
will help you to determine which key points of the lesson were missed by the students. Here
also you have to review before next class meeting and use to clarify, correct, or elaborate.
Student- generated test questions: You may allow students to write test questions and
model answers for specified topics, in a format consistent with course exams. This will give
students the opportunity to evaluate the course topics, reflect on what they understand, and
what good test items are. You may evaluate the questions and use the good ones as prompts
for discussion.
Tests: This is the type of assessment that you are mostly familiar with.A test requires
students to respond to prompts in order to demonstrate their knowledge (orally or in writing)
or their skills (e.g., through performance). We will learn much more about tests later in this
section.
3.4. Planning Classroom Tests
Activity 3.11
Dear trainees! Based on the subject you teach, form a group and discuss the activities you
have been carrying out in preparing classroom tests for your students and share your
experiences to other groups in the class. Try to address activities that you carry out from
the beginning to the end.
34
Effective classroom testing begins with a test plan that describes, in specific terms,
the instructional objectives and content to be measured, and the relative emphasis to be given
to each intended learning outcomes. In order to prepare quality test items, planning is
mandatory.
Good tests do not just happen. They require adequate and extensive planning so that the
instructional objectives, the teaching strategy to be employed, the textual material, and the
evaluative procedure are all related in some meaningful fashion. Our main goal in classroom
testing is to obtain valid, reliable, and useful information concerning student achievement.
The likelihood of preparing valid, reliable, and useful classroom tests is greatly enhanced if a
series of basic steps is followed. Accordingly the following are the main activities to be
carried out at planning stage.
I. Determining the purpose of the test
Determining the purpose of the test includes answering the following questions. Why is the
teacher testing? Is the teacher interested in making decisions about students’ placement,
selection, classification, or other type of decisions? Testing may be done to monitor learning
progress, to diagnose learning difficulties, for placement/selection, to measure performance at
the end of instruction and etc. Thus, before writing test items we have to identify the purpose
for which the test is constructed.
II. Developing table of specifications
Activity 3.12
Assume that you spent 26 periods on grade 11 biology unit one, the science of biology and
you want to prepare a 40 item test on this unit. The unit has four major topics. You spent
10 periods on methods of science, 7 periods on tools of biologist, 6 periods on the relevance
of biological science and 3 periods on biology and HIV/AIDS. In teaching this unit you
were concerned with four instructional objectives: the students’ ability to (1) recall
information; (2) understand basic concepts and principles; (3) apply concepts and
principles; and (4) interpret data. Then decide the number of items to be prepared from
each topic.
35
Table of specification
Objectives
Contents
Understanding
Total weight
Application
Knowledge
Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Total
The methods of science
The tools of a biologist

Biology and HIV/AIDS
The relevance of biological sciences
Total
One can use the following formula to determine the number of questions to be drawn from
each topic/ chapter.
BxC
N= A , where N = numbers of questions required for each topic/chapter
B= periods allotted for the unit/topic
C= total number of questions
A= Total number of periods allotted for the unit/topic
Test items should represent important and clearly stated objectives. Some teachers
unintentionally construct most of their test items from very few parts of the course. Because
most tests are samples of behavior, teachers need to construct items that adequately sample
subject matter from all major topics. The most effective way to ensure adequate
representation of items is to develop a two-way grid called table of specification or test blue
print. This table relates the two major components of educational processes: the content
element and the objectives. Mainly on the basis of the amount of instructional time devoted to
each topic, we decide the number of items to be prepared from each topic. Consider that now
36
you have a blueprint that guides you both in teaching this unit and in constructing a test on
this unit. The next activity is deciding the appropriate test formats to be included in the test.
III.Selecting appropriate test format
The items used in classroom tests are typically divided into three general categories: written
test, oral test, and performance test. Each type should be used where most appropriate, with
appropriateness determined by the learning outcomes to be measured and by the unique
advantages and limitations of each item type. Therefore, the nature of the test items selected
should depend chiefly on the nature of the outcomes to be measured.
Written tests are test items presented to the learner either on the blackboard or in a printed
form. Written tests could be categorized into subjective and objective based on the nature of
the test items constructed. Objective tests will be further sub-divided into supply item
(completion and short answer), selection item (True-false, matching, and multiple choice).
On the other hand, subjective or essay test will be classified into extended and restricted
response essay. Thus, by considering the necessary prerequisites, we have to decide the type
of test formats that we use just before we start writing test items.
37
3.5. Constructing Classroom Tests
Activity 3.13
1. As students you have taken tests with different formats and as a teacher you have
been preparing different test items – Multiple choices, True/False, short answer,
matching, work-out, essay, etc. Which of this test items did you feel more
comfortable with? What are your reasons? Write down your answers and compare
it with that of your partner.
2. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the different types of test items in your
groups. Present the results of your discussion to the whole class.
3.5.1. Constructing Objective Test Items
There are different types of objective test items. These can be classified into those that
require the student to supply the answer (supply type items) and those that require the student
to select the answer from a given set of alternatives (selection type items). Supply type items
include completion items and short answer questions. Selection type test items include
True/False, multiple choices and matching. Each type of test has its unique characteristics,
uses, advantages, limitations, and rules for construction. Accordingly, we will see these test
formats very briefly.
3.5.1.1. True or False Test Items
38
Activity 3.14
Dear trainees! Form a group based on the subject you teach (English, Afan Oromo,
Geography, Chemistry, Physics, Biology, etc). Then by taking one chapter from one of
grade 9-12 text books of your subject, prepare a full-fledged true-false test having 10 items
that you think appropriate to students at that grade level and present it to the class.
True or false item is the most commonly used form of objective test being in use at all
levels of education. It is used to measure simple learning outcomes. It consists of declarative
statements that the student is asked to mark true or false. The task of the student is to select
one of the two possible answers. The most common use of true false item is in measuring the
ability to identify the correctness of statements of facts, definitions of terms, statements of
principles, and the like.
Advantages
 They are good for young children and /or pupils who are poor readers.
 They allow for adequate content sampling. This means that broad content sampling is
possible in a relatively short testing time. They can sample the domain of content
extensively.
 They can be scored quickly, reliably and objectively.
Limitations
 They are susceptible to guessing. With only two alternatives, a pupil has a 50-50
opportunity of selecting the correct answers on the basis of chance alone
 They are limited to the measurement of simple learning outcomes. This means that
they are unsuitable for measuring complex learning outcomes.
 Specific determiners (a type of irrelevant clue) are more prevalent in true-false items
than in any other objective-item format. Specific determiners generally appear
because the item writer wishes to have a completely true or false statement.
 They are susceptible to acquiescence response set; that is, test takers tend to develop a
pattern of responding (true) in somewhat automatic form without really giving
thought to the item.
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 They lend themselves most easily to cheating. If a student knows that he/she is to take
a T-F test, it does not require much effort to work out a system in which one of the
better student signals a T versus F answer.
Suggestions for constructing True-False Test Items
 Do not use terms that will provide clues about the right answers.
 Avoid using negative statements, especially double negatives. Where it is imperative
that negative word be used, it should be underlined, CAPITALIZED or italicized.
Poor Item: (T) F None of the steps in the experiment was unnecessary.
Better Item: (T) F All of the steps in the experiment was necessary.
 Avoid too long and complex sentences.
 Avoid statements that are partly true and partly false.
Poor Item: (T) F A mule does not give birth because it does not have sexual
apparatus
Better Item: (T) F A mule does not give birth.
 True and false statements should be approximately equal in length.
 The number of true and false statements should be approximately equal (40-60%).
 Avoid placing items in a systematic order (for example; T F T F…, T T F F…, and so
on).
3.5.1.2. Matching Test Items
Activity 3.15
Form a group based on the subject you teach (English, Afan Oromo, Geography,
Chemistry, Physics, Biology, etc). Then by taking one of grade 9-12 text books of your
subject, prepare a full-fledged matching test having 7 items from one of the chapters that
you think appropriate to construct this type of items and present it to the class.
Matching test item consists of two parallel columns with each word, number or
symbol in one column being matched to a word, sentence, or phrase in the other column. The
items in the column for which a match is sought are called premises. On the other hand, the
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item in the column from which the selection is made is called responses. When the numbers
of items in the premise and response columns are equal, it is called simple or perfect
matching. But when there is unequal number of items in the premise and response column,
it is considered as complex or imperfect matching. Matching test items are used to measure
the ability to identify relationships between things. Wherever learning outcomes emphasize
the ability to identify the relationship between two things, and a sufficient number of
homogeneous premises and responses are available matching items are can be used.
The number of premises and responses in each list for a single matching exercise should
ordinarily range from 5 to 12, the optimum size being 5 to 8 items per matching exercise.
With the typical matching exercise, imperfect matching can be obtained by including a few
more responses than premises. In either case, the directions should instruct the pupil that each
response may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
Advantages
 It provides a space saving.

 It is easy to construct.
 It can be scored quickly, reliably and objectively.
Limitations
 It is restricted to the measurement of factual information based on rote learning.

 It is highly susceptible to the presence of irrelevant clues.
 It is difficult to find homogeneous material relevant to the learning outcomes.
Suggestions for Preparing Matching Test Items
 Specify the directions as clearly as possible in order to avoid confusion in matching

the responses and premises.
Example
Directions: Column A contains chemical elements while Column B contains their
atomic number. Match the atomic number in Column B with their appropriate
chemical elements in column A and write the letter of your choice in the space
provided to the left of each item. Each atomic number in Column B is used once.
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 Present similar items in each column (i.e., use homogeneous materials in matching
items).
Example
A B
____________Helium A/86
____________ Neon B/18
____________Argon C/10
____________Krypton D/54
____________Xenon E/36
____________Radon F/2
 The items in both columns should be randomly distributed and should give no clues.
 Place all the items for one matching on the same page.
 Include an unequal number of responses and premises and instruct the students that
responses may be used once, more than once and not at all.
 Keep the list of items to be matched brief and place the shorter response on the right
(The response should be shorter than the premises).
 Provide one and only one correct answer.
 Randomize the position of correct answers and avoid making patterns of any form.
 Choose distracters or incorrect listings that will appear plausible to many examinees.
3.5.1.3. Supply Test Items
Activity 3.16
Take one of grade 9-12 text books of your subject and prepare a supply type test of 5 items
that address one of the chapters that you think appropriate and present to the class.
The purpose of this form of test is to determine a student ability to recall or recognize
the appropriate term, concept, phrase, word, number, symbol, etc to complete a statement.
The supply type of test item is suitable for measuring a wide variety of simple learning
outcomes. In the area of mathematics and science, however, manipulation of mathematical
symbols and balancing equations can be measured. The short answer and completion items
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are both supply type of test items. In the case of the short-answer item a direct question is
used, while the completion item consists of an incomplete statement.
Examples
Short answer items
 What is the chemical formula for water? _________

 What is the value of x in the equation 2x +6 = 5? ________
Completion items
 The chemical formula for water is __________.

 In the equation 2x+6 = 5, the value of x is equal to__________.
Advantages
 The supply type test item is one of the easiest to construct.

 Guessing is eliminated or reduced
 Item sampling is relatively high
Limitations
 It is unsuitable for measuring complex learning outcomes.

 Scoring may not be quick, easy, routine, and accurate because of the variety of
acceptable answers.
 They are susceptible for bluffing /simply writing irrelevant things to the questions/.
Suggestions for Preparing Supply Test Items

 The wording must be clear and specific enough to avoid ambiguous responses.
Poor item: An animal that eats the flesh of other animal is__________
Better item: An animal that eats the flesh of other animal is classified as
__________
 It must be written in a way that elicits only one correct answer.
Poor item: Ambo is found in_________________
Better item: Ambo is found in ________________ region
 Avoid too many blank spaces in the same sentence.
Poor item: ______, ________, ________ and _______ are tools biologists uses in the
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laboratory (better presented as list the tools biologists use in the laboratory).
 Place the blank either at the end or near the end of a statement.
Poor item:_________ are the most appropriate models for representing the surface of
the earth.
Better item: The most appropriate models for representing the surface of the earth
is_______.
 Avoid long statements.
 Blanks for answers should be equal in length and in a column to the right of the
questions.
 When the answer is to be expressed in numerical units, indicate the unit of
measurement.
Poor item: The height of Mount Kilimanjaro is_________________.
Better item: The height of Mount Kilimanjaro is_______________meters.
3.5.1.4. Multiple Choice Test Items
Activity 3.17
Form a group based on the subject you teach (English, Afan Oromo, Geography,
Chemistry, Physics, Biology, etc). Then by taking one of grade 9-12 text books of your
subject, prepare a full-fledged multiple choice test having 10 items from one of the
chapters that you think appropriate to students at that grade level and present to the class.
A multiple- choice test item consists of a problem and a list of suggested solutions.
The problem may be stated in the forms of direct question or incomplete statement and is
called the stem of the item. The list of suggested solutions may include words, numbers,
symbols, or phrases and are called alternatives. The correct alternative in each item is the
answer or the key. The incorrect alternatives are named as distracters. Multiple-choice is the
most widely used test item. The multiple choices item is the most versatile type of test item
available. It is extremely flexible. It can measure a variety of learning outcomes from the
simple to the complex and it is adaptable to most types of subject matter content. It has such
wide applicability and so many specific uses that many standardized tests use multiple-choice
items exclusively.
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Examples
Direct Question Form
 Which of the following types of map is appropriate for showing settlement, drainage,
roads and land use distribution on a single map?
A/Thematic map B/Topographic map
C/Cadastral map D/Navigation map
Incomplete Statement Form
 The type of map that is appropriate to show settlement, drainage, roads and land use
distribution is_________________.
A/Thematic map B/Topographic map
C/Cadastral map D/Navigation map
Types of Multiple-Choice Format

The most frequently used variations of the multiple-choice item are the correct answer type
and the best answer type.
I. The correct answer type
This is the simplest type of multiple choice items. The student is told to select one correct
answer listed among several plausible, but incorrect, options.
Example
Which one of the following numbers is the additive inverse of 8?
A) -8 B) -1/8 C) 1/8 D) 8
II. The best -answer type
There are times, where it is more difficult, if not impossible, to express one unequivocal right
answer within the limits of the multiple-choice format. For example, "the major factor to be
considered in selecting town for a state capital," does not lend itself to the single correct
answer format. And yet there still may be one answer that is "best". When this is the case, the
best-answer variation is useful. The directions are similar to those of the single correct
answer except that the student is told to select the best answer.
Example
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Which one of the following factors is given most consideration, when selecting a city for a
state capital?
A) Climate C) Location
B) Highways D) Population
Questions of the Why varieties and the How varieties tend to reveal a number of possible
reasons, some of which are clearly better than the others. Measures of achievement in these
areas, then, become a matter of selecting the best answer. That is why the best answer type of
multiple-choice item tends to be more difficult than the correct-answer type.
Advantages
 It is the most versatile type of test item.

 It can be scored quickly, reliably and objectively.
 One major advantage of multiple-choice item over the true -false item is that pupils
cannot receive credit for simply knowing that a statement is incorrect; they must also
know what is correct.
 Compared to true-false items, multiple choice items have a relatively small
susceptibility to score variations due to guessing because the probability of guessing a
correct answer depends upon the number of options.
 It is relatively free from response sets. That is, pupils generally do not have a
tendency to favor a particular alternative when they do not know the answer.
 A major advantage of the multiple-choice item over the matching item is that the need
for homogeneous materials is avoided. In many content areas it is difficult to obtain
enough homogeneous material to prepare effective matching exercises. This problem
is avoided with multiple-choice items, since each item measures a single idea.
 The use of a number of plausible alternatives makes the results amenable to diagnosis.
The nature of the incorrect alternatives selected by pupils provides clues to factual
errors and misunderstandings that need correction.
Limitations
 The multiple choice item, like other paper and pencil tests, measures whether the
pupil knows or understands what to do when confronted with a problem situation, but
it cannot determine how the pupil will perform in actual situation. In other words, it
measures problem-solving behavior at verbal level only.
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 The multiple -choice item shares a basic limitation with other types of selection items.
Since it requires selection of the correct answer, it is not well adapted to the
measurement of some problem-solving skills in mathematics and science, and it is
inappropriate for measuring the ability to organize and present ideas.
 The multiple-choice item has a limitation not common to other item types. That is, the
difficulty of locating a sufficient number of incorrect but plausible distracter.
Suggestions for Preparing Multiple -Choice Test Items

 The stem of the item should be meaningful by itself and should present a definite
problem.
Example
Poor item: Ethiopia is
A/ never colonized B/ found in east Africa
C/ the seat of AU D/ rich in natural resource
Better item: Which country is the seat of African Union?
A/ Sudan B/ Kenya
C/ Ethiopia D/ Mozambique
 The item stem should include as much of the item as possible and should be free of
irrelevant material. Avoid repetition of words in the options.
Poor item: Most African countries were colonized by European countries. Why did
European countries colonized African countries?
Better item: Why did European countries colonized African countries?
 Use negatively stated item stem only when significant learning outcomes require it. In
most cases it is more important for the student to know what the specific item of
information is rather than what it is not.
 An item should contain only one correct or clearly best answer.
 All distracters should be plausible. One factor contributing to the plausibility of
distracters is their homogeneity. If all of the alternatives are homogeneous with
regard to the knowledge being measured, there is much greater likelihood that the
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distracters will function as intended. To increase the difficulty of a multiple-choice

item, increase the similarity of content among the options.
Poor item: The SI unit of temperature is___________.
A/m B/Kilogram
C/Mole D/k
Better item: The element with atomic number 35 belongs to:
A/s-block B/d-block
C/p-block D/ f-block
Note: If we see the alternatives listed under the first example, only two choices talks about SI
unit. Thus, it is simple to select between the two with minimal knowledge. These shows the
distracters are weak. The alternatives listed under the second example are all deals with the
blocks. Thus, students are expected to select answer to the question from four alternatives.
 Verbal associations between the stem and the correct answer should be avoided.
 The relative length of the alternatives should not provide a clue to the answer. Thus,
keep the length of all alternatives approximately equal.
 The correct answer should appear in each of the alternative positions approximately
an equal number of times, but in random order. In other words, the test constructor
has to rotate the position of the correct answer from item to item randomly.
 Use special alternatives such as "none of the above" or "all of the above" sparingly.
Use the option" none of the above” sparingly and only when the keyed answer can be
classified unequivocally as right or wrong. Do not use this option when asking for a
best answer. The use of “all of the above” is fraught with such difficulties that it
might better be discarded as a possible alternative. When used, some pupils will note
that the first alternative is correct and select it without reading further. Other pupils
will note that at least two of the alternatives are correct and thereby know that “all of
the above” must be the answer. In the first instance pupils mark the item incorrectly
because they do not read all of the alternatives. In the second instance, pupils obtain
the correct answer on the basis of partial knowledge. Both types of responses prevent
the item from functioning as intended.
 Include from three to five alternatives (two to four destructors plus one correct/best
answer) to optimize testing for knowledge rather than encouraging guessing.
 The test item should be independent. The information presented in one item should
not provide the answers to other questions. Similarly a student should not have to
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answer 1 and 2 correctly as prerequisite to answering item 3 correctly. Each item

should test for a separate piece of information.
3.5.2. Essay Test Items
Activity 3.18
1. What are the basic differences and similarities between supply and essay type test
items? Discuss the type of essay test items.
2. Construct two essay items from one of the chapters of the text book of the subject
you teach. Work individually.
The distinctive feature of essay items is the freedom of response permitted to the
student. The examinee is free to select, relate, and present ideas in his/her own words. Essay
test is useful for measuring those aspects of complex learning outcomes which cannot be
measured by objective test items.
Classification of Essay Questions

Based on the amount of response expected from the learners, essay test could be sub-divided
into restricted and extended response type.
I. Restricted Response Essay Items
Restricted response essay items tend to limit both the contents and the form of pupil response.
The content is limited by restricting the scope of the topic to be discussed. The terms used in
writing the items are describe, define, classify, list, etc.
Example
Explain what you think should be included in a classroom test preparation. Illustrate with
specific types of tests, giving reasons for your item type selection. Your essay should be
about100 to 150 words in length (or 1/2 to 1 page).
II. Extended Response Essay Items
The pupil is generally free to select any factual information that he/she thinks is pertinent, to
organize the answer in accordance with his/her best judgment, and to integrate and evaluate
ideas as he/she deems appropriate. Scoring is a challenge due to extended nature of the
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response. The terms used in writing extended response essay are discuss, explain, express,
criticize etc.
Example
Describe the relationship between democratic and human rights.
Advantages and Limitations of Essay Questions

Advantages
 It provides a measure of complex learning outcomes that cannot be measured by other

means.
 Another advantage confined largely to the extended response question, is the
emphasis given to the integration and application of thinking and problem-solving
skills.
 It is relatively easy to prepare essay test than to prepare a multiple-choice test.
Limitations
 The most serious limitation is unreliability of the scoring. The scoring tends to be
unreliable.
 A closely related limitation of essay questions is the amount of time required for
scoring the answers. Scoring essay test-answer is time consuming.
 Another shortcoming of essay questions that restricts their efficient use is limited
sampling they provide. Essay test provides poor/limited content sampling.
Suggestions for Preparing Essay Test Items

The following are some general suggestions to be considered in constructing essay tests.
 Ask questions, or set tasks, which will require the student to demonstrate his/her
command of essential knowledge
 Define the examinee’s task as completely and specifically as possible without
interfering with measurement of the achievement intended.
 Avoid giving the examinee a choice among optional questions, unless special
circumstances make such options necessary.
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 Give more specific questions that can be answered more briefly.

 Score the question by writing an ideal answer to it.
 Restrict the use of essay questions to those learning outcomes which cannot be
measured by objective items.
 Indicate an appropriate time limit for each question, including the mark for each item.
Suggestions for Scoring Essay Items

The following suggestions can be used effectively to increase reliability of scoring.
 Prepare an outline of the expected answer in advance. This should contain the major
points to be included the characteristics of the answer (e.g., organization) to be
evaluated and the amount of credit to be allotted to each.
 Use the scoring method which is most appropriate. There are two common methods of
scoring essay items. One is analytical method (or point method) and the other the
rating method (or global method). With analytical method, each answer is compared
to the ideal answer in the scoring key and a given number of points assigned in terms
of the adequacy of the answer. With the rating method, each paper is placed in one of
a number of piles as the answer read. These piles represent degrees of quality and
determine the credit or mark assigned to each answer. If six points allotted to the
item, for example, seven piles might be used ranging from seven points to none.
Usually between five and ten categories and used with the rating method.
 Decide on provisions for handling factors which are irrelevant to the learning
outcomes being measured. Try to disregard irrelevant factors. If neatness is not a
criterion, then it should not influence scores. When handwriting is not a part of the
objective measured, then handwriting should not be a factor.
 Evaluate all answers to one item or question before going on to the next item. Score
the same test items at the same time for all students; for example, read and score all
answers for item number 1 before you start reading the responses to item number
2.The “halo effect” is less likely to form when the answers for a given student are not
evaluated in continuous sequence.
 Evaluate the answers without looking at the student’s name. Score each test
anonymously so that the identity of the student is not a factor.
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 Read each set of answers through without interruption when possible. Fluctuations in
the feelings and attitudes of the reader are lessened when no external interference
occurs.
3.5.3. Assembling, Administering, and Scoring Test
Activity 3.19
Discuss in groups the ways you organize (assemble) the test items and administer the
test to your students.
3.5.3.1. Assembling the Classroom Test
The preparation of test items for use in a classroom test is greatly facilitated if the
items are properly recorded, if they are written at least several days before they are to be
used, and if extra items are constructed. This simplifies the task of reviewing, selecting, and
arranging the items in final test form. Writing test items early makes it possible to put them
aside for a time before reviewing them for defects. Constructing extra items makes it
possible to eliminate those items found to be defective. It also provides some freedom in
fitting the final draft of the classroom test to the test plan.
3.5.3.1.1. Arrangement of Items in the Classroom Test

For most classroom purpose a satisfactory arrangement of items can be obtained by a
systematic consideration of the following factors:
 the types of items used,

 the learning outcomes measured, and
 the difficulty of items
First and foremost, the items should be arranged in sections by item type. That is, all true-
false items should be grouped together, then all matching items, then all supply type items,
and so on. This arrangement provides for the fewest sets of directions; it is easier for the
students since they can retain the same mental set throughout each section; and it greatly
facilitates scoring. Where two or more item types or formats are included in a test, there is
52
also some advantage in keeping the simpler item types together and placing the more
complex item types in the test, as follows:
i) true-false or alternative response items,

ii) matching items,
iii) supply type items,
iv) multiple-choice items, and
v) essay items.
Of course, beginning with the simplest items and proceeding gradually to the difficult items
has a motivating effect on students. Moreover, encountering difficult items early in the test
frequently causes students to spend a disproportionate amount of time on such items. With
the items classified by item type an order of increasing difficulty can be obtained by
arranging the sections of the test and by arranging the items within each section. On the
whole, the most effective method for organizing items in the test is to:
i) form sections by item type;

ii) group the items within each section by the learning outcomes measured; and
iii) arrange both the sections and the items within sections in an ascending order of
difficulty.
3.5.3.1.2. Preparation of Instruction for the Classroom Test
First of all, the directions provided should be clear and concise, and should tell the students
what they are to do, how they are to do it, and where they are going to record their answers.
In addition, directions should tell the students the value of the items and the time to be
allotted to the various parts or sections of the test. Whether written, oral, or both, the
directions are a vital part of the test and should include at least the following points: the
purpose of the test, time allowed for answering, basis for answering, and procedure for
recording the answers.
I. Purpose of the Test
The purpose of the test is usually indicated at the time the test is announced or at the
beginning of the semester when the evaluation procedures are described as a part of the
general orientation to the course. The only time a statement of the purpose of the test needs
to be included in the written direction is when the test is to be administered to several
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sections taught by different teachers. Here a written statement of purpose assures greater
uniformity.
II. Time Allowed for Answering
It is desirable to indicate to the students how much time they will have for the total test and
how they distribute their time on each of the parts. Judging the amount of time students will
need to complete a given test is not simple matter. It depends on:
 the types of items used
 the age and ability of the students, and
 the complexity of learning outcomes being measured.
III. Basis for Answering

The directions for each section of the test should indicate the basis for selecting or supplying
the answer. It is sometimes desirable to include sample test items correctly marked so that
students can check their understanding of the basis for answering. This practice is especially
desirable for primary school pupils, and also for students at other levels where complex items
are used.
IV. Procedures for Recording the Answers

Answers may be recorded on the test form itself or on separate answer sheets. Where the test
is short, or the number of students taking the test is small, or the students are relatively
young, answers are generally recorded directly on the test paper. For most other situations,
separate answer sheets are preferred because they reduce the time needed for scoring, and
they make it possible to use the test papers over and again if necessary.
3.5.3.1.3. Reproduction of the Classroom Test
Careful attention to the reproduction phase will not only make it easier for the examinee, but
may also make hand scoring much easier. The following should be considered during
reproduction of classroom test.
 Space the items so that they are not crowded. In multiple-choice items, reading the
stem becomes very difficult when items are tightly crammed together with options.
For multiple-choice tests, the options should be placed in a vertical column below the
test item rather than in paragraph fashion.
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 Items should not be split with parts of the item on different pages. Unless a separate
answer sheet is used, the space for answering should be down on side of page
preferably the left.
 Test items should be numbered consecutively throughout the test
 For the matching items and multiple-choice items, the material in the list to be
matched and/ or options to be used should be lettered.
 All illustrative materials used should be clear, legible and accurate.
 For matching items, have the two lists on the same page.
 If work space is needed to solve numerical problem, provide this space on the answer
sheet or
 test booklet rather than having the students used scratch paper.
 It is desirable to proofread the entire test before it is administered.
3.4.3.2. Administering Classroom Tests
The Guiding Principles in Administering Classroom Test
The guiding principle in administering any classroom test is that all students must be given a
fair chance to demonstrate their achievement of the learning outcomes being measured.
I. Physical Conditions
The physical conditions such as adequate work space, quiet, proper light and ventilation and
comfortable temperature are vital factors in administering classroom test. The physical
condition should be as comfortable as possible, and the students should be as relaxed as
possible.
II. Psychological Conditions
The psychological conditions of students influence test results. Students, at all levels, will
not perform at their best if they overly tense and anxious during testing.
Some of the things that create excessive test anxiety are the following.
 Threatening students with tests, if they do not behave.
 Warning students to do their best “because this test is important.”
 Telling students they must work fast to complete the test on time.
 Threatening dire consequences if they fail the test.
 Do not talk unnecessarily before the test
 Keep interruptions during the test to a minimum.
 Avoid giving hints to students who ask about individual items.
 Discourage cheating, if necessary.
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3.5.3.4. Classroom Test Scoring Procedures
Some General Considerations for Scoring Objective-Type Tests

 The scoring key should be prepared and checked well in advance.
 If factors other than the correctness of the answer (such as spelling, grammar, or
legibility of hand writing) are to be considered, they should be given a separate score.
 In scoring objective tests, each correct answer is usually counted one point. This is
done because an arbitrary weighting of items makes little difference in the students’
scores on the test. If some items are counted two points, some one point, and some
one-half point, the scoring is more complicated without any accompanying benefits.
Scores based on such weightings will be similar to the simpler procedure of counting
each item one point.
 As each test paper is scored, it is desirable to mark each item that is answered
incorrectly. With multiple-choice items a good practice is to draw a red line through
the correct answer of the missed items rather than through the student’s wrong
answers. This will indicate to the student those items he/she missed and at the same
time will let him/her know what the correct answers are. Time will be saved and
confusion avoided during discussion of the test.
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Self-assessment Questions
Now it is time to see your understanding of the basic concepts in the assessment of students’
learning. Read the following items and answer them by checking in one of the boxes under
alternatives ‘’yes ‘or ‘’no’’.
S/no. Items Yes No

1 Can you define the concept test, measurement, assessment and
evaluation?
2 Can you analyze the relationship among test, measurement,
assessment and evaluation?
3 Can you list the principles of assessment?
4 Can you explain the principles of assessment?
5 Can you list and explain the major assessment tools/instruments?
6 Can you explain the main activities carried out under planning
classroom tests?
7 Can you explain the guidelines to prepare true-false items?
8 Can you explain the guidelines to prepare matching items?
9 Can you explain the guidelines to prepare supply items?
10 Can you explain the guidelines to prepare multiple choice items?
11 Can you explain the guidelines to prepare essay items?
12 Can you list activities carried out under assembling test items?
13 Can you explain preconditions to be considered while
administering tests?
If there are boxes that you marked ‘’No’’ go back to the manual or any other material that can
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SECTION FOUR
4. CLASSROOM DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT (Total period allotted: 10)
Introduction
In the previous section we have seen assessment of students learning. In this section, we will
see about classroom diversity. Students of a classroom seem very much alike because they
are nearly, of the same age, with similar interests, and they study common subjects and
topics. A Closer look, however, reveals many differences. Thus, teachers need to have the
necessary information with regard to areas of diversity among students and how to manage it.
Learning Outcomes
By the time you have completed this unit, you will be able to:
 Define the concept of individual difference;

 Discuss areas of differences among the learners;
 Apply the knowledge and skills of individual differences to address classroom
diversity.
IV.1. Overview of Classroom Diversity
Activity 4.1
1. Be in a group of 4 or 5 and discuss the concept individual difference.

2. What kind of differences do you observe among students in the classroom you
teach?
3. What do you think are the major causes for individual differences? How do
contemporary psychologists view the nature-nurture controversy?
Individual differences refer to variation or deviation from the average of the group
with respect to physical, mental, social, or emotional characteristics occurring in the
individual member of the group. The differences among students may be categorized as
physical appearance, personality, social, capacity (intelligence, and aptitude) and academic
achievement.
58
Individual differences among the students could be attributed to their genetic endowment or
environment. This is called the nature-nurture controversy. Nowadays, it is believed that both
heredity and environment interact in determining individual differences. According to
interactionalists, it is not possible to predict the pattern of heredity apart from the
environment.
IV.2. Major Areas of Individual Differences in Classrooms
Activity 4.2
In a group of 4 or 5 discuss and share your experiences on how you identify and address
the individual differences of your students in academic achievement, learning styles,
disabilities, etc.
Among the multitude of students’ individual differences, let’s see academic

achievement, learning styles, learning pace, disabilities, gender, etc. as they are more
commonly observed in the classrooms.
Academic achievement: It refers to the acquisition of certain information or the mastery of

certain skills as a result of specific instruction or general schooling. The most common way
of responding to students’ differences in achievement is through ability grouping which
places students together on the basis of ability and attempts to match instructions to the needs
of different groups. Example, you may use within-class grouping which divides students in a
class into subgroups based on their achievement in a given learning area and support (tutorial
program, differentiation, etc) each learner based on their potential.
Furthermore, to deal effectively with your students with varying ability or developmental
levels teachers may use mastery learning technique. What they do is, grouping students into
small groups. Students can be placed in the different groups according to their current levels.
Then, they can move through the various levels at their own rates.
Learning-Style- are individual preferences for a particular learning environment and preferred
ways of doing something. Students are different in their preferred ways of studying and
learning. Students learn more when they study in their preferred settings and manner. For
59
example, the different ways of learning and studying may be using pictures versus text,
working with other people versus alone, learning from structured versus unstructured
situations and the like.
Learning styles can be categorized as visual, auditory and kinesthetic. Everyone uses a range of
learning styles. This suggests that we receive information through our senses that is by generating
pictures (Visual), by hearing sounds (Auditory), by means of physical sensations and feelings
(Kinesthetic) and by a combination of all three which will be unique to the learners.
Disabilities: The terms students with special needs and individuals with disabilities have been
used to describe students needing additional help to reach their full potential. So teachers
need to be familiar with disability issues and the implications they have for working with
students with special education needs. Teachers and the education system are obliged to
welcome and teach all students, and students have the right to get quality education
regardless of any background.
60
REFERENCES
Dale H. Schunk(2012). Learning Theories and Educational Perspective. Pearson

Education, Inc.
MOE (2011). HDP Handbook. Addis Ababa (Unpublished).
MoE, (2020). General Education Framework. Addis Ababa (unpublished).
Thomas A. Angelo and K. Patricia Cross(1993). Classroom Assessment Techniques (2nd )
A hand book for college teachers. Jossey Bass. Inc, Sanfrancisco.
Zhou, M., & Brown, D. (Eds.).(2017). Educational learning theories. Pearson Education,
Inc.
Materials for Further Reading
Baron, R. A. &Branscombe N. R. (2012). Social Psychology. New Jersey: Pearson

Education, Inc.
Bruno, F.J. (2002). Psychology: A Self teaching Guide. New Jersey:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Coon, D. &Mitterer, J.O. (2012). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and
Behavior (12th edit.) .Wadsworth, Cengage Learning: USA.
Davidson, J. E. & Sternberg, R. J. (2003). The Psychology of Problem Solving. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Feldman, R. S. (2015). Essentials of Understanding Psychology (11 th edit.). New York:
McGraw-Hill Education.
Feldman, R.S. (2011). Understanding Psychology (10th edit.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hockenbury, D.H &Hockenbury, S.E. (2010). Psychology (5th edit). New York: Worth
Publishers.
Krull, D.S. (2014). Introduction to Psychology. Charlotte, North Carolina: Kona Publishing
and Media Group Company.
Plotnik, R. and Kouyoumdjian, H. (2011). Introduction to Psychology (9th edit.).USA:
Wadsworth
Santrock, J. W.(2011). Child Development (13th edit.). New York: McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc
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OROMIA EDUCATION BUREAU

STUDENTS LEARNING, ASSESSMENT AND

A Pedagogical Training Manual Prepared for Applied

STUDENTS LEARNING, ASSESSMENT AND DIVERSITY

A Pedagogical Training Manual Prepared for Applied

2. PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL...........................................................................................................vi

3.5.2. Essay Test Items.........................................................................................................49

2. PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL

After studying this manual the trainees will be able to:

4. HOW TO USE THE MANUAL

1. DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE(Total period allotted: 16 period )

Human development refers to change in structure, form or shape and improvement in

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by overall physical

1.3 Aspects of Adolescents Development

1. Explain how adolescents are perceived in your community.

1.3.1. Physical development during adolescence

Classroom implications of adolescent’s physical development

1.3.2. Cognitive Developments during Adolescence

1. What do you think is cognitive development?

Classroom implications of cognitive development during adolescence

1.3.3. Psycho-Social development

1. Explain how adolescents understand themselves.

As adolescence is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood, teens may begin

Classroom implications of Psycho-social development during adolescence

1.3.4. Psycho sexual Development during Adolescence

1.3.5. Moral Development during Adolescence

Adolescences moral development was explained by stage of development called Post

Classroom implication of moral development during adolescence

 Adolescents should be encouraged to interact with peers in joint activities in which

 Teachers and parents as a caregiver need to create an enabling environment to

No. Items Yes No

2. LEARNING AND ITS MAJOR THEORIES (Total period allotted: 21)

At the end of this section the trainees will be able to:

 Explain the concept learning using various scenarios;

2.1. The concept of learning

Learning is usually defined in general terms as an enduring change in behavior, or in

 Inspires learners to take ownership of their learning, become motivated and

2.2. Factors Affecting Students’ Learning

II. Psychological Factors

2.3. Major Theories of Learning

An important part of teacher training understands of the different ways of learning.

 Behaviorism (B.F. Skinner)

Constructivism theory affirms the importance of recognizing and building on students’

Behaviorism (Pavlov, Constructivism (Piaget) Social constructivism

Image of  Passive  Active  Active

Stage Behaviorist Constructivist Social constructivist

2.3. Classroom Implication Learning Theories

Student’s Role in Behaviorism Learning Theory

2.3.2. Constructivism and social Constructivism

Role of the teacher

Role of the student

The constructivist process helps the learners-

 To develop their own goals and assessments.

 Appreciate different perspectives

 Often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction

3. ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS LEARNING (Total period allotted: 43)

Up on successful completion of this section, the trainees will be able to:

 Describe the basic concepts related to assessment of students learning;

3.1. Concepts of Assessment and other Related Terms

3.2. Principles of Assessment

Assessment principles consist of statements highlighting what are considered as

 Assessment should be relevant. Assessment needs to provide information about

3.3. Types and Tools of Assessment