Ama PzO Simple Stresses in Machine Parts Compressive Stress ond Shain, Young's Modules or Mogulus of Elasticity. ‘Shear Stress and Strain ‘Sheor Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity, 10, Bearing Stress. 1, Stress-Strain Diagram, 12, Working Stress. 13, Factor of Safety. 14, Selection of Factor of 1 2 3 4 5. Tensile Stress and Strain ‘6 2 8 8, Sotety. 15, Stresses in Composite 0 keoeiees Sire! In engineering practice, the machine parts are 16, Strosses due to Change subjected to various forees which may be duc tocither one in Temperaturethermal or more ofthe following Stresses. 1. Energy transmitted, 17, Linear and Lateral Strain. 2 Ww 18. Poisson's Ratio. 19. Volumetric Strain. 20. Bulk Moditus. 21. Relation between Bulk Modulus and Young's sntof machine, rictional resistances, 4. Inertia of reciprocating parts, Change of temperature, and Lack of balance of moving parts, Modulus. “The different forces acting on a machine part produces 22, Relation between Young's rious ypes of stesses. which wll be discussed in hit Modulus and Modulus of | ‘ive, Rigidity. = 23. impact Stross. 42 load 24, Resilence. It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine part. The following four types of the load are ‘important from the subject point of view 87 Scanned with CamScanner88_= A Textbook of Machine Design — 1. Dead or steady load. A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it docs not change in ‘magnitude or direction. 2. Live or variable load. Aload is said to be live of variable load. when it changes continually. 3. Steidenty applied or shock loads. A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load, when it is suddenly applied or removed. .lmpactload. Aloadis sa tobe an impact load, when it is applied with some initial velocity. ‘Note: A machine par resists a dead load more easily than alive load and a Tie load more easily than a shock Toad. 4.3. Stress When some extemal system of forces or leads act on a body the internal forces (equal and ‘opposite) are setup at various sections ofthe body, which resist the extemal forces. This internal force per unit area at any section ofthe body is known as unit stressor simply a stress. I is denoted bya Greck letter sigma (). Mathematically, Suess, 6 =P where P = Force or load acting ona body, and A = Cross-sectional area of the body. Jn SL. units, the stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such that 1 Pa = 1 N/m in actual practice, we use bigger units of stress /c. megapascal (MPa) and gigapascal (GPa), such that TMPa = 1» 10° Nim?= 1 Nimm? and 1GPa = 1 10" Ni kNimm? 4.4 Strain When a system of forees or londs act ona body, it undergoes some deformation. This deformation ‘per unit length is known as unit strain or simply a strain, Itis denoted by a Greek letter epsilon (€). Mathematically, Strain, © = 8/1 or t where {8 = Change in length of the body. and 1 = Original length of the body 4.5 Tensile Stress and Strain x rafal = T x @ ” Fg, 4.1. Tensile stress and strain, ‘When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls P (also called tensile load) as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a),then the stress induced at any section of the body is known as fensile stress as shown in Fig, 4.1 (6). A little consideration will show that duc to the tensile load, there will be a decrease in cross-sectional area and an increase in length of the body. The ratio of the inerease in length tothe original length is known as tensile strain. Scanned with CamScanner‘Simple Stresses in Machine Parts P= Axial tensile force acting on the body, A = Cross-sectional area of the body, 1 = Original length, and 8 = Increase in length, 2 Tensile stress, = PIA andtensilestrain, —¢, = BIT 4.6 Compressive Stress and Strain When a body is subjected t 10 ‘equal and opposite axial pushes P (also called compressive load) as shown in Fig.4.2(a,thenthe section of the body is known as compressive stress 3s shown in Fig, 4.2 (6). A little consideration will shove that due tothe compressive load, there will be an increase in cross-sectional area and a decrease in length of the body. The ratio of the decrease in length to the original Hen ress induced at any his known as compressive strain. po rot a drect example of the current chapter Lop i “ Fig. 4.2. Compressive stress and stain Axial compressive force acting on the body, A © Cross-sectional area of the body, 1 = Original length, and Let a Compressive stress, 6, = 2A and compressive strain, c= 8 Decrease in length, = 89 Shock absorber of a motorcycle absorbs sresses. [Note : This picture is given as adtional information and ts [Note : In ease of tension or compression, the area involved is at right angles to the extemal force applied 4.7 Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity Hooke's lan states that when a material is loaded within clastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain, ie. one of Pxt xa! o- ke Tris named aftr Robert Hooke, who fist esta ished i by experiments in 1678 Scanned with CamScanner90 = A Textbook of Machine Design where Eis constant of proportionality known as Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity tn S.1. units, it is usually expressed in GPa fe. GNim? or kN/mm. It may be noted that Hooke's law holds good for tension as well 3s compression, ‘The following table shows the values of modulus of el: ‘materials commonly used in engineering practic. icity or Young's modulus (E) for the Table 4.1. Values of € for the commonly used engineering materials. Material Modulus of elasticity) or Nn! ‘Steel and Nickel 30010 230 Wrought ion 190 19200, Cast eon 100 19 160, Copper 90 10 110 Tass x0 t090 Aluminiun Gow 80 Timber 10 Example 4.1. coil chain of a crane required to carry a maximum load of SON, is shown in Fig. 43. sows sown Fig 43 Find the diameter of the link stock, ifthe permissible tensile stress in the link material is not to exceed 75 MPa, Solution, Given: P = SO} Let d 0* 10" N 9, = 75 MPa= 75 Nimm? Diameter of the link stock in mm, os Area d = Ea? = 0.78580 ‘We know that the maximum load (P), 50 10" = G, A= 75 * 0.7854d? = $89 a2 2 = $0 109/ $8.9 880 of d= 29.13 say 30mm Ans. Example 4.2. A cast ron link, as shown in Fig. 44, is required to transmit a steady tensile load of 48 AN. Find the tensile stress induced in the link material at sections AeA and Bl 8 A 8 Seetion at Bb Scanned with CamScannerSimple Stresses In Machine Parts Solution. Given: P= 45 KN= 45 10° Tensile stress induced at section AA ‘We know that the eros-seetional area of link at section ded, Ay = 48 * 20 = 900 me? <2 Tensile stress induced at seetion 4-4, _ 2 45x10" Sn =~ 900 Tensile stress induced at section B-B ‘We know that the cross-sectional atea of link at section B-B, 20(75 ~ 40) = 700 mm? n BB, PB _ 45x10 700 Example 4.3. d hydraulic press exerts a toal load of 3.5 MN. This load is carried by two steel rods, supporting the upper head of the press. Ifthe safe siress is 85 MPa and E = 210 KN/imm, find : 1, diameter of the rods, and 2. extension in each rod in a length of 2.5 m Solution. Given : P= 3.5 MN = 3.5 « 10° N:.,= 85 MPa~= 85 Nimm?; £ = 210 kN/mm? 210 10 Nimm? ; = 2.5 m= 2.5 » 10" mm 1, Diameter ofthe rods Let d = Diameter of the rods nt mm. ried by two rods, therefore load carried by each rod, P_ 35x10" 2 We know that load carried by each rod (P,). 18 « 108 = 0.4 = 85 * 0.7854 d? = 66.76 d? 2 = 1.75 * 1066.76 = 26213 oF d 175 «108N 2. Extension in each rod Let t= Extension in each rod. ‘We know that Young's modulus (E) 5x 25x10) 212.510" ar I 210 « 10? = a + 109210 > 108)= 1.012 mm Ams Example 44. rectangular hae plate t fied at each ofits four corners by a 20 mm diameter bolt and nut as shown in Fig, 48. The plate resis on washers of 22 mm internal diameter and $0 mm external diameter. Copper washers which are placed between the nut and the plate are of 22 mm internal diameter and 44 mm external diameter Scanned with CamScanner92_= A Textbook of Machine Design _ If the base plate carries a load of 120 kN (including -selfeweight, which is equally distributed on the four corners), ‘calculate the stress on the lower washers before the nuts are tightened. ‘What could be the stress in the upper and lower washers, when the nuts are tightened so as to produce a tension of SAN on cach bolt? Solution, Given :d imam jd, = 22 mm SSraics hd Ieee eainRarareGia aatiaaee tightened ‘We know that area of lower washers, flay -ao*) Ae and area of upper washers, F [iso - e2v Stan? - ay] =4 [49 - ey Finds 1583. mm? *] = 1140 mm? Since the load of 120 KN on the four washers is equally distibued, therefore load on each ower washer before the muts are tightened. = Be B88 1955 (Stress on the upper washers: when the nuts are tightened ae moins PETINESONOR 2 sieacinceets sonar acral 7" 4; 1140 ‘Stress on the lower washers when the nuts are tightened 1895 MPa Ans. MPa Ans. ‘We know thatthe stress on the lower washers when the nuts are tightened, Bak A 30.000 + 000 1583 =211 Ss Example 4.5. The piston rad of a steam engine i $0 mm in diameter: diameter ofthe piston is-400 mm and the maximum steam pressure is 0.9 Nin Nim? 2.11 MPa Ans. 4.600 mo long. The Find the compres sion of the piston rod ifthe Young's modulus for the material of the piston rod is 210 kN/mm-. Solution. Given :d= $0 mm :/= 600mm ; D~ 400mm :p = 0.9 Nimm?; £= 210 kN/mm? = 210 10° Nimm? Let {81 = Compression of the piston rod. ‘We know that cross-sectional area of piston, 25 680 mm? .& Maximum load acting on the piston dus to steam, P= Cross-sectional area of piston * Steam pressure = 125 680 0.9 = 113 LION Scanned with CamScanner_ Simple Stresses in Machine Parts = 93 We also know that eross-seetional area of piston red, X ; AnD xdt= E07 = 1964 mm? and Young's modulus (E), aogier 210 * 10 = a 113110 x 600 _ 34555 14x 8 = 34555/(210 10°) =0.165 mm Ans. 48 Shear Stress and Strain Wis pone owt.@ eng Sits skye sini vcpannappeann TECNY Serle eco tae ted wang aegeuly srves hc ressingveciec a Jeni ofl fe ny ens shee of i ete tenth orn inde cll cheer rms wo Fig. 4.6 Single shearing of riveted joint. ‘The corresponding strain is known as shear strain and itis measured by the angular deformation accompanying the shear stress. The shear stress and shear strain are denoted by the Greek letters tau () and phi (0) respectively. Mathematically. ‘Shear stress, x = Tangential force Resisting area Consider a body consisting of to plates connected by a rivet as shown in Fig. 4.6 (a). In this case, the tangential force P tends to shea of the rivet a one cross-section as shown in Fig. 4.6 (0) 1 ‘may be noted that when the tangential force is resisted by one cross-section ofthe rivet (or when shearing takes place atone cross-section of the rivet). then the ives are aid tobe in single shea. In we shear offthe rivet, Now let us consider two plates connected by the two cover plates as shown in Fig. 4.7 (a). In this case, the tangential force P tends to shear off the rivet al two cross-sections as shown in Fig. 47 (4). It may be noted that when the tangential force is resisted by two cross-sections of the rivet (or Scanned with CamScanner94. A Textbook of Machine Design _ when the shearing takes place at two eross-seetions of the rivet), then the rivets are said to be in double shear. In such a ease, the area resisting the shear off the rivet, Ree An Dba (For double shear) and shear stress on the rivet cross-section, o Fig, 47. Double shearing ofa riveted joint, [Notes : 1A! ap joints and single cover but joints are in single shear, while the butt joints with double cover plates are in double shear. 2. Incase of shear, the area involve is parallel tothe extemal force applied. 43. When the holes ate to be punched or deilled in the meta plate. then the tls used to perform the ‘operations must overcome the ultimate shearing resistance ofthe material t be eut. fa hole of diameter “Wis tobe punched ma metal plate of thickness 1 then the area tobe sheared, Aa Rdot and the maximum shear resistance ofthe tool or the force required to punch a hole, where 4, ~ Ulimate shear stength ofthe material of the plate 4.9 Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity It has been found experimentally that within the elastic limit, the shear stress is directly Proportional to shear strain. Mathematically reo or t= where 1 = Shear stress, @ = Shear strain, and C = Constant of proportionality, known as shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. tis also denoted by Nor G ‘The following table shows the values of modulus of rigidity (C) for the materials in every day 2.9 or t/O=C Table 4.2. Values of C for the commonly used materials. Material Modulus of rigidity (C) in GPa ie. GNint or KNimmt™ Steet 800 100 Weought ion 801090 Castro 401050 Coppet 301050 Brass 301050 Timber 10 Scanned with CamScannerStresses In Machine Parts_= 95 Example 4.6. Calculate the force required to punch a circular blank of 60 mm diameter in a plate of S mm thick. The ultimate shear stress of the plate is 380 Nimmt. Solution. Given: d = 60 mm; r= Smm: f, = 350 Nimm? We know that area under shear, Ae nd te mx 60» 5 = 942.6 mm? and force required to punch a hole, PAX T= 942.6% 38 Example 4.7. A pull of 80 kN is transmitted from a bar Xto the bar ¥ through a pin as shown in Fig. 48. U/the maximum permissible tensile stress in the bars is 100 Nim and the permissible shear stress in the pin is 80 Nimme, find the diameter of bars and of te pin Fig. 48 Solution. Given: P = 80 KN = 80 * 10) Nr 100 Nimwm?; ¢= 80 Nim? Diameter of the bars Let Dy = Diameter ofthe bars in mm, Area dy = Boy? 0748800, Weknow that permissible tensile stress inthe bar (o). 109 = £2 80x10" _ 101 846 A O78S4(D,) (DAY (Dy? = 101 846/100 1018.46 High force injection moulding machine or Not: Ts picture given as adctonal information tnd is nota crectexampie ofthe erent chapter Diameter ofthe pin Let, = Diameter ofthe pin in mm. Since the tensile load P tends to shear off the pinat two sections Le. atA@ and CD, therefore the pin isin double shear. Resisting area, Aare E wyeisno,y We know that pers ser stress inthe pin (2), P_ 80x10? _ $0.9 x10° 4, 1ST, (DF 50.9 « 10480 = 636.5 or D, s0= 2mm Ans. , Scanned with CamScanner96 _= A Textbook of Machine Design — 4.10 Bearing Stross A localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members of a machine part, that are relatively at est is known as bearing stress or erushing stress. The bearing stress is taken into account in the design of riveted joints, cotter joints, knuckle joints, etc. Let us consider @ riveted joint subjected toa load P as shown in Fig. 49. In such a ease, the bearing stress or crushing stress (stress at the surface of contact between the rivet and a plate), P din Diameter of the rivet, 1 = Thickness ofthe plat Projected area of the rivet, and ‘Number of rivets per pitch length in bearing or crushing, 9,(0r6, where a. It Fined bearing Rotating journal (a) Journal supported in () Distribution of bearing bearing pressure Fig. 49. Bearing stress ina riveted joint Fig, 4.10. Bearing pressure ina journal supported ina bearing. Tt may be noted that the local compression which exists atthe surface of contact between two ‘members of a machine part that are in relative motion. is called bearing pressure (not the bearing stress). Tis term is commonly used in the design of a journal supported ina bearing. pins for levers, ‘crank pins. clutch lining, etc. Let us consider a journal rotating in a fixed bearing as shown in Fig. 4.10 (a). The journal exerts a bearing pressure on the curved surfaces of the brassces immediately below it. The distribution ofthis bearing pressure will not be uniform, but it will be in accordance with the shape of the surfaces in contact and deformation characteristics of the two materials. The distribution of bearing pressure will be similar to that as shown in Fig. 4.10 (A). Since the actual bearing pressure is difficult to determine, therefore the average bearing pressure is usually calculated. by dividing the load tothe projected area of the curved surfaces in contact. Thus, the average bearing, pressure for a journal supported in a bearing is given by = ia Average bearing pressure, Radial load on the journal, Length of the journal in contact, and Diameter of the journal. where Scanned with CamScannerExample 4.8. Two plates 16 mm thick are Joined by a double riveted lap joint as shown in Fig. 4.11 The rivets are 25 mm in diameter. Find the erushing stress induced between the plates and the rivet ifthe maximum tensile load on the joint is 48 AN. Solution. Given == 16mm z= 25 mm: PHASKN=48* 10'N joint is double riveted, therefore, strength of two rivets in bearing (or crushing) is taken, We know that crushing stress induced between the plates and the rivets, P_ 48x10 8. dan” Sx16x2 Example 4.9.4 journal 25 mm in diameter supported in sliding bearings has a maximum end reaction of 2800 N. Assuming an allowable bearing pressure of $ Ninn, find the length of the sliding bearing. Solution. Given : 4 Let f We know thatthe projected area of the bearing A= Pe d=1125=25 Imm? Bearing pressure (p,). Fig 4 60 Nimm? Ans, P_ 2500 42st 1 4.11 Stress-strain Diagram Indesigning various parts ofa machine, itis necessary to know how the material will function in service, For this. certain characteristics or properties of the material should be known, The ‘mechanical properties mostly used in mechanical engincering practice are commonly determined from a standacd tensile test, This test consists of gradually loadinga standard specimen of amaterial and noting the corresponding values of load and c’longation until the specimen fractures. The load is applied und measured by a testing machine. The stress is determined by dividing the load values by the original cross-sectional area ofthe specimen, ‘The elongation is measured by determining the amounts that two reference points on the specimen are moved apart by the action ofthe machine. The original distance between the two reference points is known as gauge length. The strain isdetermined by dividing the elongation values by the gauze length In adaition fo Bearing the stresses. somo machine pars aro made of stanless stee! 19 ‘male them coresion resstant Note: This picture is given as addtional information {nd isnot a giect example of te curent chapter, ‘The values of the stress and corresponds strain are used to draw the stress-strain diagram of the material tested. A stress-strain diagram for a rild steel under tensile test is shown in Fig. 4.12 (a). The various properties of the material are discussed below : Scanned with CamScannerA Textbook of Machine Design — 1. Proportional limit, We see from the diagram that from point Oto. isa straight line, which represents that the stress is proportional to strain. Beyond point A, the curve slightly deviates from the straight line. I is thus obvious, that Hooke’s aw holds good up to point A and itis known as proportional limit, It is defined as that stess at which the stress-strain curve begins to de- viate from the straight line, 2 Elastic limit, 1 may be noted that even if the load is increased beyond point A upto the point B, the ‘matcrial will regain its shape and size when the losd removed. This means that the material has elastic properties up tothe point 8. This point isknown as elastic limit. Wis defined as the stress developed inthe material ‘without any permanent set, ince the above two Lis are very close to each ete, therefore, forall practical purposes these ate taken tobe equal 43. Held point. I the material is stressed beyond point B. the plastic stage will reach je. on the removal Of the load, the material will not be able to recover its Fie a: Smee digrae original size and shape, A litte consideration will show ceil pears tat beyond point A, the strain increases at a faster rate w Cis reached. Atth (b) Shape of specimen after elongation. any increase in the sess until the point 1 the material yields before the load and there is an appreciable strain a small load drops to D, ‘yielding commences. Hence there are two yield points Cand D. The points C and Dare called the upper and lower yield points respectively. The stress corresponding to yield point is known as yield point stress. 4. Climate stress, At D, the specimen regains some strength and higher values of stresses are ‘oquired for higher strains, than those between 4 and D. The stress (or load) goes on increasing tll the ‘A crane wed on a ship. ‘Note: This picture ls given a8 adttonal nformaton and isnot a drect exampl ofthe current chapter. Scanned with CamScanner‘Simple Stresses in Machine Parts_ = 99 point Fis reached. The gradual increase in the strain (or length) ofthe specimen is followed with the tuniform reduction of its cross-sectional area. The work done, during st transformed largely into heat and the specimen becomes hot, At E, the stress, which attains its maximum value is known as ultimate stress I is defined as the largest stress ‘obtained by dividing the largest value of the load reached in test to the ‘original cross-sectional area of the test piece 5. Breaking stress. After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is formed, which e - decreases the cross-sectional area of the specimen, as shown in Fig. 4.12 (2). A little consideration will show thatthe stress (or load) necessary to break away the specimen, isles than the maximum stress. The stress is, therefore, reduced until the specimen breaks away at point F The stress corresponding to point F is known as breaking stress. ‘ote The breaking stress (.. stessatF which is ess than at £) appears tobe somewhat misleading. As the formation ofa neck takes place at £ which reduces the cross saat causes the specimen suddenly to fail at Ff for each value ofthe strain bet sectional area atthe natrowest part of the neck then th However, itis an established practice, to ea specimen. 6, Percentage reduction in area Its the difference between the original cross-sectional area and cross-sectional area at the neck (ie. where the fracture takes place). This difference is expressed as percentage ofthe original cross-sectional area A recovery trick with crane. Note: This picture is given as ation! information and is rot 8 ‘rect exampie ofthe current chapter. Let A = Original cross-sectional area, and ‘a = Cross-sectional area at the neck. Then reduction inarea = A —a ‘and _ percentage reduction in area = 100 7. Percentage elongation. tis the percentage increase in the standard gauge length (ce. original length) obtained by measuring the fractured specimen after bringing the broken parts together. Let 1 = Gauge length or original length, and = Length of specimen after fracture or final length. n=L-1 = and percentage elongation = =7—%100 Note : The percentage elongation gives a measure of ductility of the metal under test. The amount of local textensions depends upon the material and also nthe transverse dimensions ofthe test pee, Since the specimens are to be made from burs, strips, shoes, wies, forgings, castings, ete, therefore it is not possible to make all, specimens of one standatd size, Sine the dimensions of the specimen influence the result, therefore some standard means of comparison of results are necessary Scanned with CamScanner100 = A Textbook of Machine Design Asa esl of series of eperoents, Barba established Law that in tension, simi tes pieces deform picces ate suid to be similar if they have the same value of Fy where is the gauge will give the same similarly and to te Jengthand.t isthe eros-scetional area A litle consideration will show thatthe same mal percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area, Teas been found experimentally by Unssin thatthe general extension (up to the maximum load) is Proportional to the gauge length ofthe test piece and thatthe local extension (fiom maximum load 0 the ‘breaking load) is proportional othe square root ofthe cross-sectional area, According to Unvwi's formula. increase in length, aba 51 and percentage elongation = e100 where 1 > Gauge length, A = Cross-scetional area, and band C = Constants depending upon the quality ofthe materia The values of band C are determined by finding the values of 8! fortwo test pieces of known length (0) and area. Example 4.10, 4 mild steel rod of 12 mm diameter was tested for tensile strength with the gauge length of 60 mm, Following observations were recorded Final length = 80 mm: Final diameter = 7 mm; Yetd load = 34 kN and Ultimate load Calculate : 1. yield stress, 2. ultimate tensile stress, 3. percentage reduction in area, and 4. percentas Solution. Given : D = 12 mm: 3400 N; 1, = 6.1 kN = 6100 N ‘We know that original area ofthe rod, TAN. slongation. = 60. mm ; L = 80mm ;d= 7 mm; W, = 34 kN 13mm? and final area of the rod, 1. Vield stress We know that yield stress 3400 50.1 Nimm?= 30.1 MPa Ans. Ty 2. Ultimate tensile stress We know the ultimate tensile stress = He ost Nimm?= 54 MPa Ans. 4-18 3. Percentage reduction in area ‘We know that percentage reduction in area = 0.66 oF 66% Ans. Scanned with CamScanner‘Simple Stresses In Machine Parts = 101 4. Percentage elongation ‘We know that percentage elongation 60 Fp 7.28 0F 25% Ans. 4,12 Working Stress When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum or ultimate stress at which failure ofthe material takes place. This sess is known as the working stress ‘or design stress, tis also known as safe ot allowable stress. + Ry failure t snot meant actual breaking of the material, Some machine parts ae said to fall wben they have plastic deformation set i them, and they no more perform their function satisftory. 4.13 Factor of Safety Ikisdfined in pera. asthe rato ofthe maximum stress tothe working stress. Mathematically Maximum stress Working oF design stress Incase of ductile materials e mild steel where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor of safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such eases. ‘Yield point stress Factor of Sf6t¥ ~ Working or design stress Incase of bitte materials e.g, cast ron the yield point is not well defined as for ductile mate- rials. Therefore, the factor of safety for britle materials is based on ultimate stress Uhimate stress ‘Working oF design sess ‘This relation may also be used for ductile materials 2 Theabone relations for factor of safety ar for tate lading 4.14 Selection of Factor of Safety The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine component depends upon a number of considerations, such as the material, mode of manufacture, type of stress, {general service conditions and shape of the parts. Before selecting a proper factor of safety. design engincer should consider the following points : 1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these properties during ‘The reliability of test results and accuracy of application ofthese results to actual machine parts: The reliability of applied load ; ‘The certainty as to exact mode of failure ; ‘The extent of simplifying assumptions ; The extent of localised stresses ; The extent of intial stresses set up during manufacture; The extent of loss of life if failure occurs : and The extent of loss of property if failure occurs. Each of the above factors must be carefully considered and evaluated. The high factor of safety results in unnecessary risk of failure. The values of factor of safety based on ultimate strength for different materials and type of load are given inthe following table: Factor of safety = Factor of safety e See Scanned with CamScanner102 © A Textbook of Machine Design Table 4.3. Values of factor of safety. Materiat Steady load Live load Shock load Cast iron S06 Kio 12 Wrought iron 4 7 ‘Steel 4 8 ‘SoM materials and 6 ° alloys Leather ° 2 Is Timber 7 lows ey 4.15 Stresses in Composite Bars A composite bar may be defined as a bar mads up of two oF more different materials, joined together, in such a manner that the system extends or contracts as one unit, equally, when subjected to tension or compression. In case of composite bats, the following points should be kept in view: I. The extension or contraction of the bar being equal, the strain {¢. deformation per unit length is also equal 2. The total external load on the bar is equal to the sum of the loads carried by different materials Consider a composite bar made up of two different materials as shown in Fig. 4.13. Let P, = Load carried by bar 1. A, = Cross-sectional area of bar L, 49, = Stress produced in bar 1, E, = Young's modulus of bar 1, 6, E, = Corresponding values of bar 2, P = Total load on the composite bar, 1 = Length of the composite bar, and 41 = Elongation of the composite bar. Weknow that P= P/ +P; Stress in bar 1,6 andstrain inbar 1, e = 2. Elongation of bar 1, ‘A Material handing system Note: Ths picture is given as addtional information ‘ands nota direct example ofthe current chapter. Since Scanned with CamScanner‘Simple Stresses in Machine Parts = 103 Therefore, ae But AE AES AE; es in or PO PTE A, AE, oe aon Smitty P= PX Ge fron eel ) We know that 5, we = Sxe, 0) a, Bxe: W) Similarly, 6, fv) From the above equations, we can find out the stresses produced in the different bars. We also ‘know that From this equation, we can also find out the stresses preuced indifferent bars is known as moduler ratio ofthe wo materials 105 GNin and A bar 3 m long is made of wo bars, one of copper having E bar is stretched by a load of SOKN. Find the increase in length of the compound bar and the stress produced in the steel and copper The length of copper as well as of stee! aris 3 m each Solution. Given :f, = 1,=3m=3~ 10" mm: E, = 108 GNim = 105 kN/mm?: £, = 210 GNim? =2OKNimm? b= 28 mm:1= 12.5 mm: P= SOkN He sy Increase in length of the compound bar Let 8 = Increase in length of the compound bat. ‘The compound bar is shown in Fig. 4.14. We know that ‘cross-sectional area of each bar, 4, Copper Steel bx p= 28% 125 312S mm? Ts04N Fig 4.14 Scanned with CamScanner104 = A Textbook of Machine Design Load shared by the copper bar, E =Ppx xt faba RaPx ae Peete eA AD = 50x —!5_ = 16.67 kN 105+ 210 ana Tod shared bythe ssl ba, P, = PP, =50~1667= 3333 kN Since the elongation ofboth the basis equal, therefore RE Ph ATV BCE Ane, 25.105 ‘Stress produced in the steel and copper bar We know tat sess produced inthe tel bar, 52 mm Ans. and total load, PHPAP=0,4,+ 6,4, 2 50 = 20, 3125+, * 312. 50 /937.5 = 0.083 KN/mm 20,=2*$3=106Nimm? = 106 MPa Ans. Example 4.12. central steel md 18 mm diameter passes through a copper tube 24 mm inside ‘and 40 mm outside diameter, as shown in Fig. 415. is provided with nuts and washers at each end. The nuts are tightencd unil a stress of 10 MPa is setup in the steel ior tube Nw and Washer Fig. 48 The whole assembly is then placed in a lathe and turned along half the length of the tube removing the copper to-a depth of 1.5 mm. Calculate the stress now existing in the steel. Take E,=2E, Solution. Given : d, = 18mm ;d,=24:mm ; We know that eross-sectional arca of steel rod, (0 mm 6, = 10 MPa = 10 Nimm? z z 254.5 mm? A, ide ra 2545 and cosessctonal eso oper ibe a= SL § [ean! — 20%] =4084 We know that when the nuts are tightened on the tube, the steel rod wil copper tube in compression. Let 4g, = Stress in the copper tube. be under tension and the Scanned with CamScanner‘Simple Stresses in Machine Parts ® 105 ‘Since the tensile load on the steel rod is equal to the compressive load on the copper tube, therefore 6,*4,=9,*4, 10* 254.5 = 0, * 8044 ‘When the copper tube is reduced in the area for half of its length, then outside diameter of copper tube, =40-2% 1.5=37mm + Cross-sectional area of the half length of copper tube, i = Er = 24) =03 mm? “The eross-sectional area ofthe other alf remains same. Ibe the area ofthe remainderthen cy = 4, = 8084 ra! Let 4, = Compressive stress inthe reduced section, .. = Compressive stress in the reminder, and 4g, = Stress inthe rod after turing Since the load on the copper tube is equal to the load onthe see od, therefore 4a a 0 and 20, Ali) Let eth of the steel rod before and after tuning, 1 = Length of the steel rod and copper tube between nuts, {l, = Change in length of the reduced section (i.e. 1/2) before and after turning, and {), = Change in length of the remainder section (i.e. 2) before and after turing, ince 8 = 8, +8, or -(Concelling throughout) 6,, = 9.43 Nimm? = 9.43 MPa Ans. 4.16 Stresses due to Change in Temperature—Thermal Stresses Whenever there is some increase or decrease in the temperature ofa body, it causes the body to expand of contract, A little consideration will show that ifthe body is allowed to expand or contract freely, withthe rise ofall ofthe temperature, no stresses are induced in the bexly But, ifthe deformation of the body is prevented, some stresses are induced in the body. Suet known as thermal stresses. Scanned with CamScanner_A Textbook of Machine Design Original eng ofthe body, Roca fl of peta i Coctcien of them expansion oy sia gh, Wedes tr he ens of the Buy ae xed t seagedoeetan ihieln he bol has 7 supports, so that its expansion is prevented, then ‘Thermal stress, oy," €E= OE When a body is composed of to or different materials having different coefficient of thermal otes expsions, then due tothe ibjected to compressive stress whereas the material wit low coeficie in tenperate, the material with highcrcooicint of thermal expansion willbe ‘oF expansion will be subjected to ile tess. 2. When a thin tyre i shrunk on toa whee! of diameter D. its internal diameter dis ite less than the whee! diameter. When the tye is heated. its circumferanee a will increase to m D. In this condition iis Slipped on to the wheel, When it cool, it wants to return to its original cicurnference ed, but the wheel iit is assumed to be rigid, prevents it fom doing so. RD=nd Dod Suain,e = ASSES = Oe ‘This strain is known as circumferential or hoop sr Circumferential or hoop sess, _ E(D-ay a= £e= 20 Steet tes ofa ocomotv. Example 4.13.4 thin steel tyre ie shrunk on toa locomotive wh internal diameter ofthe tyre if after shrinking on. the hoop stress in the tyre is 100 MPa. Assur. E= 200kNimne. Find also the least temperature to which the tye must be heated above that of th wheel before it could be slipped on. The cocficien of linear expansion for theyre 186.5 10 § per °C. Solution. Given : D = 1.2 m= 1200 mm : 0= 100 MPa = 100 N/mm? ; £ = 200 kN/mm? = 200 * 10° Nimm?: a= 6.5 10° per °C Scanned with CamScanner‘Simple Stresses In Machine Parts_ © 107 Internal diameter of the tyre Let d = Intemal diameter of the tyre. We know that hoop stress (6), _ E(D=d) _ 20x10! (D-d) 109 = £2 " Dad, _ 100 0 d@ 200% 10" 2x 10° bay a a0 oe a - = 1199.4 mm =1.1994 m Ans. Toons * L005 Least temperature to which the fre must be hated Let {= Leas temperature to which theyre must be ested, We know that RD =nd+nd.as=nd(l +a {From qetion 0) a eC Ans. @x2x10" 65x10" x 2x10" Example 4.14, 4 composite bar made of aluminium and ste is held between the supports as shown in Fig, 416, The bars are stress free at a temperature of 37°C. What will be the stress in the vo Bars when the temperature is 20°C. if (a) the supports are unelding: and (b) the supports yield and come nearer to each other by 0.10 mm? 1 can be assumed thatthe change of temperat = 210 GPa; E, = 74 GPa: a, = 7 * 104°C: tuniform all along the length of the bar 34 x 104°C. Take: Aluminium Solution. Given : 4 = 37°C 2745 10" Nisa, LT 104°C, =0,025 mJ, = 6000 mm = 0.6m 1, = 300™mm=0.3 m Letus assume thatthe right suppor a Bis removed andthe har is allowed to contract freely due to the fallin temperature. We know that the fall in temperature, (=~ 237-208 IFC + Contraction in steel bar 41,1 1.7 = 108 «600% 17 and contraction in aluminium bar = Gy. 1,. f= 234 «10%» 300» 17= 0.12 mm “Total contraction = 0.12 + 0.12 =0.24 mm = 0.24» 10m Inmay be noted that even after this contraction (0.24 mm) in length, the ba is stil stress free as the right hand end was assumed free. Scanned with CamScanner 112 mm108 = A Textbook of Machine Design Let an axial force P is applied to the right end tll this end is brought in contact with the right ‘hand support at B, as shown in Aluminium ‘After contraction in length = Lig, Fig. 4.17 We know that erass-seetional area of the steel har, 1.968 > 10°? m? and cross-sectional area of the aluminium bar, aed 3 at = Eea,y = (0.0257 = 0.491 «107 m’ A, = FUd,y =F (0025) We know that elongation of the steel bar, Pxt, Px06 oor AXE, 1964x107 x 21010" 412.44 x10" 1455~ 10° Pm ofthe aluminium bar, ge Px03 -—0P_, * 0.491% 107 x 74x10" 36.334 x10" 57+ 10° Pm “Total elongation, I = Bi, + 8, = 1455 = 10° P+ 8.257 10°P=9.712 «10° Pm Let 6, = Stress in the steel bar. and 6, ~ Stress in the aluminium bar, (@) When the supports are unyielding ‘When the supports are unyielding, the total contraction is equated to the total elongation... 024108 =9.712*10°P or P=24712N Stress in the steel bar, G, = Pia, = 24712 /(1.964 » 10%) S82MPa Ans. 2.882 « 10" Ni and stress in the aluminium bar, 6, PrA,= 24 712 (0491 » 10) =50328 % 10! Nim? 50328MPa Ans. (6) When the supports yield by 0.1 mum \When the supports yield and come nearer to each other by 0.10 mm, the net contraction in dength = 024-0.1 = 0.14 mm=0.14 «103 m Scanned with CamScannerSimple Stresses in Machine Parts = 109 Equating this net contraction tothe total elongation, we have 0.14 «10 2. Stress in the steel har, 734MPa Ans. and stress in the aluminium bar, 9, = PIA, 14415 /(0.491 » 10° = 2936MPa Ans. 4G, = Pid, = 14.415 /(1.968 « 109) 9712 10"P or P=14415N 7340 * 108 Nim? 19 360 « 108 Nim? Example 4.15. 4 copper bar 50 mm in diameter is placed within a steel tube 75 mm external diameter and 50 mm internal diameter of exactly the same length. Tie ovo pieces are rigidly. fired together by two pins 18mm in diameter, one at each end passing through the arand tube. Calculate the stress induced in the copper bar, steel tube and pins if the temperature of the combination is 210GNime; E, = 105 GNime:, 210 «10 Nim? E, C50, = 17x 108°C ‘The copper bar ina steel tube is shown in Fig. 4.18. N.S «10°C and a, = 17 * 10°C. 0 mm: d,, = 78 mm: d,,= $0 mm; d, = 18 mm = 0.018 m: 05 GNim* 105 * 10? Nim? E sectnte Pin Fig 418 ‘We know that cross-sectional area of the copper bar, g rac and cross-sectional area of the steel tube, Bfeg yt A= Fld -e = 2455 «10 mi 1964 mm’ 1964 x 10°% mi? =F [ea ~ (907"] = 2455 mm* Let 1 = Length of the copper bar and steel tube. ‘We know that free expansion of copper bar a. f= 1T* 10% «1 50= 850 «1061 and free expansion of steel tube =a, + Difference in free expansion I= ILS 10% 1 50> 575 * 1087 = 850 106/- 575 * 106/=275« 105 a) Scanned with CamScanner