Presentation Bio for Monday

A2.2.1
Robert Hooke made a theory that all living organisms consist of cells. He made this theory after
looking at various cell and tissue types, being from both animal and plants. It is concluded that all
organisms are made of cells, although not the same.

Cells that made this theory be consistent:

A2.2.2

To study the structure of the cells, microscopes are needed, because they have magnification lenses
that allow us to zoom as much as needed into the structure that we want to see.

Important parts of a microscope and what they do:

Camera: Allows you to take pictures of the specimen

Eyepiece: Allows the viewing of the specimen

Objective lens: Consists of mostly 3 lenses that allows

the magnification of specimens by different factors.

- 40x
- 100x
- 400x

Light source: Lights up the specimen which helps identify the different structures.

Fine and Coarse focus: Allows the tampering of the focus factors.

Method to calculate the Magnification, size of image and the actual size.

Magnification= size of image/actual size of specimen

Size of image= 30mm

Actual size = 3um

Magnification of image=?

A.2.2.3.
Microscopes where invented in the 17th century, all the way to the 19th century Later on there where
problem later on with the magnification to lighting, the electron microscope was made, this was one
of the major developments that brought 3 technological developments in microscopy that allow the
analysation of protein structures these 3 technological developments are:

1. Fluorescent stains and immunofluorescence: Chemical cells are either white or colourless so
they are difficult to distinguish, with the fluorescent stains, this allows the light to be
absorbed within the example providing colour to the chemical cells. This allows many
research applications but is many used to find out If one specific type of protein is being
produced in a cell.
2. Freeze-fracture electron microscopy: This is a technique used to produce images of surfaces
within cells. This provides the visualization of the surface structure of cells and their
components.
3. Cryogenic electron microscopy: This is a method used to research the structure of the
protein.

A2.2.4.

Cells are different in size, shape, and structure but they share some common features:

1. Plasma membrane: Outer boundary of the cell which encloses all of what it contains. It
controls the entry and the exit of substances. Its effective at preventing the entrance for
unwanted substances. It also allows a cell to maintain concentrations of substances that are
very different from those in the surrounding environment. This structure relies on lipids to
keep it alive.
 Lysis is when the plasma membrane burts, this is caused by excess pressure or by viruses.
Lysis leads to the death of the cell.
2. Cytoplasm: Water is the main component of cytoplasm, there are many substances dissolved
or suspended in this water. Enzymes in the cytoplasm accelerates the different chemical
reactions, which are the metabolism of the cell.
Metabolism provides a cell with energy and produces all the proteins and other substances
needed to make up the structure of a cell.
3. DNA: DNA is a genetic material, being that its in all cells, but the location of this DNA is nit
universal. Plant and Animal cells have their DNA in a nucelus, whilst bacteria do not have a
nucelus, therofre their DNA is in the cytoplasm.
DNA contains the information needed for a cell to carry out all its functions. Many genes
have instruccions for making proteins which are neede for growth and repair. Other proteins
act as enzyms, which controls the chemical reactions and allows a functioning metabolism.

A2.2.5 Prokaryote cell structure

Bacteria are prokaryotes.

- Cytoplasm inside a plasma membrane.

- Is one chamber, no compartments.
- Nucleus: None, inside the cell it is “naked” (no proteccion)
- DNA is circular.
- 70S ribosomes  Smaller, meaning they sink slower in centrifugation.
- Doesn’t have organelles apart from ribosomes inside the cytoplasm.

A2.2.6. Eukaryote cell structure

Plants, Animals, Fungi and other organisms are eukaryotic.

- Cytoplasm inside a plasma membrane

- Compartmentalized, areas in cytoplasm are separated by either a single or double
membrane
- Nucleus: Holds the cell’s chromosomes, the chromosomes consists of one long DNA
molecule attached to proteins, these proteins are histones.
- DNA is linear.
- 80S ribosomes  bigger, meaning they sink faster in centrifugation
- Mitochondria: In cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell
- Has organelles in cytoplasm.

A2.2.7 Processes of life in unicellular organisms

Activities of living organisms:

 Homeostasis: Constant maintenance of a certain part in an organism

 Metabolism: Sum of chemical reactions that occurs in a living organism
 Nutrition: Supply of nutrients required for energy, growth, and repair in an organism
 Excretion: Removal of waste produced from metabolism from an organism
 Growth: Increase in size or number of cells
  Response to stimuli: Appropriate actions done in response to stimuli

- In multicellular organisms, different cell types are specialized to perform these functions.
- In unicellular organisms, a singe cell must perform all these functions.

A2.2.8 Differences in eukaryotic cell structure between animals, fungi and plants

Copy the table

A2.2.9 Atypical cell structure in eurkaryotes

Each cell is expected to have 1 nucleus, however, some structures in organisms do not follow the
typical patters. Some examples are:

1. Red blood cells: Nucleus moves to the far edge of the cytoplasm where it is bitten off by a
phagocyte. The removal of the nucleus makes the cell smaller and flexible but has a lifespan
of 100-120 days.
This is an atypical cell structure due to it having no nucleus.
2. Phloem sieve tube elements: In xylem vessels, the plasma membrane as well as cell contents
break down allowing a hollow tube to appear that no longer consist of cells. This allows the
transmission of nutrients from the whole plant. It loses the nucleus to let the sap pass
through.
This is an atypical cell structure due to it having no nucleus.
3. Skeletal muscle: Large multinucleate structures are formed when groups of cells fuse
together. This is an atypical cell structure due to it being multinucleate.
4. Aseptate fungal hyphae: Nucleus dividing repeatedly resulting in large multicellular
structures. This is an atypical cell structure due to it being multinucleate.

A2.2.10 Cell types and cell structures

Structures and functions of all main organelles of eukaryotic cells:

- Nucleus: Contains chromosomes that are DNA with histone proteins. In the nucleus, DNA is
replicated and transcribed to form mRNA that is exported through pores in the nucleus, to the
cytoplasm.

- Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER): Synthesizes proteins for cell secretion.

- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER): Synthesizes lipids.

- Golgi apparatus: processes proteins brought in by vesicles from the rER which are then, for the
most part, packaged into vesicles for secretion to the plasma membrane.
 - Lysosome: Formed by Golgi vesicules, containing protein enzymes, directs elements out of the
cell.

- Mitochondrion: Cellular respiration occurs6 and produces energy to the cell.

- Free Ribosomes: Synthesizes proteins and is free in the cytoplasm acting as enzymes.

- Chloroplast: Produces energy and other chemical compounds through photosynthesis.

- Vacuoles and Vesicles: Sacs used as storage for materials in a cell. Smaller vacuoles, called
vesicles are used to transport materials inside the cell.

- Microtubules and centrioles: Centrioles are cylindrical tubes made up of microtubules.

Microtubules have many roles, but more importantly, they are used to move chromosomes
during cell division.

- Cytoskeleton: Made by several types of protein fibre, including microtubules, it helps maintain
the shape of the cell. The microtubules also guide the movement of components within the cell.

- Cilia and flagella: Used for movement of a cell.

A2.2.12. Origin of eukaryotic cells by endosymbiosis

Symbiosis is living together in close association advantaging both sides. Endosymbiosis is when one
organism (The endosymbiont) lives inside another (The host).

Endocytosis is the process of cells ingesting other, smaller cells for their own benefit.

 Example: Phagocytes ingesting viruses or bacteria.

Endosymbiosis is the process of ingesting an organism that’s alive, which will benefit both sieds.

 Example: The evolution of eukaryotic cells  Mitochondria were prokaryotes that had the
ability to respirate aerobically, larger prokaryotes that couldn’t respirate aerobically ingested
these cells to live in the cytoplasm as endosymbionts. Mitochondria (Endosymbiont)
supplied energy to the larger prokaryote (host) and the prokaryote (Host) supplied food to
the mitochondria (Endosymbiont).

A2.2.13. Cell differentiation as the process for developing specialized tissues in

multicellular organisms.

Multicellular organisms have advantages because they have cells that can develop differently to
perform different functions.

Specialized cells develop only the features they need to carry out their functions.

For example: Red blood cells transport oxygen using protein haemoglobin, they only produce the
protein they need to do what they need to do.
Cell differentiation is when cells take different pathways of development. In these cells, genes can be
“switched on”, making certain proteins and other gene products. Gene expression is the controller
that determines which genes act in a cell.