UNIT – 4

SIGNAL CONDITIONING
Signal Conditioning Operations

SIGNAL CONDITIONING PROCESSES

Following are the some of the processes that can occur in signal conditioning.
1. Protection
To protect the damage to the next element of mechatronics system.
e.g. a microprocessor from the high current or voltage. Thus there can be series
current-limiting resistors, fuses to break if the current is too high, polarity protection
and voltage limitation circuits.
2.Right type of signal
To convert the output signal from a transducer into the desired form i.e.
Voltage / current.
e.g. The resistance change of a strain gauge has to be converted into a voltage
change. This can be done by the use of a Wheatstone bridge and using the out-of-
balance voltage.
3. Right level of the signal
To amplify or attenuate the signals to a right /acceptable level for the next
element.
e.g. The signal from a thermocouple might be just a few millivolts. If the signal is
to be fed into an analogue-to-digital converter for inputting to a microprocessor then
it needs to be made much larger, volts rather than millivolts
4. Noise
To eliminate noise from a signal.

1
e.g. Electronic filters might be used to eliminate mains noise from a signal
5. Signal Manipulation
To manipulate the signal from its nonlinear form to the linear form.
e.g. Making it a linear function of some variable. The signals from some sensors,
(e.g. a flowmeter) are non-linear and thus a signal conditioner might be used so
that the signal fed on to the next element is linear.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

 The operational amplifier, or op amp, is a low-cost and versatile integrated

circuit consisting of many internal transistors, resistors, and capacitors
manufactured into a single chip of silicon.
 It can be combined with external discrete components to create a wide variety
of signal processing circuits.
 By definition, operational amplifier is a high gain D.C. device that magnifies
the input signal (current or voltage) up to an order of 106 or more.
 The voltage gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the output to input voltages when
each measured relative to earth.
 The i/p impedance of an amplifier is defined as the i/p voltage divided by i/p
current.
 The o/p impedance of an amplifier is defined as the o/p voltage divided by o/p
current.

Fig: Pin connections for a

741 operational amplifier

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The op amp is the basic building block for:
■ Amplifiers
■ Integrators
■ Summers
■ Differentiators
■ Comparators
■ A/D and D/A converters
■ Active filters
■ Sample and hold amplifiers

 An op amp circuit usually includes feedback from the output to the negative
(inverting) input.
 This so-called closed loop configuration results in stabilization of the amplifier
and control of the gain.
 When feedback is absent in an op amp circuit, the op amp is said to have an open
loop configuration.
 This configuration results in considerable instability due to the very high gain,
and it is rarely used.
 The voltages are all referenced to a common ground.
 The op amp is an active device requiring connection to an external power supply,
usually +−15 𝑉.

Op amp feedback.

IDEAL MODEL FOR THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

 Open Loop Gain,
Infinite – The main function of an operational amplifier is to amplify the input
signal and the more open loop gain it has the better.
Open-loop gain is the gain of the op-amp without positive or negative feedback and
for such an amplifier the gain will be infinite but typical real values range from
about 20,000 to 2,00,000.
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  Input impedance,
Infinite – Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and is
assumed to be infinite to prevent any current flowing from the source supply into
the amplifiers input circuitry. Real op-amps have input leakage currents from a few
pico-amps to a few milli-amps.
 Output impedance,
Zero – The output impedance of the ideal operational amplifier is assumed to be
zero acting as a perfect internal voltage source with no internal resistance so that it
can supply as much current as necessary to the load. That is to 'transfer' all the output
voltage to the load. Real op-amps have output impedances in the 100-20kΩ range.
 Bandwidth,
Infinite – An ideal operational amplifier has an infinite frequency response and can
amplify any frequency signal from DC to the highest AC frequencies so it is
therefore assumed to have an infinite bandwidth.
 Offset Voltage,
Zero – The amplifiers output will be zero when the voltage difference between the
inverting and the non-inverting inputs is zero, the same or when both inputs are
grounded. Real op-amps have some amount of output offset voltage.

INVERTING AMPLIFIER
An inverting amplifier is one whose output is amplified and is out of phase by
180° with respect to the input.
 The input is taken to the inverting input of Op Amp through a resistor R1 with
the non-inverting input being connected to ground.
 A feedback path is provided from the output, via the resistor R2 to the inverting
input.
 The operational amplifier has a voltage gain of about 1,00, 000 and the change
in out put voltage is limited to about +
−10 𝑉
 The input voltage then must be between +0.0001 V and -0.0001 V. This is
virtually zero and so point X is at virtually earth potential.
 For this reason it is called a virtual earth.

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The potential difference across R1 is;
(Vin -Vx)
As Vx is virtual earth therefore Vx = 0, the input potential Vin can be considered to
be across R1.
• i.e., (Vin- Vx) = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
Thus, 𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 --------------(i)
For an ideal operational amplifier, the input impedance is taken to be infinite and so
there is no current flow through ‘X’.
Hence the current I1 through R1 must be the current through R2.
The potential difference across R2 is (Vx - Vout)
thus, since Vx =0 for an ideal amplifier, the potential difference across R2 is
(Vx - Vout) = –Vout
Thus,
−𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟐 --------------(ii)
Dividing eqn.(i) & (ii) we get;
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑹𝟐
Voltage gain of circuit = =−
𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝟏
 Thus the voltage gain is determined solely by the relative values of R1 and R2.
 The negative sign indicates that the output is inverted, i.e. 180° out of phase, with
respect to the input

I/P signal O/P signal

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NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

 As the name implies, this circuit amplifies the input voltage without inverting
the signal.
 The output can be considered to be taken from across a potential divider circuit
consisting of R1 in series with R2.
𝑅1
 The voltage Vx is then the fraction of the output voltage.
𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑹𝟏
𝑽𝒙 = 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 ------(1)
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
 Since there is virtually no current through the operational amplifier between the
two inputs there can be virtually no potential difference between them.
 Thus, with the ideal operational amplifier, we must have Vx =Vin
𝑹𝟏
Eqn. (1) can be written as 𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
Hence,
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐
Voltage gain of circuit= = =𝟏+
𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
 If we let R2 =0 and R1= ∞ in the noninverting op amp circuit, the resulting circuit
is known as a buffer or follower because Vout =Vin .
 It has a high input impedance and low output impedance.
 This circuit is useful in applications where you need to couple to a voltage signal
without loading the source of the voltage.
 The high input impedance of the op amp effectively isolates the source from the
rest of the circuit.

Fig: Voltage follower

6
SUMMING AMPLIFIER

 The summer op amp circuit is used to add analog signals.

 As with the inverting amplifier, 𝑋 is a virtual earth.
 Thus the sum of the currents entering ‘X’ must equal that leaving it.
 Hence
𝑰 = 𝑰𝑨 + 𝑰𝑩 +𝑰𝑪 --------------------(1)
But ,
𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩 𝑽𝑪
𝑰𝑨 = , 𝑰𝑩 = , 𝑰𝑪 = -------(2)
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪
Also we must have the same current ‘I’ passing through the feedback resistor.
The potential difference across R2 is (VX – Vout).
Since Vx can be assumed to be zero,
i.e. (Vx - Vout) = –Vout
so,
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝐈=− -------------------------(3)
𝑹𝟐
Thus, subst. eqn (2) & (3) in(1)
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝑩 𝑽𝑪
− = + +
𝑹𝟐 𝑹 𝑨 𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪
The output is thus the scaled sum of the inputs, i.e.
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = − ( 𝑽𝑨 + 𝑽𝑩 + 𝑽 )
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪 𝑪
If RA= RB=RC=R1 , then;
𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = − (𝑽𝑨 + 𝑽𝑩 + 𝑽𝑪 )
𝑹𝟏

7
INTEGRATOR

If the feedback resistor of the inverting op amp circuit is replaced by a capacitor,

the result is an integrator circuit.
The current is the rate of movement of charge ‘q’
For a capacitor 𝒒 = 𝑪𝒗 --------------(1)
Where ‘v’ is the voltage
Then the current through the capacitor
𝒅𝒒
𝒊=
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗
𝒊=𝑪 --------(2)
𝒅𝒕
The potential difference across ‘C’ is (Vx – Vout )
since Vx = 0 , being virtual earth,
Therefore potential difference across C is – Vout
𝒅𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕
Thus the current through the capacitor is −𝐂
𝒅𝒕
But it is also the current through the input resistance R.
Hence,
𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕
= −𝑪
𝑹 𝒅𝒕
Rearranging this gives
𝟏
𝒅𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 = − ( ) 𝒗𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒕
𝑹𝑪
Integrating both sides gives
𝟏 𝒕𝟐
𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 (𝒕𝟐 ) − 𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 (𝒕𝟏 ) = − ∫ 𝒗 𝒅𝒕
𝑹𝑪 𝒕𝟏 𝒊𝒏
𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡2 ) is the output voltage at time 𝑡2 and 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡1 ) is the output voltage at time
𝑡1 .The output is proportional to the integral of input voltage.

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DERIVATIVE AMPLIFIER

If the input resistor of the inverting op amp circuit is replaced by a capacitor

Potential difference across ‘C’ is,
(Vin- Vx) Vx is virtual earth.
For a capacitor 𝒒 = 𝑪𝒗
Then the current through the capacitor
𝒅𝒒
𝒊=
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗
𝒊=𝑪
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗𝒊𝒏
i.e, 𝒊 = 𝑪 ∙ ---------------------(1)
𝒅𝒕
Potential difference across R is (𝑽𝒙 − 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 ),
𝑉𝑥 = 0 (.. . Virtual earth)
i.e., −𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒊𝑹
−𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕
. .. 𝒊 = ------------------(2)
𝑹
Equating (1)&(2)
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒅𝒗𝒊𝒏
= −𝑪
𝑹 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗𝒊𝒏
𝑽𝒐 = −𝑪𝑹
𝒅𝒕
 Therefore, the output signal is a scaled derivative of the input signal.
 Using differentiation in signal processing is that, any electrical noise in the input
signal will be accentuated in the output. In effect, the differentiator amplifies the
fast-changing noise. Integration, on the other hand, has a smoothing effect, so
noise is not a concern when using an integrator

9
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

It amplifies the difference between two voltages.

Since there is virtually no current through the high resistance in the operational
amplifier between the two input terminal, there is no potential drop and thus both
the inputs X will be at the same potential,
The voltage V2is across resistors R1 & R2 In series.
Thus the potential difference Vx at X is ,
𝑽𝒙 𝑹𝟐
=
𝑽𝟐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝒙 = ( )𝑽
𝑹 𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝟐
The current through the feedback resistance R2 must be equal to that from V1
through R1.
Hence,
𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝒙 𝑽𝒙 − 𝑽𝒐
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
This can be arranged to give
𝑽𝒐 𝟏 𝟏 𝑽𝟏
= 𝑽𝒙 ( + ) −
𝑹𝟐 𝑹 𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
Hence substituting for Vx in above eqn.
we get
𝑹𝟐 𝑅2
𝑽𝒐 = (𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 ) [i.e 𝑉𝑥 = ( ) 𝑉2 ]
𝑹𝟏 𝑅1 +𝑅2
The output is thus the measure of the difference between the two input voltages.

10
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
It is the ratio of differential gain to common mode gain
𝐺𝑑
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝐺𝐶𝑀
Where 𝐺𝑑 is differential gain
GCM is common mode gain
 The difference mode gain is the amplification factor for the difference
between the input signals, and the common mode gain is the amplification
factor for the average of the input signals.
 For an ideal difference amplifier, the common mode gain is 0, implying an
infinite CMRR.
Instrumentation Amplifier
 Often we need to amplify a small differential voltage few hundred times in
instrumentation applications.
 A single stage differential amplifier, is not capable of performing this job
efficiently, because of several reasons.
 The input impedance is finite;
 The achievable gain in this single stage amplifier is also limited due to
gain bandwidth product limitation as well as limitations due to offset
current of the op. amp.
 Naturally, we need to seek for an improved version of this amplifier.
 A three op. amp. Instrumentation amplifier, is an ideal choice for achieving the
objective.
 The major properties are
(i) High differential gain (adjustable up to 1000)
(ii) infinite input impedance
(iii) Large CMRR (80 dB or more)
(iv) Moderate bandwidth

11
 We analyze this circuit in two parts.
 The two op amps on the left provide a high-impedance amplifier stage where each
input is amplified separately.
 This stage involves a moderate CMRR.
 The outputs V3 and V4 are supplied to the op amp circuit on the right, which is a
difference amplifier with a potentiometer R5 used to maximize the overall
CMRR.
 We first apply KCL and Ohm’s law to the left portion of the circuit to express V3
and V4 in terms of V1 and V2 .
 Using the assumptions and rules for an ideal op amp, it is clear that the current I1
passes through R1 and both feedback resistors R2 .
Applying Ohm’s law to the feedback resistors gives
V3 – V1 = I1R2 ---------------------(1)
And
V2 – V4 = I1R2 --------------------(2)
Applying Ohm’s law to R1 gives
V1 – V2 = I1R1 ---------------------(3)
To express V3 and V4 in terms of V1 and V2, we eliminate I1 by solving Equation
(3) for I1 and substituting it into Equations (1) and (2).
The results are
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝟑 = ( + 𝟏) 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 -------------------(4)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝟒 = − 𝑽𝟏 + ( + 𝟏) 𝑽𝟐 ----------------(5)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
By analyzing the right portion of the circuit, it can be shown that,
𝑹𝟓 (𝑹𝟑 +𝑹𝟒 ) 𝑹𝟒
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝟓 − 𝑽𝟑 ---------------(6)
𝑹𝟑 (𝑹𝟑 +𝑹𝟓 ) 𝑹𝟑
We can substitute the expressions for V3 and V4 from Equations (4) and (5) into
Equation (6) to express the output voltage V out in terms of the input voltages V1
andV2.
Assuming R5 = R4, the result is
𝑹𝟒 𝑹
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = [
𝑹𝟑
(𝟏 + 𝟐 𝑹𝟐)] (𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 ) ------------(7)
𝟏
A design objective for the instrumentation amplifier is to maximize the CMRR by
minimizing the common mode gain.
For a common mode input, V1 =V2, Equation 7 yields an output voltage Vout=0.
Hence, the common mode gain is 0, and the CMRR is infinite if R5=R4

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LOGARITHMIC AMPLIFIER
 Logarithmic amplifier is an amplifier for which the output voltage V out is K
times the natural log of the input voltage
 Some sensors have outputs which are nonlinear.
 A logarithmic amplifier can be designed in a way when its input is nonlinear the
output is linear.

The feedback loop contains a diode. The diode has a non-linear characteristic.
It might be represented as,
Vin −Vx Vin
𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑙𝑛(𝑖) i= = ( ̊. ̊Vx =0)
R R
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑽 = 𝑪 𝒍𝒏 ( )
𝑹
Where C is a constant
Since the current through the feedback loop is same as the current through the input
resistance
The potential difference across diode is (𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉𝑜 )
i.e., − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Thus we have −𝑪 𝒍𝒏(𝑽𝒊𝒏 ) + 𝑪 𝒍𝒏(𝑹)
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝐶 𝑙𝑛 ( ) 𝒍𝒏(𝑹)
𝑅 −𝑪 𝒍𝒏(𝑽𝒊𝒏 ) + 𝑪 ( ) 𝒍𝒏(𝑽𝒊𝒏 )
= 𝐾 ln 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝒍𝒏(𝑽𝒊𝒏 )
Where ‘K’ is a constant 𝑹
𝒍𝒏(𝑽𝒊𝒏 ) [−𝑪 + 𝑪 𝒍𝒏⁡( )]
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑹
K=[−𝑪 + 𝑪 𝒍𝒏⁡( )]
𝑽𝒊𝒏

13
However if 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is provided by a sensor with an input t, where 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑎𝑡 with ‘a’
and ‘A’ being constants, then
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾 ln 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= 𝐾 ln(𝐴 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 )
= 𝐾 ln 𝐴 + 𝐾𝑎𝑡
COMPARATOR

 Comparator indicates which of the two voltages is larger.

 An operational amplifier with no feedback can be used as a comparator.
 One of the voltage is applied to the inverting input and the other to the non-
inverting input.
 The comparator can be used to determine when a voltage exceeds a certain level,
the output then being used to initiate some action.

 When the two inputs are equal there is no output.

 However, when the non-inverting input is greater than the inverting input by
more than a small fraction of a volt then the output jumps to a steady positive
saturation voltage of typically +10V.
 When the inverting input is greater than the non-inverting input the output
jumps to a steady negative saturation voltage of typically -10V.
+𝑉 𝑖𝑓 𝑉2 > 𝑉1
𝑉𝑜 = { 𝑠𝑎𝑡 }
−𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑉1 > 𝑉2

14
Application of a comparator
Temperature switch circuit
The circuit is designed such that when a critical temperature is reached a relay is
activated and initiates some response.

 The circuit has a Wheatstone bridge on one arm.

 At critical temperature the bridge is balanced.
 When the temp. is below critical temp. R1>R2 , the bridge is out of balance
 There is voltage output at its lower saturated level.
 This keeps transistor OFF.
 When the temp. rises the thermistor resistance drops, and the bridge becomes
unbalanced.
 The operational amplifier then switches to its upper saturation level.
 The transistor is switched ON i.e both the base-emitter and base-collector
junctions become forward biased and the relay is energized.
PROTECTION CIRCUITS
In many situations sensors or transducers provide very high output signals such as
high current or high voltage which may damage the next element of the control
system such as microprocessor.
Protection from high current
The high current to flow in a sensitive control system can be limited by:
1. Using a series of resistors
2. Using fuse to break the circuit if current value exceeds a preset or safe value
Protection from high voltage
1. Zener diode circuits
2. Optoisolator

15
ZENER DIODE

Current-voltage characteristic of a Zener

diode with a breakdown voltage of 17 volts

 Zener diode circuits are widely used to protect a mechatronics control system
from high values of voltages and wrong polarity.
 Zener diode acts as ordinary or regular diodes up to certain breakdown voltage
level when they are conducting.
 When the voltage rises to the breakdown voltage level, Zener diode breaks down
and stops the voltage to pass to the next circuit.
OPTOISOLATORS

 In many high voltage scenarios, it is required to isolate the control circuit

completely from the input high voltages to avoid the possible damage. This can
be achieved by Optoisolators.
 It comprises of a Light emitting diode (LED) and a photo transistor.
 LED radiates infrared rays due to the voltage supplied to it from a
microprocessor circuit.
 The transistor/triac detects radiation and produces a current in proportion to the
voltage applied.
 The term transfer ratio is used to specify the ratio of output current to input
current

16
Different Forms of Opto-isolators

Optoisolator using a Triac Optoisolator using a Transistor

Optoisolator using a Darlington

 Opto-isolator outputs can be used directly to switch low-power load circuits.
 To switch a high power circuit, an opto-coupler might be used to operate a
relay and so use the relay to switch high power device.
A protection circuit for the microprocessor input:

 A protection circuit for the microprocessor input is likely to be shown in fig.

 To prevent the LED having the wrong polarity or too high applied voltage by
a Zener diode
 If there is alternating signal in the input a diode would be put in the input line
to rectify it.

17
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone bridge is used to convert a resistance change detected by a transducer
to a voltage change.

When the output voltage Vo is zero, then the potential at ‘B’ must be equal at ‘D’.
The potential difference across R1, i.e, VAB must then be equal across R3
i.e, 𝑉AB = 𝑉AD -----------------------(1)
thus, 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅3 --------------------(2)
Also,
𝑉BC = 𝑉DC ---------------------------(3)
𝐼1 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 𝑅4 -----------------------(4)
Dividing eqn. (2)& (4)
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
= ---------------------------(5)
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒
The bridge is said to be balanced.
The supply voltage Vs is connected between points A & C, thus the potential drop
across the resistor R1 is;
𝑹𝟏
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = ( ) 𝑽𝒔 -----------------(6)
𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
similarly, the potential difference across R3 is
𝑹𝟑
𝑽𝑨𝑫 = ( ) 𝑽𝒔 -------------------(7)
𝑹𝟑 +𝑹𝟒
Thus the output voltage Vo is given by,
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟑
𝐕𝐨 = 𝐕𝐀𝐁 − 𝐕𝐀𝐃 = 𝐕𝐬 ( − ) --------------(8)
𝐑 𝟏 +𝐑 𝟐 𝐑 𝟑 +𝐑 𝟒
This eqn. gives the balanced condition when 𝑉𝑜 = 0
Assume that a transducer produces a resistance change from R1 to
(𝑅1 + 𝛿𝑅1 ) which gives a change in output from Vo to (𝑉𝑜 + 𝛿𝑉𝑜 ),

18
From equation (8) we can write,
𝑹𝟏 +𝜹𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
(𝑽𝒐 + 𝜹𝑽𝒐 ) = 𝑽𝒔 ( − ) ----------------(9)
(𝑹𝟏 +𝜹𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 +𝑹𝟒
Hence
𝑹𝟏 +𝜹𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
(𝑽𝒐 + 𝜹𝑽𝒐 ) − 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝒔 ( − ) ----------(10)
𝑹𝟏 +𝜹𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
If 𝛿𝑅1 is much smaller than 𝑅1 then the above eqn. (10) approximates to;
𝛿𝑅1
𝛿𝑉𝑜 ≈ 𝑉𝑠 ( )
𝑅1 +𝑅2
We can say that change in resistance 𝑅1 produces a change in output voltage. Thus
we can convert a change in resistance signal into voltage signal.

Temperature Compensation
 In many measurements involving a resistive sensor the actual sensing element
may have to be at the end of long leads.
 The resistance of the leads will be affected by changes in temperature
 Example: In a platinum resistance temp sensor consists of a platinum coil
at the end of lead.
 When the temperature changes, not only the resistance of the coil change
but also will the resistance of leads.
 Some means have to be employed to compensate for the resistance of the leads to
the coil.
Compensation for Leads

Use of three leads to the coil:

 The coil is connected to the bridge in such a that lead 1 is in series with the R 3
while lead 3 in series with platinum coil R1
 Lead 2 is the connection to power supply
 Any change in resistance will affect all three leads equally, since they are of same
material, dia., length and held close together.
 The result is the changes in resistance occur equally in two arms of the bridge &
cancel out if R1 and R3 are the same resistances.
 The purpose of the third lead is to compensate for the lead wire resistance, thereby
increasing accuracy.

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Compensation with Strain Gauge
(a) Use of dummy gauge:
 The strain gauge changes resistance when the strain applied to it changes.
 Resistance also changes with the change in temperature
 Dummy strain gauge is a strain gauge which is identical to the active gauge
and is mounted on the same material but is not subject to strain.
 It is positioned close to active gauge
 A temperature change will cause both the gauges to change resistance by
same amount.
 The active gauge is mounted on one arm and dummy gauge on other arm so
the effect of temperature induced resistance changes cancel out.

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FILTERING
 Output signals from sensors contain noise due to various external factors like
improper hardware connections, environment etc.
 Noise gives an error in the final output of system. Therefore, it must be
removed.
 In practice, change in desired frequency level of output signal is a commonly
noted noise. i.e., by using filters.
 Following types of filters are used in practice:
1. Low Pass Filter
2. High Pass Filter
3. Band Pass Filter
4. Band Stop Filter
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE FILTERS
 The term passive is used to describe a filter made up using only resistor
capacitor and inductors.
 The term active is used when the filter involves an operational amplifier.
 Commonly used filters are Low pass filters because most of the information is
transmitted in low frequency.
 The noise tends to occur at high frequency, a low pass filter can be used to
block it off.
 Disadvantage with passive filters
 There is no isolation b/w input and output.
 These circuits can not provide any gain

(a) Passive (b) Active using an operational Amplifier

Fig: Low-pass filter :

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Low Pass Filter
Low pass filter is used to allow low frequency content and to reject high frequency
content of an input signal

Pass band for low pass filter Circuitry of Low Pass Filter

High Pass Filter

Circuitry of High Pass Filter

Pass band for high pass filter

Band Pass Filter

 In some applications, we need to filter a particular band of frequencies from a

wider range of mixed signals.
 For this purpose, the properties of low-pass and high-pass filters circuits can be
combined to design a filter which is called as band pass filter.

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 Band pass filter can be developed by connecting a low-pass and a high-pass filter
in series.
Band stop Filter.

 These filters pass all frequencies above and below a particular range set by the
operator/manufacturer.
 They are constructed by connecting a low-pass and a high-pass filter in parallel
PULSE MODULATION
 A problem that is often encountered with dealing with the transmission of low
level d.c. signals from the sensors is that the gain of the operational amplifier
used to amplify them may drift and so the output drifts.
 The term "drift" can be applied broadly to many things. In general, it means a
state or property that changes by itself with time without user control. When
applied to opamp offset voltage, drift is the gradual change in offset voltage
without any external input.
 This problem can be overcome if the signal is a sequence of pulses rather than
a continuous- time signal.
 This can be achieved by chopping the DC signal into a chain of pulses.

Fig: Pulse Amplitude Modulation

 The heights of pulses are related to the DC level of the input signal.
 This process is called as Pulse Amplitude modulation (PAM)

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 After Amplification and any other signal conditioning, the modulated signal can
be demodulated to give d.c. output.

Fig: Pulse width modulation

 Pulse width modulation is widely used with control system as a means of
controlling the average d.c. voltage.
 If the width of pulses is changed then the average value of the voltage can be
changed
 A term Duty Cycle is used to define the fraction of each cycle for which the
voltage is high.
 Duty cycle of 50% means that for half of the each cycle the output is high.
 If it is ON for a quarter of each cycle, then the duty cycle is 25%.
DIGITAL SIGNALS
 A digital system is the one that handles only discrete values or signals
 The word digital describes any system based on discontinuous data or events.
 Digital is the method of storing, processing and transmitting information
through the use of distinct electronic pulses that represent the binary digits 0
and 1.
 The output from most sensors tend to be in analogue form
 When a microprocessor is used, the o/p from the sensor has to be converted
into digital form.
Advantages
 Easily Programmable: Digital systems interface well with computers and are
easy to control with software.
 Cheap Electronic Circuits: More digital circuitry can be fabricated per square
millimetre of integrated-circuit material. Information storage can be much
easier in digital systems than in analogue ones.
Disadvantages
• The world in which we live is analogue, and signals from this world such as
light, temperature, sound, electrical conductivity, electric and magnetic fields,

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 and phenomena such as the flow of time, are for most practical purposes
continuous and thus analogue quantities rather than discrete digital ones.

Binary Numbers
 Number systems provide the basis for all operations in information processing
systems.
 In a number system the information is divided into a group of symbols: i.e
letters & numbers
 The binary number has a radix of 2
 As r = 2, only two digits are needed, and these are 0 and 1, these are termed as
binary digits or bits.
 Binary is a positional system; each bit position corresponds to a power of 2.
23 22 21 20
bit 3 bit 2 bit1 bit 0

Example:

The decimal number 15 is 20  21  22  23  1111

MSB
1111LSB
 In a binary number the bit 0 is termed as least significant bit (LSB) and the
highest bit is termed as most significant bit (MSB).
 The combination of bits to represent a number is termed as a word.
 The byte is used for a group of 8 bits.

Analogue and Digital signals

Signals carry information and are defined as any physical quantity that varies with
time, space, or any other independent variable.
Signals can be categorized in various ways; for example, discrete and continuous
time domains.
 Discrete-time signals are defined only on a discrete set of times.
 Continuous-time signals are often referred to as continuous signals
even when the signal functions are not continuous; an example is a
square-wave signal.

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Analogue to Digital conversion process

Fig. Analogue to digital conversion

Analogue input signal Clock signal Sampled signal

Sampled and held signal

Procedure:
 A clock supplies regular time signals to the ADC
 Every time the ADC receives a pulse it samples the analogue signal.
 The sampling occurs according to clock signal
 Sampling is a process of reduction of continuous signal to discrete signal
 The sample & hold unit is used to hold each sampled value until the next
pulse occurs.

Quantization: Quantization is a process of taking continuous analogue signals and

breaking it into a number of discrete steps.
Quantization Error: The error that results from quantization process.
Sampling Rate: This parameter determines how often conversions can take place.
Resolution: The number of bits that the ADC uses to represent the analogue signal.
The higher the resolution, the larger the number of divisions the range is broken
into.

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Example for an Analogue to digital conversion: A 3 bit ADC

Fig : Input-output for an ADC

 The relationship between the sampled and held input and the output for an
analogue-to-digital converter is illustrated by the graph for a digital output which
is restricted to three bits.
 With three bits there are 23 = 8 possible output levels.
 The eight possible output levels are termed quantisation levels and the difference
in analogue voltage between two adjacent levels is termed the quantisation interval.
 Thus for the ADC given in Figure, the quantisation interval is l V.
 Because of the step-like nature of the relationship, the digital output is not always
proportional to the analogue input and thus there will be error, this being termed
the quantisation error.
 when the input is centred over the interval the quantisation error is zero, the
maximum error being equal to one-half of the interval or ± 1/2, bit.

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SAMPLING THEOREM
 In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a continuous signal to a discrete
signal.
 When the signal is reconstructed from the samples if the sampling rate is atleast
twice that of the highest frequency of the analogue signal, the sample gives the
original form of signal. This criterion is known as the Nyquist criterion or
Shannon’s sampling theorem.
 When the sampling rate is less than twice the highest frequency, the reconstruction
can represent some other analogue signal and we obtain a false image of real signal.
This is termed as aliasing.
Effect of sampling frequency

Analogue signal

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 [Sampled signal]
DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERSION
The input is a binary word and the output is an analogue signal that represents the
weighted sum of nonzero bits represented by the word.
Example:
• An input of 010 must give an analogue output which is twice that
given by an input of 001.
• Thus for an input to a DAC with a resolution of l V for unsigned
binary words. Each additional bit increases the output voltage by l V.

Input / output for a DAC

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Example: To control a valve
• Consider the situation where a microprocessor gives an output of an 8-bit
word
• This is fed through an 8-bit digital-to-analogue converter to a control valve.
• The control valve requires 6.0 V to be fully open.
• If the fully open state is indicated by 11111111
• what will be the output to the valve for a change of l bit?
• The full-scale output voltage of 6V will be divided into 28 intervals.
• A change of l bit is thus a change in the output voltage of 6 /28 = 0.023 V.

Digital to Analogue Converters

1.Weighted Resistor DAC:

 It uses summing amplifier to form the weighted sum of all the non-zero bits in
the input word.
 The reference voltage is connected to the resistors by means of electronic
switches which corresponds to binary 1.
 The values of the input resistance depends on which bit in the word a switch is
corresponds to, the value of the resistor for successive bits from the LSB being
halved.
 Hence the sum of the Voltages is a weighted sum of the digits in the word.
 A problem with the weighted-resistor network is that accurate resistances have
to be used for each of the resistors and it is difficult to obtain such resistors over
the wide range needed.
 As a result, this form of DAC tends be limited to 4-bit conversions.

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2. R-2R ladder DAC
 The R-2R ladder overcomes the problem of obtaining accurate resistances over
a wide range of values, as only two resistance values being required.
 The output voltage is generated by switching sections of the ladder to either 0
or 1 in the digital o/p

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Analogue to Digital Converters
1. Successive Approximation ADC

 It is most commonly used ADC

 A voltage is generated by a clock emitting a regular sequence of pulses which
are counted in a binary manner.
 The resulting word is converted into an analogue voltage by DAC.
 This voltage rises in steps & is compared with the analogue input voltage from
sensor.
 When the clock generated voltage passes the i/p analogue voltage the pulses
from the clock are stopped from counted by gate being closed.
 The output from the sensor at that time is the digital representation of analogue
voltage.
2.Ramp ADC

 It consists of a Ramp generator.

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 Ramp generator generates Ramp voltage which is increased at a constant rate.
 The ramp voltage is compared with the analogue voltage from the sensor.
 The time taken for the ramp voltage to increase to the value of the sensor voltage
will depend on the size of the sampled analogue voltage.
 When the ramp voltage starts the gate is opened which starts a binary counter
counting the regular pluses from a clock.
 When two voltages are equal, the gate closes & the word indicated by the counter
is the digital representation of the sampled analogue voltage.
3. Dual ramp ADC

 The analogue voltage is applied to the integrator which drives a comparator.

 The output from the comparator goes high as soon as the integrator o/p is more
than few millivolts.
 When the comparator o/p is high the AND gate passes pulses to a binary counter.
 The counter counts pulses until it overflows.
 The counter then resets to zero, sends a signal to a switch which disconnects the
unknown voltage and counting again.
 The polarity of the reference voltage is opposite to that of i/p voltage.
 The integrator voltage then decreases at a rate proportional to reference voltage.
 When the integrator output reaches zero, the comparator goes low, bringing the
AND gate low and switching the clock off.
 The count is then the measure of the analogue input voltage.

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4. Flash ADC

 The flash ADC is very fast.

 For n bit converter, separate voltage comparators are used in parallel.
 A reference voltage is applied to a ladder of resistors such that voltage applied
to each comparator is 1 bit larger than the previous comparator.
 All of those comparators for which the analogue voltage is greater than the
reference voltage will provide high output, and those for which it is less will
provide low output.
 The resulting outputs are fed in parallel to a logic gate system which translates
them into a digital word.
SAMPLE AND HOLD AMPLIFIERS

• It takes a finite time for an ADC to convert an analogue signal to digital.

• Problems can arise if the analogue signal changes during the conversion time.
• To overcome this, a sample and hold system is used to sample the analogue
signal and hold it while the conversion takes place.

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MULTIPLEXERS

 A multiplexor is a circuit that is able to have inputs of data from a number of

sources and then by selecting an i/p channel, give an o/p from just one of them.
 Multiplexers are mainly used where the measurements are to be made at a number
of locations, rather than use a separate ADC & microprocessor.

A Digital multiplexer
The logic level applied to the select input determines which AND gate is enabled
so that its data passes through the OR gate to the output.

Fig:-Two-channel multiplexer

DAQ system

35
 The term data acquisition is used for the process of taking data from sensors
and inputting data into a computer for processing.
 A computer software is used to control the acquisition of data via DAQ board.
 The computer program sends a control word to register.
 The board switches the multiplexer to the appropriate i/p channel.
 I/p from the sensor connected to multiplexer is passed via amplifier to ADC.
 The digital signal is then passed to the data register.
 The word in the control & status register changes to indicate that the signal has
arrived.

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