SHEET METAL FORMING

1.0 OBJECTIVE

To expose to the techniques of shaping metal in the processes of cutting, bending, and folding,
either with the used of hand tool or by use of specific machine.

2.0 INTRODUCTION

The sheet metal shop is very important for every engineering concern. It deals with the working
of metal sheets. It requires a thorough knowledge of projective geometry particularly the
development of surfaces because the laying out of pattern and cutting of metal sheets to correct
sizes and shapes entirely depends upon the knowledge of the workman. The various operations
performed in a sheet metal shop are cutting, shearing, bending etc. In this chapter, we shall
discuss the sheet metal tools and the
various processes.

3.0 METALS USED IN SHEET METAL WORK

The following metals are generally used in sheet metal work :

Black iron sheet

It has a bluish-black appearance and is often referred to as uncoated sheet. Since it is uncoated,
therefore, it corrodes rapidly. The use of this metal is limited to articles that are to be painted or
enameled such as stove pipes, tanks and pans.

Galvanised iron

It is a soft steel coated with molten zinc. The zinc coating resists rust, improves the appearance of
the metal, and permits it to be soldered with greater ease. The galvanised iron sheet is used
extensively in fabricated products such as pans, buckets, furnaces, heating ducts, cabinets, gutters
and in many other articles.

Copper

It is a reddish coloured metal and is extremely malleable and ductile. It is used extensively in the
electrical field. Since it does not deteriorate rapidly when exposed to the atmosphere, therefore,
this metal is employed frequently in the building trades for water pipe, roofing, gutters and other
parts of buildings.

Aluminium

It is a silvery white coloured metal and has many qualities like high ratio of strength to weight,
corrosion resistant qualities and ease in fabrication. Now-adays it is used in the manufacture of
number of products such as household appliances, refrigerator trays, lighting fixtures windows,
 duct work, in construction of airplanes, in the building trades, and in many electrical and
transportation industries.

Stainless steel

It is an alloy steel possessing the ability to resist corrosion without any surface coating. One
important type of stainless steel contains 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel This steel is
commonly known as 18/8 steel. It is widely used in building stream lined trains, food handling
equipments, kitchenwares and in many other applications which require great strength and
resistant to corrosion.The stainless steel sheets can be formed, bent, drilled and soldered in the
same manner as other types of sheet metal. Since stainless steel has greater tensile strength and
hardness, therefore, sheets of this metal are slightly more difficult to work.

Tin plate

It is a steel sheet coated with pure tin. This metal has a very bright silvery appearance and is used
principally in making food containers, cans and pans.

Teme plate

It is a thin steel coated with a mixture of molten tin and lead. This metal has dull appearance and
is used for roofing and tanks. Since the lead coating is poisonous, therefore, it should not be used
for containers that are to hold foods. Note : The thickness of the metal sheets is indicated by
series of numbers called gauge numbers. Each gauge designates a definite thickness. The
thickness of sheet in inversely proportional to gauge number i. e., larger the gauge number, lesser
is the thickness.

SHEET METAL TOOLS

The tools commonly used in sheet metal work are as follows :

Rules

The rules are available in a variety of lengths and types, each of which is designed for measuring
and laying out different work. The following rules are generally used in sheet metal shop:

(a) Steel rule, folding rule and steel tape. The steel rule (30 cm long), is particularly useful in
measuring and laying out small work. The folding rule (2 metres long) and the steel tape
respectively are very helpful in measuring and laying out large work. In order to measure
accurate distance, the rule should be placed on its edge so that the graduations are in actual
contact with the metal.

(b) Circumference rule. The circumference rule is also used for measuring, laying out or as a
straight edge. In addition to this, the rule also shows the circumference of circles. The top edge is
graduated in centimeters for regular measuring and the lower half is graduated to indicate
circumferences.
Steel square

It is a L-shaped piece of hardened steel with graduation marks on the edges for measuring. The
narrow arm of the square is called the tongue and the wide part is known as the body.

Swinging blade protractor

The swinging blade protractor, used in sheet metal work are made of steel. These are used for
marking or measuring angles.

Straight edge

It is a flat bar of steel with a bevelled edge. This bar comes in a variety of lengths ranging from 1
metre to 3 metre. It is useful for drawing long lines.

Scratch awls or scribers

They are used to scribe or mark lines on a metal surface for a variety of purposes in laying out
patterns. The following are the three common types of scratch awls.

(a) Ring scratch awl. It is a solid steel rod about 5 mm in diameter and 150 mm to 200 mm long.
It has a sharp tapered point at one end and a ring at the other end.

(b) Socket scratch awl. It has a steel blade about 150 mm and provided with a replaceable
wooden handle.

(c) Shank type scratch awl. For general purposes, this type of scratch awl is preferred by most
sheet metal workers because the steel blade passes through the handle which reinforces the top.

Dividers

The dividers are made with each leg tapered to a needle point. The two types of the dividers are
the spring divider and the wing divider as shown in Fig. 17.5(a) and (b) respectively. The legsof
the spring divider are adjusted by turning the knurled nut. The adjustment, on the wing divider is
made by loosening the screw on the wing and then tightening the knurled nut on the end of the
wing.
The dividers are available in number of sizes and types. These are used to space off equal
distances, to divide lines into equal parts and to draw arcs and circles. Trammel points. The
trammel points (sometimes called a beam compass), as shown in Fig. 17.6, consists of two
straight, removable legs tapered to needle points and attached to separate heads or holders. These
heads or holders slide on wood or steel bars or beams and are held in place by thumb screws. A
special clamp for a pencil can be attached to one of the points. The trammel points are used to
draw large arcs and circles that are beyond the limit of dividers.
Punches

The various hand punches commonly used in sheet metal shop are as follows :

(a) Prick punch. The prick punch, is a tool steel rod whose one end has a tapered point ground to
approximately an included angle of 30°. It is used for making small indentations or establishing
points for dividers and trammel points.

(b) Centre punch. The centre punch, is similar to prick punch, but its point is ground to an angle
of approximately 90°. It is used to mark the location of bend lines on heavy metal and to mark the
centres of holes to be drilled.

(c) Solid punch. The solid punch, is used for punching small holes in thin metal sheets.

Punchs

(d) Hollow punch. The hollow punch, is used for punching holes upto 10 mm or above from
metal sheets. The inner and outer faces of the punch meet at an angle of 40°. In order to avoid
clipping the edges of the hollow punch, the metal sheets should be placed over a block of lead.
(e) Hand lever punch. A hand lever punch, is sometimes used for making holes when too much
holes are to be punched. The tool consists of a punch and die and is operated by hand. The die
and punch may be replaced depending upon the size of the hole required.

Chisels

The cold chisels are used to cut or shear metal. It is made from a piece of high carbon or alloy
steel of hexagonal or octagonal in shape. There are many different types of chisels, but the flat
chisel, is mostly used for cutting sheet metal, rivets, bolts and in chipping operations. The flat
chisel has a tapered end with a sharp cutting edge which is properly hardened and tempered. The
 edge is bevelled to an angle of 40° to 45° for cutting sheet metal. The cutting edge is also ground
to a slight curve to prevent the chisel from 'digging in' at the comers of metal being cut.

Chisels

Snips

The snips are somewhat similar to a pair of scissors but are considerably heavier. There are
several types of snips available for making straight or circular cuts, but the most common are the
straight snips and the curved snips. The straight snips, have straight blades for straight line
cutting. These snips may be obtained in various sizes.

Snips

The curved snips, as shown in Fig, have curved blades for making circular cuts. They are
available for either right hand or left hand cuts.

Hammers

The hammers, in sheet metal work, are used for forming shapes by hollowing, raising, stretching
or throwing off processes. There are many types of hammers, but the most commonly used
hammers, in sheet-metal work, are as follows :

(a) Balipe hammer. The ball peen hammer, has a round, slightly curved face and a round head. It
is a general purpose hammer.
b) Riveting hammer. The riveting hammer, has a square, slightly curved face with bevelled edges
to prevent the head of the hammer from marking the metal. The peen side is double tapered and
has a slightly rounded end. It is used for spreading rivets and for hammering a rivet set.

(c) Setting hammer. The setting hammer, has a square, Hat face and a tapered peen with bevelled
end. The flat face is used for flattening seams without damage to the metal while peen end is used
for peening operation.

(d) Hollowing or blocking hammer. The hollowing or blocking hammer, has a dome face
without any sharp comers. It is used for hollowing discs into bowl shapes.

(e) Raising hammer. The raising hammer, has an oblong flat face with comers slightly rounded
off. It is used in raising circular discs and many other raising and bumping operations.

Several hammer commonly used in sheet metal process

(f) Planishing hammer. The planishing hammer, has a round face. It is used on domed circular
work.

(g) Collect hammer. The collect hammer, has an oblong shaped faces. It is used on cylinders and
in curved collects.

(h) Tray hammer. The tray hammer, has oval shaped faces. It is used to sink the bottom when
shaping a tray.
 Mallets

The mallets may be made from hide, fibre or wood. The best size of mallet is 5 cm diameter.
These may be obtained in various shapes to suit special work.

Several types of mallet

Pliers

The pliers are used in sheet metal work for holding, cutting and bending work. The various types
of pliers commonly used are as follows :

(a) Flat nose plier. The Hat nose plier, flat jaws with small grooves. It is used for forming and
holding work.

Plier

(b) Round nose plier. The round nose plier, has long jaws rounded on the outside. It is used for
holding and forming the various shapes and patterns.
 (c) Slip-joint combination plier. The slip-joint combination plier, has an adjustable jaw. It is a
general purpose tool.

Hacksaws and files

The hacksaws and files used in sheet metal shop are similar to those used in bench work and
fitting.

SHEET METAL OPERATIONS

The following are the various sheet metal operations :

1. Marking; 2. Cutting ; 3. Notching; 4. Bending; 5. Riveting ; 6. Soldering ; 7. Folding edges; 8.

Seam making; 9. Hollowing or blocking; 10. Sinking; 11. Raising; and 12. Planishing.

Marking

The marking out operation consists of scratching of lines on the surface of a sheet metal. It is also
called scribing operation. Before marking operation is carried out, the paper or metal pattern of
the object is prepared. The metal pattern is desireable for repetitive work because it maintains
accuracy for a long time, whereas the paper pattern tears quickly if used repeatedly. The pattern
is now transferred to the flat sheet metal and marked as discussed below :

1. When a paper or metal pattern is transferred to the hat sheet metal, it should be held in place by
weights to prevent the pattern from slipping.
2. A sharp pointed pencil is used to mark the outline of the paper pattern, whereas a scriber is
used for metal pattern. The scriber should not be used to mark the paper pattern because it will
tear the edges of the paper.

3. When a pattern is to be traced on aluminum and stainless steel sheets, a sharp pointed pencil
should be used because the scriber will ruin the finish of the metal.

4. The best method of transferring the paper pattern to sheet metal is to mark the ends of all lines
by a prick punch through the paper. Then remove the paper from the metal and joint the all prick
points by a scriber in the proper manner.

Many simple objects can be laid out directly on the sheet metal. Usually, it is better for the
beginner to prepare a paper pattern for objects of complicated design rather than to layout directly
on the sheet metal. Since the paper pattern may be checked by folding it into the required shape,
therefore, unnecessary wastage of material is avoided. In making a layout directly on the steel
metal involves operations such as drawing straight lines or curved lines and making indentation
marks to serve as guide for drilling holes. The procedure for marking straight lines, curved lines
and indentation marks is as follows :
1. Marking straight lines. The straight edge (it is flat bar of steel with beveled edge) or a steel
square is used to draw straight lines as discussed below :

(a) When a straight edge is used, it is placed on the sheet metal in the correct position. A sharp
pointed scriber is held in one hand at an angle with the point resting against the edge of the
straight edge. Now the line is drawn by applying a little pressure to the scriber.

(b) When a steel square is used, the body or tongue of square is placed against the even side of
the sheet metal. The scriber is run along the edge of the tongue or body of the square to mark the
straight line.

2. Marking circles and arcs. The circles and arcs on the surface of a sheet metal are marked with
a divider. One leg of the divider is placed at the centre of a circle or arc to be drawn while the
other end is moved with a little pressure on the divider to mark the circle or arc. The divider is
held in one hand. In order to prevent slipping, the divider is inclined in the direction in which the
circle or arc is drawn. The large circles and arcs are drawn with trammel points.

3. Marking irregular curves. The irregular curves are marked by first laying out a series of points
to indicate the shape of the curve. Now the french curve is set in such a way that atleast three
points coincide with the curve and mark this with a scriber on the surface of the sheet metal. The
french curve is now moved to coincide next three points and the curve is scribed connecting the
first curve. This process is repeated till the whole curve is marked. The irregular curves may also
be drawn by a flexible rule made of spring steel.

4. Marking indentation marks. The indentation marks are used as locations for drilling holes,
centres for dividers and for transferring a pattern. The indentation marks for drilling are made
with a centre punch, whereas marks for all other purposes are made with a prick punch. Both the
centre punch and prick punch are used in the same manner. In using these tools, first of all the
location of the hole is marked with two intersecting lines. The punch is held is one hand with its
point directly on the intersection of the two lines. Now strike the head of the punch with a light
blow of the hammer held in other hand.
Cutting

The sheet metals up to approximately 18 S.W.G. can be cut with hand snips. The
following procedure is adopted for straight cutting.

1. Hold the snip in one hand and the nearest part of the metal in the other hand.

Cutting Technique

2. Open the blades of a snip and place the upper blade on the line of cut to be followed. The blade
should be kept perpendicular to the surface of the metal.

3. Start the cut at the edge of sheet by exerting pressure on handles of snips. When the cut is
about 15 mm from the blade tips, open the blades again and push the snip forward. Repeat this
until cut is completed.

4. As the metal is sheared off, it will curl up on the left hand side of the snips and curls down on
the right hand side of the snips.

5. When cutting a large sheet of metal, it is advisable to cut along the left hand edge of the sheet
to permit the scrap or smaller section to curl away.

6. The inside curves such as circular holes are cut with curved snips. The holes are first cut
roughly with a cold chisel and hammer. It is finally trimmed to the required size by the curved
snip.

7. The outside curves are easily cut with straight snips.

Notching

In bent sections that have folded edges, there should be some provision so that there is no
overlapping of metal where the comers come together. In order to prevent bulging at such a place,
it is necessary to slit or clip the metal or provide small openings. The openings left at the comers
of seams and edges are known as notches and the operation is called notching. The size, locations
and types of notches depend upon the shape of object. The following are the different types of
notches commonly used in sheet metal.
1. Straight notch. This notch is prepared by simply making a straight cut where the bend is to
occur. This is used in dovetail seams. The method of laying out a straight notch.

Straight notch.

2. Square notch. The square notch is used for making a square or rectangular box. The squares on
the comers must be removed to permit the sides to be bent property.

Square notch.
3. V-notch. The V-notch is used when the corners of a flange must come together. If the flange
forms a right angle, both sides must be cut at an angle of 45°.

V-notch

If the flange is bent at an angle that is less or more than a right angle, the notch must correspond
to the particular angle that is required.

4. Slant notch. When single hems are to meet at right angles, the comers must be clipped at an
angle of 45°.

Slant notch
 5. Wire notch. The wire notch is used on an article which has wired edges. This notch must be
provided to prevent the wired edge from overlapping at the seam. The usual practice is to notch
the seam at an angle of about 300, the angle is started at a point located at a distance from the
upper edge of the pattern equal to approximately 3.5 times the diameter of wire.

Wire notch

Bending .

The bending of sheet metal may be done over stakes, blocks of wood pieces of angle iron or the
edge of a bench top. Sometimes the bends can be made in vanous bending machines. The
following procedure may be followed while bending the sheet metal by hand:

1. First of all, a line is marked with pencil or scriber where the metal is to be bent. In order to
make a right angled bend the sheet is placed on the bench so that the line is even with the edge at
the bench A block of wood is set on the metal with is edge directly over the bending line. It is
then clamped to the bench with Cclamps. In order to bend a small piece of metal, the sheet is
placed between two blocks of wood and then clamped in a vice. The bend is now made by
striking the metal with a mallet using very light blows. The work is started at one end and
finished along the full length of the metal.

2. In order to make a curved bend, the edge of the wooden block is planed to have the desired
curvature. The wooden block is placed even with the edge of the bench. Another block of the
sane thickness is set on the bench top so that the sheet is in level. Then clamp a piece of angle
iron or a hardwood block over the sheet metal. Now strike the metal with a mallet, gradually
bending the sheet over the curved edge of the block.

3. A tool known as a hand seamer, can be used to make sharp bends on lightgauge sheet metal.
Such a tool is especially helpful in bending narrow portions that are difficult to fold by other
methods. This hand seamer has two adjustable screws which can be regulated for the width of the
bend. The metal is simply placed between the jaws of the seamer and these jaws are clamped
together. The Hat surface of the metal is held firmly with one hand and at the same time the
handle of the seamer is raised. If the metal is longer than the jaws, then small sections are bent at
a time.
Riveting

It is a process of joining permanently two pieces of sheet metal with rivets. The special rivets,
called tinners' rivets, are used for such a purpose. These rivets are made of soft iron and are
usually coated with tin. This prevents corrosion and makes them easier to solder. When riveting
aluminium, special aluminium rivets should be used. The following procedure is adopted in
making a riveted joint:

1. First of all, drill or punch the holes of correct size. Insert the rivet in the hole and place the
head on some metal bar or stake.

Riveting

2. Place the deep hole of the rivet set over the rivet and strike the rivet set with few sharp blows.
This draws the metal and rivet together. This process is called drawing process.

3. Remove the rivet set and flatten the e^d of the rivet with the face of a riveting hammer or ball
peen hammer. It should be noted that each blow of hammer should hit the rivet shank squarely.

4. Place the cup shaped opening of the rivet set over the flattened rivet end, and strike the rivet
set until the head is shaped properly. This process is called heading process.

Folding Edges

The edges of the sheet metal may be folded to strengthen the edges and to eliminate the sharp
edges. The three common types of folded edges are single hem, double hem and wired edges. The
single hem is made by turning the edge over the hatchet stake, and then completed it with a
mallet over a flat stake. The double hem is a single hem with its end bent under.
Folding Edges Techniques

The wired edges are made by bending the sheet with a mallet over a length equal to Wi times the
diameter of wire. This is done on a wooden block whose one edge is rounded to a radius equal to
approximately one half the diameter of the wire. The wire is now placed in the turned edge and
held in position with pliers. The metal is folded over the wire by striking it with a mallet. The
final bend is made by striking the metal with the peen end of a setting hammer.

Seam Making

A seam is section where pieces of sheet metal are joined. There are many methods of making
seams, but the type of seam is determined by the thickness of metal, the purpose for which the
object is to be used. The seams commonly used in sheet metal are as follow;

1. Lap seam
2. Grooved seam

3. Single seam

4. Double seam

5. Dovetail seam

6. Flanged or burred bottom seam

6.0 SHEET METAL MACHINES

A sheet metal shop must be provided with various machines in order to perform different
operations. The machines may be hand operated for working on thin sheets and power operated
for thick sheets. They are also available as either bench or floor models. Some of the machines
commonly used are as follows:

1. Shearing machine
It is used for cutting metal sheets.

2. Folding machine
It is used for bending and folding the edges of the sheet metal.

3. Bending machine
It is used for shaping the metal sheets into cylindrical objects.

4. Grooving machine
It is used for grooving longitudinal seams in cylindrical objects.

5. Forming machine
It is used for forming sheet metal into cylindrical shapes of various diameters. There are two
types of forming machines; i.e., slip-roll forming machine and plain forming machine, but the
former is generally preferred.

6. Beading or swedging machine

It is used to make depressions in metal such as in pipes, machine guards or wherever reinforcing
is necessary.

7. Burring machine
It is used to turn burrs on circular discs such as bottoms and covers. It is also used for preparing
edges for double seaming cylindrical articles.

8. Turning machine
It is similar to a burring machine but differs in the sharpness of the edge it makes. The burring
machine produces a sharp edge, while the turning machine makes a rounded edge for wiring
operations, for bodies of cylinders and for double seaming.

9. Wiring machine
It is used to complete the metal edge around the wire after the seat to receive the wire has been
prepared by the turning machine.

10. Crimping machine

It is used for crimping (i.e., reducing the diameter of a circular object) and beading in one pass.
The machine may be used only for beading or crimping by changing the rolls of the machine.

11. Setting-down machine

It is used for setting down seams on containers of various shapes.
 12. Double seaming machine
It is used for double seaming flat bottoms on straight or flared cylindrical pieces.

7.0 EQUIPMENTS / APPARATUS

1. Snips
2. Mallet
3. Scratch awls
4. L square
5. Steel rule
6. Protractor
7. Shearing machine
8. Aluminium sheets

PROCEDURES

Further details will be inform later in workshop session.

Note: Before start your project, make sure to follow all the safety procedure

Sheet Metal Project for Basic

 NOTE :
1. ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILIMETER (mm)
2. DO NOT SCALE THE DRAWING
 SHEET METAL FORMING

Lab Result
GROUP NUMBER :

DATE OF EXPERIMENT :

NAME :

MATRIC NUMBER :

9.0 RESULT

1. Your finished products will be evaluated by your instructor.

10.0 QUESTION**

1. In your own words, give the definition of the terms below. You may also include figures to
explain:

a. Bending
b. Shearing
c. Punching
d. Cutoff
2. Describe the process of bending a sheet metal.

3. What is seam? Describe the different types of seams.

11. DISCUSSION**

(Describe what have you observed and understand during conducting experiment.
Comment about the results, and also give your reason and opinion to this experiment)

12. CONCLUSION**
(Based on the data and discussion, make your overall conclusion)

FINAL SCORE : x %=

Evaluator Signature: Date: ……………………….

……………………………………………………..
Name: