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Communications Circuits
Communications Circuits
Describe basic superheterodyne receivers Digital data consisting of a series of binary digits (1s and 0s)
are commonly sent from one computer to another over the
Discuss the function ofa linear multiplier
telephone lines. Two voltage levels are used to represent the
Discuss the fundamentals of amplitude modulation two types of bits, a high-voltage level and a low-voltage
level. The data stream is made up of time intervals when the
Discuss the basic function of a mixer
voltage has a constant high value or a constant low value
Describe AM demodulation with very fast transitions from one level to the other. In
other words, the data stream contains very low frequencies
Describe IF and audio amplifiers
(constant-voltage intervals) and very high frequencies
Describe frequency modulation (transitions). Since the standard telephone system has a
bandwidth of approximately 300 Hz to 3000 Hz, it cannot
Describe a phase-locked loop (PLL)
handle the very low and the very high frequencies that
make up a typical data stream without losing most of the
information. Because of the bandwidth limitation of the
KEY TERMS telephone system, it is necessary to modify digital data
before they are sent out; and one method of doing this is
Amplitude modulation (AM) with frequency shift keying (FSK), which is a form of
Frequency modulation (FM) frequency modulation.
A simplified block diagram ofa digital communications
Four-quadrant multiplier equipment (DCE) system for interfacing digital terminal
Balanced modulation equipment (DTE), such as a computer, to the telephone
network is shown in the system application. The system FSK-
Mixer modulates digital data before they are transmitted over the
Phase-locked loop (PLL) phone line and demodulates FSK signals received from
another computer. Because the DCE’s basic function is to
Lock range modulate and demodulate, it is called a modem. Although
Capture range the modem performs many associated functions, in this
system application our focus will be on the modulation and
demodulation circuits.
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitede modelation (A) is a method for sending audible information, such as voice
and music, by electromagnetic waves that are broadcast through the atmosphere. In AM,
the amplitude of a signal with a specific frequency (f,), called the carrier, is varied accord-
ing to a modulating signal, which can be an audio signal (voice or music), as shown in
Figure 17-1. The carrier frequency permits the receiver to be tuned to a specific known fre-
quency. The resulting AM waveform contains the carrier frequency, an upper-side fre-
quency equal to the carrier frequency plus the modulation frequency (f. + f,,), and a
lower-side frequency equal to the carrier frequency minus the modulation frequency (f. — f,,,).
Por example, if a | MHz carrier is amplitude modulated with a 5 kHz audio signal, the fre-
quency components in the AM waveform are | MHz (carrier), | MHz + 5 kHz =
1,005,000 Hz (upper side), and 1 MHz — 5 kHz = 995,000 Hz (lower side). Harmonics of
these frequencies are also present.
AI Nes | laa] . Nh
sinusoidal signal. N. 3
WW WA | | WANING
NIISY SIE
IL)
NUTT?
UY
The frequency band for AM broadcast receivers is 540 kHz to 1640 kHz. This means
that an AM receiver can be tuned to pick up a specific carrier frequency that lies in the
broadcast band. Each AM radio station transmits at a specific carrier frequency that is dif-
ferent from any other station in the area, so you can tune the receiver to pick up any desired
station.
3:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
818 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
= ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ818
17-1 BASIC RECEIVERS
ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ17-1
Receivers based on the superheterodyne principle are standard in one form or another
ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻨﺪﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ ﻗﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﻭ ﺑﺂﺧﺮ
in most types of communications systems and are found in familiar systems such as
ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﻭﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺄﻟﻮﻓﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ
standard broadcast radio, stereo, and television. In several of the system applications in
ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻓﻲ.ﺍﻟﺒﺚ ﺍﻹﺫﺍﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺘﻴﺮﻳﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﻳﻮﻥ
previous chapters, we presented the superheterodyne receiver in order to focus on a
ﻗﺪﻣﻨﺎ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃ،ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ
given circuit; now we cover it from a system viewpoint. This section provides a basic
ﻳﻮﻓﺮ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ.ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻧﺤﻦ ﻧﻐﻄﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ
introduction to amplitude modulation and frequency modulation and an overview of
ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻭﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﻟﻤﺤﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻋﻦ
the complete AM and FM receiver.
. ﻛﺎﻣﻞFM ﻭAM ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
After completing this section, you should be able to
ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ،ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ
= Describe basic superheterodyne receivers
= ﻭﺻﻒ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻗﻲ
= Define AM and FM
FM ﻭAM = ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ
= Discuss the major functional blocks of an AM receiver
AM = ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
= Discuss the major functional blocks of an FM receiver
FM = ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
Amplitude Modulation
ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ
Amplitede modelation (A) is a method for sending audible information, such as voice
ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ،( ﻫﻲ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻹﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﺴﻤﻮﻋﺔA) ﻧﻤﺬﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻯ
and music, by electromagnetic waves that are broadcast through the atmosphere. In
AM,
، ﻓﻲ ﺻﺒﺎﺣﺎ. ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﺚ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻱ،ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺳﻴﻘﻰ
the amplitude of a signal with a specific frequency (f,), called the carrier, is varied accord-
ﻭﻓﻘﺎ ﻟـ،( ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ،f) ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﺗﺴﺎﻉ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ
ing to a modulating signal, which can be an audio signal (voice or music), as shown in
ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ،( ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺻﻮﺗﻴﺔ )ﺻﻮﺕ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻮﺳﻴﻘﻰ،ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ
Figure 17-1. The carrier frequency permits the receiver to be tuned to a specific known
fre-
. ﻳﺴﻤﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻀﺒﻂ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﺤﺪﺩ ﻣﻌﺮﻭﻑ.1-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
quency. The resulting AM waveform contains the carrier frequency, an upper-side fre-
. ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮ، ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔAM ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ.ﻛﻮﻳﻨﺴﻲ
quency equal to the carrier frequency plus the modulation frequency (f. + f,,), and a
quency ( ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞf. + f،،)، ﻭa
lower-side frequency equal to the carrier frequency minus the modulation frequency (f.
— f,,,).
.(,,,f. — f) ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻄﺮﻭﺣﺎ ﻣﻨﻪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ
Por example, if a | MHz carrier is amplitude modulated with a 5 kHz audio signal, the fre-
ﻭﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ، ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ5 ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ | ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ ﺑﺈﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺻﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺗﺒﻠﻎ،ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ
ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ
quency components in the AM waveform are | MHz (carrier), | MHz + 5 kHz =
= ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ5 + | ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ،( ﻫﻲ | ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ )ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞAM ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ
1,005,000 Hz (upper side), and 1 MHz — 5 kHz = 995,000 Hz (lower side). Harmonics of
ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻓﻘﻴﺎﺕ.( ﻫﺮﺗﺰ )ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ995,000 = ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ5 — ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ1 ﻭ،(ﻫﺮﺗﺰ )ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ
1,005,000
these frequencies are also present.
.ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ
FIGURE 17-1 Amplitude Bars
ﻗﻀﺒﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ1-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
j A — Carrierire
ﻛﺎﺭﻳﺮﻳﺮ- ﻱ ﺃ
A m n o du e l x a a t m e p d l e si o g f n al a . n a In m p t l hi i s t u c d a e se , “fya s Lo
emnovdeullopuPeee d LA2 7 yn N UN fa »
A m n o du e l x a a t me e p d l e si o g f n al a . n a In m p t l hi i s tu c d a e se , “fya s Lo
emnovdeullopuPeee d LA2 7 yn N UN fa »
t m h o e d u h l i a g t h e e d r -f b r y e q a ue l n o c w y e r- c f ar r r e i q er u en is cy “f)Z \ ae
x {| ‘ 7 4 4 7 | \ | \ f y hy3 aff}pa \ r \|
t m h o e d u h l i a g t h e e d r -f b r y e q a ue l n o c w y e r- c f ar r r e i q er u en is cy “f)Z \ ae
x {| ‘ 7 4 4 7 | \ | \ f y hy3 aff}pa \ r \|
AI N. Nes 3 | laa] . Nh
ﻧﻪ. [ ﻧﺺ ﻉ | ﻻ.ﺃﻱ ﻥ
sinusoidal signal.
.ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ
WW WA | | WANING
ﺩﺑﻠﻴﻮ ﺩﺑﻠﻴﻮ ﻭﺍ | | ﺗﺮﺍﺟﻊ
NII SIE NUTT?
ﻫﻞ ﺃﻧﺖ ﻣﺠﻨﻮﻥ؟
SY IL) UY
UY (ﻭ ﺇﻳﻞ
The frequency band for AM broadcast receivers is 540 kHz to 1640 kHz. This means
ﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ. ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ1640 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﻟﻰ540 ﻫﻮAM ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺚ
that an AM receiver can be tuned to pick up a specific carrier frequency that lies in the
ﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ ﻳﻘﻊ ﻓﻲAM ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
broadcast band. Each AM radio station transmits at a specific carrier frequency that is
dif-
. ﺑﺎﻹﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺤﺪﺩ ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮAM ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﻛﻞ ﻣﺤﻄﺔ ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻮ.ﻓﺮﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺚ
ferent from any other station in the area, so you can tune the receiver to pick up any
desired
ﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﻻﻟﺘﻘﺎﻁ ﺃﻱ ﺷﻲﺀ ﺗﺮﻳﺪﻩ،ﻧﻘﻠﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻱ ﻣﺤﻄﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ
station.
.ﻣﺤﻄﺔ
BASIC RECEIVERS 819
Antenna
Speaker
Audio and a
RF Mixer i ‘ Detector
amplifier amplifier
amplifiers
1 T
| AGC
| T
| I
Local
Gang tuned | _ oscillator
FIGURE 17-2
Antenna The antenna picks up all radiated signals and feeds them into the RF amplifier.
These signals are very small (usually only a few microvolts).
RF Amplifier This circuit can be adjusted (tuned) to select and amplify any carrier fre-
quency within the AM broadcast band. Only the selected frequency and its two side bands
pass through the amplifier. (Some AM receivers do not have a separate RF amplifier stage.)
Local Oscillator This circuit generates a steady sine wave at a frequency 455 kHz above
the selected RF frequency.
Mixer This circuit accepts two inputs, the amplitude modulated RF signal from the out-
put of the RF amplifier (or the antenna when there is no RF amplifier) and the sinusoidal
output of the local oscillator (LO). These two signals are then “mixed” by a nonlinear
process called heterodyning to produce sum and difference frequencies. For example, if the
RF carrier has a frequency of 1000 kHz, the LO frequency is 1455 kHz and the sum and
difference frequencies out of the mixer are 2455 kHz and 455 kHz, respectively. The dif-
ference frequency is always 455 kHz no matter what the RF carrier frequency.
IF Amplifier The input to the IF amplifier is the 455 kHz AM signal, a replica of the orig-
inal AM carrier signal except that the frequency has been lowered to 455 kHz. The IF am-
plifier significantly increases the level of this signal.
Detector This circuit recovers the modulating signal (audio signal) from the 455 kHz in-
termediate frequency (IF). At this point the IF is no longer needed, so the output of the de-
tector consists of only the audio signal.
Audio and Power Amplifiers This circuit amplifies the detected audio signal and drives
the speaker to produce sound.
AGC The automatic gain control (AGC) provides a dc level out of the detector that is pro-
portional to the strength of the received signal. This level is fed back to the IF amplifier, and
sometimes to the mixer and RF amplifier, to adjust the gains so as to maintain constant sig-
nal levels throughout the system over a wide range of incoming carrier signal strengths.
4:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
BASIC RECEIVERS 819
819 ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻠﻤﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﻮﻥ
The Superheterodyne AM Receiver
ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻗﻲAM ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
A block diagram of a superheterodyne AM receiver is shown in Figure 17—2. The
receiver
ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ. ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖAM ﺭﺳﻤﺎ ﺗﺨﻄﻴﻄﻴﺎ ﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ2-17 ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
shown consists of an antenna, an RF (radio frequency) amplifier, a mixer, a local oscillator
ﻭﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻣﺤﻠﻲ، ﻭﺧﻼﻁ،( )ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺩﻳﻮRF ﻭﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺻﻮﺕ،ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺿﺢ ﻣﻦ ﻫﻮﺍﺋﻲ
(LO), an IF (intermediate frequency) amplifier, a detector, an audio amplifier, a power
am-
(LO)، ﻣﻀﺨﻢIF ( ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ، ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺻﻮﺕ، ﻛﺎﺷﻒ،(ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ.
plifier, and a speaker.
. ﻭﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ،ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
Antenna
ﻫﻮﺍﺋﻲ
Speaker
ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
Audio and a
ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭ ﺃ
RF Mixer i ‘ Detector
ﺧﻼﻁ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ
amplifier amplifier
ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ
amplifiers
ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
1T
ﺕ1
| AGC
| ﺍﻳﻪ ﺟﻲ ﺳﻲ
|T
|ﺕ
|I
| ﺃﻧﺎ
Local
ﻣﺤﻠﻲ
Gang tuned | _ oscillator
ﻋﺼﺎﺑﺔ ﺿﺒﻄﻬﺎ | _ ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ
FIGURE 17-2
2-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Superheterodyne AM receiver block diagram.
.Superheterodyne AM ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
Antenna The antenna picks up all radiated signals and feeds them into the RF amplifier.
.ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍﺋﻲ ﻳﻠﺘﻘﻂ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍﺋﻲ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻌﺔ ﻭﻳﺪﺧﻠﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ
These signals are very small (usually only a few microvolts).
.(ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺻﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﺟﺪﺍ )ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺑﻀﻌﺔ ﻣﻴﻜﺮﻭﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﻓﻘﻂ
RF Amplifier This circuit can be adjusted (tuned) to select and amplify any carrier fre-
.( ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺿﺒﻂ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ )ﺿﺒﻄﻬﺎ( ﻻﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻭﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺃﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺣﺎﻣﻠﺔRF) ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ
quency within the AM broadcast band. Only the selected frequency and its two side
bands
ﻓﻘﻂ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ ﻭﻧﻄﺎﻗﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﻴﻦ.AM ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺒﺚ
pass through the amplifier. (Some AM receivers do not have a separate RF amplifier
stage.)
(. ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﻣﻨﻔﺼﻠﺔ ﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲAM )ﻻ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ.ﻋﺒﺮ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ
ﺗﻤﺮ
Local Oscillator This circuit generates a steady sine wave at a frequency 455 kHz above
ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ455 ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﺗﻮﻟﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ
the selected RF frequency.
.ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ
Mixer This circuit accepts two inputs, the amplitude modulated RF signal from the out-
ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﻤﻨﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺝ،ﺧﻼﻁ ﺗﻘﺒﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﺪﺧﻠﻴﻦ
put of the RF amplifier (or the antenna when there is no RF amplifier) and the sinusoidal
ﻭﺿﻊ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ )ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﺍﺋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻋﺪﻡ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ( ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻲ
output of the local oscillator (LO). These two signals are then “mixed” by a nonlinear
ﻳﺘﻢ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ "ﺧﻠﻂ" ﻫﺎﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺧﻄﻴﺔ.(LO) ﺧﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ
process called heterodyning to produce sum and difference frequencies. For example, if
the
ﺇﺫﺍ، ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ.ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ
RF carrier has a frequency of 1000 kHz, the LO frequency is 1455 kHz and the sum and
ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭ1455 ﻫﻮLO ﺗﺮﺩﺩ، ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ1000 ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ ﻟﺪﻳﻪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ
difference frequencies out of the mixer are 2455 kHz and 455 kHz, respectively. The dif-
- ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ. ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻟﻲ455 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻭ2455 ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻫﻲ
ference frequency is always 455 kHz no matter what the RF carrier frequency.
. ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺑﻐﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ455 ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺟﻌﻲ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ
IF Amplifier The input to the IF amplifier is the 455 kHz AM signal, a replica of the orig-
. ﻭﻫﻲ ﻧﺴﺨﺔ ﻃﺒﻖ ﺍﻷﺻﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻲ، ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ455 ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩAM ﻫﻮ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓIF ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻀﺨﻢIF ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
inal AM carrier signal except that the frequency has been lowered to 455 kHz. The IF am-
- ﺇﺫﺍ ﺻﺒﺎﺣﺎ. ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ455 ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺀ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺨﻔﻴﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺇﻟﻰAM ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ
plifier significantly increases the level of this signal.
.ﻳﺰﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ
Detector This circuit recovers the modulating signal (audio signal) from the 455 kHz in-
- ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻓﻲ455 ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻌﺎﺩﺓ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ )ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ( ﻣﻦ:ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ
termediate frequency (IF). At this point the IF is no longer needed, so the output of the
de-
- ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺇﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﺩﻱ،IF ﻋﻨﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻌﺪ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ.(IF) ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ
tector consists of only the audio signal.
. ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﻓﻘﻂtector ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ
Audio and Power Amplifiers This circuit amplifies the detected audio signal and drives
ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺸﻔﺔ ﻭﻣﺤﺮﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻗﺮﺍﺹ
the speaker to produce sound.
.ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻹﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
AGC The automatic gain control (AGC) provides a dc level out of the detector that is pro-
AGC ( ﻳﻮﻓﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻘﺎﺋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻜﺴﺐAGC) ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺗﻴﺎﺭ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ
portional to the strength of the received signal. This level is fed back to the IF amplifier,
and
ﻭ،IF ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻣﺮﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ.ﻳﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻊ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﺔ
sometimes to the mixer and RF amplifier, to adjust the gains so as to maintain constant
sig-
ﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﺳﺐ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﻠﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ،ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﻣﺰﺝ ﺍﻷﺻﻮﺍﺕ ﻭﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ
ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﺣﻴﺎﻥ
nal levels throughout the system over a wide range of incoming carrier signal strengths.
.ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺃﻧﺤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻋﺒﺮ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﻭﺍﺳﻊ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ
820 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
Figure 17-3 shows the signal flow through an AM superheterodyne receiver. The re-
ceiver can be tuned to accept any frequency in the AM band. The RF amplifier, mixer, and
local oscillator are tuned simultaneously so that the LO frequency is always 455 kHz above
the incoming RF signal frequency. This is called gang tuning.
RF gs Mixer
: : IF fe ' Detector
vo
Audio and
power 4
é/ \
amplifier amplifier ,
amplifiers
A f | | Sound
/| Bats
Yudio
waves
Tuned TS {? ‘
ct | \.
| : i
Local |
oscillator,
LO f+ 455 kHz
FIGURE 17-3
Frequency Modulation
[2 _iIn frequency modulation (FM), the modulating signal (audio) varies the frequency of a
carrier as opposed to the amplitude, as in the case of AM. Figure 17-4 illustrates basic fre-
quency modulation. The standard FM broadcast band consists of carrier frequencies from
88 MHz to 108 MHz, which is significantly higher than AM.
FIGURE 17-4
An example of frequency 4 s t=
I aT
| ‘\
modulation.
Modulating \. J \. 7 f
signal | i\ /\ iN VA
I ! \. ! | AF
\ | \ | \ | | |
| 1 I | | | | |
| 1 1 | I | ' |
| ! | | I | | !
| \ l | | ! ' |
| ! | | I | I |
| | | l \ | ' !
| | | | I | \ |
| i t | I | ' !
NINN
LAAN nl on |
A A AANANNA AI
nh I nina n\n n |
A
1 lee ee
i
yooh
!boone
AGC 4 | *
/ / De-emphasis | | Audio and power |
' i network amplifiers
1 aay
i /
fo /_ | Local
Gang tuned oscillator
FIGURE 17-5
88 MHz-108 MHz
electromagnetic \
waves ' 10.7 MHz 0.7 MHz
EM 0.7 MHz FM Amplified FM Limited FM
= , | :
| |
RF ; IF | re | woof
ve [> Mixer [ ¢. [t>| Limiter +.) Discriminator
amplifier amplifier
| Y__—— Audio
Local
- j
Compensated Amplified
Sound
oscillator audia audio
FIGURE 17-6
RF Amplifier This circuit must be capable of amplifying any frequency between 88 MHz
and 108 MHz. It is highly selective so that it passes only the selected carrier frequency and
significant side-band frequencies that contain the audio.
Local
acal
) Occilintns
This circuit produces a sine wave at a frequency 10.7 MHz above the se-
lected RF frequency.
6:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
BASIC RECEIVERS 821
821 ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻠﻤﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﻮﻥ
The Superheterodyne FM Receiver
FM Superheterodyne ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
The FM receiver is similar to the AM receiver in many ways, but there are several differ-
. ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ، ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺣﻲAM ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝFM ﻳﺸﺒﻪ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
ences. A block diagram of a superheterodyne FM receiver is shown in Figure 17-5.
Notice
ences. ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﺨﻄﻴﻄﻲ ﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ5-17 ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞFM ﻳﻼﺣﻆ.ﻣﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﻳﺔ
that it includes an RF amplifier, mixer, local oscillator, and IF amplifier just as in the AM
AM ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻝ ﻓﻲIF ﻭﻣﻀﺨﻢ، ﻭﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻣﺤﻠﻲ، ﻭﺧﻼﻁ،ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ
ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﺸﺘﻤﻞ
receiver. These circuits must, however, operate at higher frequencies than in the AM
sys-
.AM ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ، ﻭﻣﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ.ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻲ
tem. A significant difference in FM is the way the audio signal must be recovered from
the
FM ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻠﻒFM ﻳﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ.ﺗﻴﻢ
modulated IF. This is accomplished by the limiter, discriminator, and de-emphasis
network.
. ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﻭﺇﻟﻐﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ.ﻣﻌﺪﻟﺔ ﺇﺫﺍ
Figure 17-6 depicts the signal flow through an FM receiver.
.FM ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ17-6 ﻭﻳﺼﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
RF 7 | Mixer 4 ve 1 I Limiter |+—» Discriminator
—« ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻴﺰ+| Mixer 4 ve 1 I Limiter | 7 ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ
amplifier amplifier (Detector)
(ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ )ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ
—|7;1
١;—|ﺡ
!|
!|
i / !| I| |*
*| | !| ﺃﻧﺎ/ ﺃﻧﺎ
1 i AGC
ﺁﻱ ﺟﻲ ﺳﻲ1
A lee ee yooh boone 4
4 ﻟﻲ ﺇﻱ ﻳﻮﻩ ﺑﻮﻥ
/ / De-emphasis | | Audio and power |
| ﺇﻟﻐﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ | | ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ//
' i network amplifiers
'ﺃﻧﺎ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ
1 a ay
ﺃ ﻫﻮ1
fi /_/
/_/ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ
o | Local
ﺱ | ﻣﺤﻠﻲ
Gang tuned oscillator
ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻁ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺎﺑﺔ
FIGURE 17-5
5-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Superheterodyne FM receiver block diagram.
. ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻗﻲFM ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
88 MHz-108 MHz
ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ108- ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ88
electromagnetic \
\ ﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﻭﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﻴﺴﻲ
waves ' 10.7 MHz 0.7 MHz
ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ0.7 ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ10.7 ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎﺕ
EM 0.7 MHz FM Amplified FM Limited FM
EM 0.7 ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰFM ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢFM ﻣﺤﺪﻭﺩFM
=,|:
=,|:
||
||
RF ; IF | re | woof
ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ ؛ ﺇﺫﺍ | ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ | ﺍﻟﻠﺤﻤﺔ
ve [> Mixer [ ¢. [t>| Limiter +.) Discriminator
( ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ.+ ]ﺭ<| ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ.¢ ] ﻟﻘﺪ ]< ﺧﻼﻁ
amplifier amplifier
ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ
| Y__—— Audio
| ﻭ__—— ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
' De-emphasis‘ Audio, and
ﻭ،"ﺇﻟﻐﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ" ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
. _ —~t]
[ _ —~ﺭ.
{‘ + 10.7 MH z ampploiwfesier 4
{' + 10.sh МХ ﻣﻊamploivfesier h
el ee network e rs /
/ RS ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻩ ﻩ
- j Sound
ﻱ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ-
Local Compensated Amplified
ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ
oscillator audia audio
ﺍﺳﺘﻤﻊ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺻﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ
FIGURE 17-6
6-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Example of signal flow through an FM receiver.
.FM ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
RF Amplifier This circuit must be capable of amplifying any frequency between 88 MHz
ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ88 ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺃﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺑﻴﻦ
and 108 MHz. It is highly selective so that it passes only the selected carrier frequency
and
ﺇﻧﻪ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﻳﺔ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻳﻤﺮﺭ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ ﻭ. ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ108 ﻭ
significant side-band frequencies that contain the audio.
.ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻲ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
Loac) caall Occilintns This circuit produces a sine wave at a frequency 10.7 MHz above
the se-
Loac) caall Occilintns ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻓﻮﻕ10.7 ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩSE-
lected RF frequency.
.ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩﺓ
822 s COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
Mixer This circuit performs the same function as in the AM receiver, except that its out-
put is a 10.7 MHz FM signal regardless of the RF carrier frequency.
IF Amplifier This circuit amplifies the 10.7 MHz FM signal.
Limiter The limiter removes any unwanted variations in the amplitude of the FM signal
as it comes out of the IF amplifier and produces a constant amplitude FM output at the
10.7 MHz intermediate frequency.
Discriminator This circuit performs the equivalent function of the detector in an AM sys-
tem and is sometimes called a detector rather than a discriminator. The discriminator re-
covers the audio from the FM signal.
De-emphasis Network For certain reasons, the higher modulating frequencies are ampli-
fied more than the lower frequencies at the transmitting end of an FM system by a process
called preemphasis. The de-emphasis circuit in the FM receiver brings the high-frequency
audio signals back to the proper amplitude relationship with the lower frequencies.
Audio and Power Amplifiers This circuit is the same as in the AM system and can be
shared when there is a dua) AM/FM configuration.
| SECTION 17-1
REVIEW 1. What do AM and FM mean?
Answers are at the end 2. How do AM and FM differ?
of the chapter. 3. What are the standard broadcast frequency bands for AM and FM?
Multiplier Quadrants
There are one-quadrant, two-quadrant, and four-quadrant multipliers. The quadrant classi-
fication indicates the number of input polarity combinations that the multiplier can handle.
A graphical representation of the quadrants is shown in Figure 17-7. A four-quadrant
multiplier can accept any of the four possible input polarity combinations and produce an
output with the corresponding polarity.
7:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
822 s COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
ﻕ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ822
Mixer This circuit performs the same function as in the AM receiver, except that its out-
ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺀ ﺃﻥ ﺧﺮﺟﻬﺎ،AM ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﺗﺆﺩﻱ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
put is a 10.7 MHz FM signal regardless of the RF carrier frequency.
. ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺑﻐﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ10.7 ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩFM ﻳﺘﻢ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ
IF Amplifier This circuit amplifies the 10.7 MHz FM signal.
. ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﺮﺗﺰ10.7 ﺑﺘﺮﺩﺩFM ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ:IF ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
Limiter The limiter removes any unwanted variations in the amplitude of the FM signal
FM ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ ﺑﺈﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺃﻱ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺮﻏﻮﺏ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻌﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ
as it comes out of the IF amplifier and produces a constant amplitude FM output at the
ﺑﺴﻌﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻋﻨﺪFM ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺧﺮﺝIF ﻷﻧﻪ ﻳﺨﺮﺝ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
10.7 MHz intermediate frequency.
. ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﺮﺗﺰ10.7 ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ
Discriminator This circuit performs the equivalent function of the detector in an AM sys-
.AM ﺗﺆﺩﻱ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ ﻟﻠﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ:ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻴﺰ
tem and is sometimes called a detector rather than a discriminator. The discriminator re-
tem ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ.ﻭﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎ ﻛﺎﺷﻔﺎ ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ﺗﻤﻴﻴﺰﺍ
covers the audio from the FM signal.
.FM ﻳﻐﻄﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ
De-emphasis Network For certain reasons, the higher modulating frequencies are
ampli-
. ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻷﻋﻠﻰ،ﺇﻟﻐﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ ﻷﺳﺒﺎﺏ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ
fied more than the lower frequencies at the transmitting end of an FM system by a
process
ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔFM ﺗﻢ ﺇﺭﺳﺎﻟﻪ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻃﺮﻑ ﺍﻹﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ
called preemphasis. The de-emphasis circuit in the FM receiver brings the
high-frequency
ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲFM ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ.ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﻖ
audio signals back to the proper amplitude relationship with the lower frequencies.
.ﺗﻌﻮﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ
Audio and Power Amplifiers This circuit is the same as in the AM system and can be
ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻛﺬﻟﻚAM ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻫﻲ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ
shared when there is a dua) AM/FM configuration.
.AM/FM ﻳﺘﻢ ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻛﺘﻬﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺩﻋﺎﺀ( ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ
| SECTION 17-1
1-17 | ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ
1. What do AM and FM mean?
؟FM ﻭAM ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ.1
REVIEW
ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ
Answers are at the end 2. How do AM and FM differ?
؟FM ﻭAM ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻒ.2 ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﻳﺔ
of the chapter. 3. What are the standard broadcast frequency bands for AM and FM?
؟FM ﻭAM ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﻧﻄﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺒﺚ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟـ.3 .ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ
17-2 THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER
ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ17-2
The linear multiplier is a key circuit in many types of communications systems. In this
ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ.ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻫﻮ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ
section, you will examine the basic principles of IC linear multipliers and look at a few
ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺔ ﻭﺇﻟﻘﺎﺀ ﻧﻈﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻗﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﺎIC ﺳﻮﻑ ﺗﺪﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺎﺕ،ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ
applications that are found in communications as well as in other areas. In the
ﻓﻲ ﺍﻝ.ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ
following sections, we will concentrate on multiplier applications in AM and FM
FM ﻭAM ﺳﻨﺮﻛﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ،ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻗﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ
systems.
.ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ
After completing this section, you should be able to
ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ،ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ
= Discuss the function of a linear multiplier
= ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ
= Describe multiplier quadrants and transfer characteristic
= ﻭﺻﻒ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ ﻭﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ
= Discuss scale factor
= ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻢ
= Show how to use a multiplier circuit as a multiplier, squaring circuit, divide circuit,
، ﻭﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ، ﻭﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻊ،= ﺃﻇﻬﺮ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ ﻛﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ
square root circuit, and mean square circuit
ﻭﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ،ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ
Multiplier Quadrants
ﺍﻷﺭﺑﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ
There are one-quadrant, two-quadrant, and four-quadrant multipliers. The quadrant
classi-
ﺍﻟﺼﻨﻒ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﺎﻋﻲ. ﻭﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺃﺭﺑﺎﻉ، ﻭﺍﻟﺮﺑﻌﻴﻦ،ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻔﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺮﺑﻊ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ
fication indicates the number of input polarity combinations that the multiplier can
handle.
. ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻬﺎfication ﻳﺸﻴﺮ
A graphical representation of the quadrants is shown in Figure 17-7. A four-quadrant
ﺭﺑﺎﻋﻴﺔ.7-17 ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﺗﻤﺜﻴﻞ ﺭﺳﻮﻣﻲ ﻟﻸﺭﺑﺎﻉ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
multiplier can accept any of the four possible input polarity combinations and produce
an
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻘﺒﻞ ﺃﻳﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ
output with the corresponding polarity.
ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ.
THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER @ 823
+V FIGURE 17-7
O
®
(-V (-¥)= +" (4V 1-V) =-V2
Figure 17-8 shows the transfer characteristic for a typical IC linear multiplier of two input
voltages Vy and Vy. Values of Vy run along the horizontal axis and values of Vy are the
sloped lines. To find the output voltage from the transfer characteristic graph, find the in-
tersection of the two input voltages Vy and V,. Then find the output voltage by projecting
the point of intersection over to the vertical axis. An example will illustrate this.
FIGURE 17-8
Le i
KXY —-. A four-quadrant multiplier transfer
a a characteristic.
NN
~~ ss. o>
s AN __|
S
%2 vy=r20N
6 Vy=0V
2 |My 3 ,
2 50 —~2.0\
5 2, _
° | be
5 -4.0 | { . | | | a is = ~6.)
Ns L gece
-6.0 . |t — . RL On
-8.0 t
-10 :
-10 -80 -60 -40 -2.0 0 42.0 +40 +60 +80 +10
Vy, input voltage (volts)
EXAMPLE 17-1
Determine the output voltage for a four-quadrant linear multiplier whose transfer
characteristic is given in Figure 17-8. The input voltages are Vy = —4 V and
Vy = +10V.
Solution The output voltage is —4 V as illustrated in Figure 17-9. For this transfer
characteristic, the output voltage is a factor of ten smaller than the actual product of
the two input voltages. This is due to the scale factor of the multiplier, which is
discussed next.
8:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER @ 823
823 @ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ
+V FIGURE 17-7
7-17 ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ+
Four-quadrant polarities and their
ﻗﻄﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﺎﻋﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺧﺼﺎﺋﺼﻬﺎ
products.
.ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ
(-V 4) = VP (+V i+V= )+V 7
(-V h) = ( ﺍﻟﺴﻜﻚ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪﻳﺔ+V i+V= )+V sht
O
ﻳﺎ
®
®
(-V (-¥)= +" (4V 1-V) =-V2
(-V (-¥)= +" (4V 1-V) =-V2
The Multiplier Transfer Characteristic
ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ
Figure 17-8 shows the transfer characteristic for a typical IC linear multiplier of two input
ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻲ ﻟﻤﺪﺧﻠﻴﻦIC ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺧﻄﻲ8-17 ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
voltages Vy and Vy. Values of Vy run along the horizontal axis and values of Vy are the
ﻫﻲVy ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻷﻓﻘﻲ ﻭﻗﻴﻢVy ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻗﻴﻢ.Vy ﻭVy ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ
sloped lines. To find the output voltage from the transfer characteristic graph, find the
in-
ﺍﺑﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ، ﻟﻠﻌﺜﻮﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﻲ ﻟﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ.ﺧﻄﻮﻁ ﻣﺎﺋﻠﺔ
tersection of the two input voltages Vy and V,. Then find the output voltage by
projecting
ﺛﻢ ﺍﺑﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻹﺳﻘﺎﻁ.V ﻭVy ﺗﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﺟﻬﺪﻱ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ
the point of intersection over to the vertical axis. An example will illustrate this.
. ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﻫﺬﺍ.ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﻃﻊ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﺃﺳﻲ
FIGURE 17-8
8-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Le i
ﺃﻧﺎ
KXY —-. A four-quadrant multiplier transfer
ﻧﻘﻞ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺭﺑﺎﻋﻲ.-— ﻛﻜﺴﻲ
a a characteristic.
.ﺧﺎﺻﻴﺔ
NN
ﻥ.ﻥ
~~ ss. o>
< ﺱ.~~ ﺳﺲ
s AN __|
|__ ﻕ
S
ﺱ
%2 vy=r20N
Р20Н = ﺃﻧﺖ%2
6 Vy=0V
ﻓﻮﻟﺖ0 = ﻓﻲ6
22 50 |My —~32 .0\ ,
, \0. 32~— |ﺑﻠﺪﻱ50 22
5 2, _
5 2, _
° | be
| ﻳﻜﻮﻥ°
5 -4.0 | { . | | | a is = ~6.)
(.6~ = | | | ﺃ ﻫﻮ. } | 4.0- 5
Ns L gece
Ns L ﻟﻴﻠﺔ
-6.0. t| — . RL On
ﺭﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ. — | ﺭ.6.0-
-8.0 t
ﻃﻦ8.0-
-10 :
-١٠ :
-10 -80 -60 -40 -2.0 0 42.0 +40 +60 +80 +10
-١٠+ ٨٠+ ٦٠+ ٤٠+ ٤٢.٠ ٠ ٢.٠- ٤٠- ٦٠- ٨٠- ١٠
Vy, input voltage (volts)
( ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ )ﻓﻮﻟﺖ،ﺃﻧﺖ
EXAMPLE 17-1
1-17 ﻣﺜﺎﻝ
Determine the output voltage for a four-quadrant linear multiplier whose transfer
ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺧﻄﻲ ﺭﺑﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﺎﻉ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻧﻘﻠﻪ
characteristic is given in Figure 17-8. The input voltages are Vy = —4 V and
ﻭVy = -4 V ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻠﺔ ﻫﻲ.8-17 ﻭﺗﺮﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Vy = +10V.
. ﻓﻮﻟﺖ10+ = ﺃﻧﺖ
Solution The output voltage is —4 V as illustrated in Figure 17-9. For this transfer
ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ.17-9 ﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ4- ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻫﻮ
charact eristic, the output voltage is a factor of ten smaller than the actual product of
ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻴﺰ ﺃﻥ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﺃﺻﻐﺮ ﺑﻌﺸﺮ ﻣﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻲ
the two input voltages. This is due to the scale factor of the multiplier, which is
ﺍﺛﻨﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻠﺔ .ﻭﻳﺮﺟﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ،ﻭﻫﻮ
discussed next.
ﺗﻤﺖ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺘﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ.
824 ™ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
FIGURE 17-9
+10
+8.0
+6.0
+2.0
Vout
-10 -80 -60 -4.0 -2.0 0 42.0 +4.0 46.0 +80 +10
Vy, input voltage (volts)
FIGURE 17-10
MC1495
Inputs 4 linear multiplier
9:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
824 ™ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
™ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ824
FIGURE 17-9
9-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
+10
+١٠
+8.0
٠.ﺽ+
+6.0
٠.ﻁ+
(volts)
()ﻓﻮﻟﺖ
+40
+٤٠
+2.0
٠.ﺃ+
voltage
ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﻰ
output
ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺝ
tuoV
Vﻫﺬﺍ
-10 -80 -60 -4.0 -2.0 0 42.0 +4.0 46.0 +80 +10
١٠+ ٨٠+ ٤٦.٠ ٤.٠+ ٤٢.٠ ٠ ٠. ﺃ٤.٠- ٦٠- ٨٠- ١٠-
Vy, input voltage (volts)
( ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ )ﻓﻮﻟﺖ،ﺃﻧﺖ
Related Problem” Find Vout if Vy = —6V and Vy = +6V.
.Vy = +6V ﻭVy = —6V ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥVout ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ" ﺍﺑﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ
“Answers are at the end of the chapter.
."ﺍﻹﺟﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ
The Scale Factor, K
ﻙ،ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ
The scale factor, K, is basically an internal attenuation that reduces the output by a fixed
ﻫﻮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﺗﻮﻫﻴﻦ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻲ ﻳﻘﻠﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ،K ،ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ
amount. The scale factor on most IC multipliers is adjustable and has a typical value of
0.1.
.0.1 ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻭﻟﻪ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺟﻴﺔ ﺗﺒﻠﻎIC ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻔﺎﺕ.ﻛﻤﻴﺔ
Figure 17-10 shows an MC 1495 configured as a basic multiplier. The scale factor is
deter-
ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩ. ﻛﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲMC 1495 ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ10-17 ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
mined by external resistors, which include two equal load resistors, according to the fol-
ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺮﺍﺟﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺗﺸﺘﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻘﺎﻭﻣﺘﻴﻦ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺘﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﻤﻞ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ:
lowing formula:
ﺻﻴﻐﺔ ﺧﻔﺾ:
2R,
ﺃﺭ,
—K =——+
ﻙ =———+
RyRyleo
ﺭﻳﺮﻳﻠﻴﻮ
FIGURE 17-10
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 10-17
Basic MC1495 linear multiplier with
ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ MC1495ﻣﻊ
external circuitry for setting the scale
ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻴﺎﺱ
factor.
ﻋﺎﻣﻞ.
MC1495
MC1495
Inputs 4 linear multiplier
ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ 4ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ
THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER @ 825
The current Jp, is set by internal and external parameters according to this formula:
-V} - 0.7V
Tro Ry + 5002
where R, is the combination of the fixed resistor and the potentiometer. The potentiometer
provides for fine adjustment by controlling Igo.
The expression for the output voltage of the IC linear multiplier includes the scale fac-
tor, K, as indicated in Equation 17-1.
EXAMPLE 17-2
Determine the scale factor for the basic MC1495 multiplier in Figure 17-11. Assume
the 5 kQ potentiometer portion of R, is set to 2.5 kQ. Also, determine the output
voltage for the given inputs.
FIGURE 17-11
+15V
Ry Ry
10kA 10kQ 3.3 6k 5-6 kQ
10 110 45) (6
9
Oo——“
Vy=42V 12
o——_ MC1495 »
3 linear multiplier id oer
V\=4+3V 8 /—o——_______@——o.
Oo-—————
3 13 [
10kQ Rs
Re ISkQ Oy
SkQ
Related Problem What is the output voltage in Figure 17-11 if the 5 kQ potentiometer is set to its
maximum resistance?
10:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER @ 825
825 @ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ
The current Jp, is set by internal and external parameters according to this formula:
: ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻌﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺧﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﻭﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﻬﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔJp ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ
-V} - 0.7V
-B} - 0.SHV
Tro
ﻳﻌﺘﻘﺪ
Ry + 5002
5002+ﺭﻱ
where R, is the combination of the fixed resistor and the potentiometer. The
potentiometer
ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ. ﻫﻮ ﻣﺰﻳﺞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻭﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪR ﺣﻴﺚ
provides for fine adjustment by controlling Igo.
.Igo ﻳﻮﻓﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﻴﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ
The expression for the output voltage of the IC linear multiplier includes the scale fac-
- ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱIC ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ
tor, K, as indicated in Equation 17-1.
tor، K، 1-17 ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ.
Vour = KV,Vy Equation 17-1
Vour = KV، Vy 1-17 ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ
EXAMPLE 17-2
2-17 ﻣﺜﺎﻝ
Determine the scale factor for the basic MC1495 multiplier in Figure 17-11. Assume
ﻳﻔﺘﺮﺽ.11-17 ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞMC1495 ﺣﺪﺩ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ
the 5 kQ potentiometer portion of R, is set to 2.5 kQ. Also, determine the output
ﻭﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ.kQ 2.5 ﻋﻠﻰR ﻣﻦkQ 5 ﺗﻢ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺟﺰﺀ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ
voltage for the given inputs.
.ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻟﻠﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺪﺩﺓ
FIGURE 17-11
11-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
+15V
ﻓﻮﻟﺖ15+
Ry Ry
ﺭﻱ ﺭﻱ
10kA 10kQ 3.3 6k 5-6 kQ
10ka 10k z.z shk 5-sh kya
10 110 45) (6
( )ﻁ٤٥ ١١٠ ١٠
9
ﺹ
Oo——“
"--ﻭ
Vy=42V 12
12 ﻓﻮﻟﺖ42 = ﺃﻧﺖ
o——_ MC1495 »
« MC1495 _—— ﺱ
3 linear multiplier id oer
ﻣﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ3
V\=4+3V 8 /—o——_______@——o.
Vu=h+ZV 8 /—o——________@——o.
Oo-—————
-------ﻭ
3 13 [
] ١٣ ﻉ
10kQ Rs
ﺃﻟﻒ ﺭﻭﺑﻴﺔ10
Re ISkQ Oy
ﻳﺎ ﺍﺑﻨﻪ
SkQ
SkQ
Solution Calculate Zp).
.(Zp ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ
1, - EME OTV ISV=07V__143V_4 )
1، - EME OTV ISV=07V__143V_4 )
2" R, + 5002 125k +5000 13kO m
ﻙ ﻡ13 5000+ ﻙ125 5002 + ،" ﺹ2
The scale factor is
ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻢ ﻫﻮ
2R 2(5.6 kO
2R2(5.6 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺃﻭ
K ( ) = 0.102
0.102 = ( ) ﻙ
~ RyRylg, (10kQ)(10 kQ)(1.1 mA)
( ﻣﻠﻠﻲ ﺃﻣﺒﻴﺮ1.1) ( ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺱ10) ( ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﺱ10) ،~ ﺭﻳﺮﻳﻠﺞ
The output voltage is
ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻫﻮ
Vout = KVxVy = 0.102 (+2 V) (+3 V) = 0.611 V
Vout = KVxVy = 0.102 (+2 ﻓﻮﻟﺖ0.611 = ( ﻓﻮﻟﺖ3+) (ﻓﻮﻟﺖ
Related Problem What is the output voltage in Figure 17-11 if the 5 kQ potentiometer is
set to its
ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔkQ 5 ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻢ ﺿﺒﻂ ﻣﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ11-17 ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
maximum resistance?
ﺃﻗﺼﻰ ﻗﺪﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ؟
826 & COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
Offset Adjustment
Due to internal mismatches, small offset voltages are usually at the inputs and the output of
an IC linear multiplier. External circuits to nul] out the offset voltages are shown in Figure
17-12. The resistive voltage dividers on the inputs allow the actual input voltages to be
greater than the recommended maximum for the device. For example, the MC1495 has a
maximum input voltage of 5 V. The voltage dividers allow a maximum of 10 V to be ap-
plied if the resistors are of equal value. The zener diodes in the input offset adjust circuit
keep the inputs on pins 8 and 12 from exceeding the maximum of 5 V.
10 11 5 6
R, 9
Vy 2
-—O- O
Ry MC1495 \
tL linear multiplier OT
R = 14
3 4 O
V}
Ry J
—— 3 13 8 12 O7
~ -ISV
Ry Rip
Re
Ri Output offset
adjust
Multiplier The most obvious application of a linear multiplier is, of course, to multiply
two voltages as indicated in Figure 17~—13.
FIGURE 17-13
Multiplier.
P po KVyV,
Squaring Circuit A special case of the multiplier is a squaring circuit that is realized by
simply applying the same voltage to both inputs by connecting the inputs together as shown
in Figure 17-14.
FIGURE 17-14
Squaring circuit. .
\ -——————————_6 KV?
11:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
826 & COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
ﻭﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ826
Offset Adjustment
ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﻓﺴﺖ
Due to internal mismatches, small offset voltages are usually at the inputs and the
output of
ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺨﺮﺟﺎﺕ،ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ
an IC linear multiplier. External circuits to nul] out the offset voltages are shown in Figure
ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺟﻬﻮﺩ ﺍﻹﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞnull ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ.IC ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ
17-12. The resistive voltage dividers on the inputs allow the actual input voltages to be
ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻣﻘﺴﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺑﺘﻮﺍﺟﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﺩﺧﺎﻝ.17-12
greater than the recommended maximum for the device. For example, the MC1495 has
a
ﻋﻠﻰMC1495 ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ، ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ.ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻪ ﻟﻠﺠﻬﺎﺯ
maximum input voltage of 5 V. The voltage dividers allow a maximum of 10 V to be ap-
. ﻓﻮﻟﺖ10 ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻣﻘﺴﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺑﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﺇﻟﻰ. ﻓﻮﻟﺖ5 ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻫﻮ
plied if the resistors are of equal value. The zener diodes in the input offset adjust circuit
ﺛﻨﺎﺋﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﻨﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺿﺒﻂ ﺇﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ.ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ
keep the inputs on pins 8 and 12 from exceeding the maximum of 5 V.
. ﻓﻮﻟﺖ5 ﻣﻦ ﺗﺠﺎﻭﺯ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﻭﻫﻮ12 ﻭ8 ﺣﺎﻓﻆ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻃﺮﺍﻑ
FIGURE 17-12 +15 V
ﻓﻮﻟﺖ15+ 12-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Basic MC1495 multiplier with both
ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻊ ﻛﻠﻴﻬﻤﺎMC1495 ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ
Rx Ry
ﺁﺭ ﺇﻛﺲ ﺭﺍﻱ
scale factor and offset circuitry.
.ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻢ ﻭﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻹﺯﺍﺣﺔ
10 11 5 6
٦ ٥ ١١ ١٠
R, 9
9 ،ﺭ
Vy 2
2 ﺃﻧﺖ
-—O- O
ﺃﻭﻩ-——ﺃﻭ
Ry MC1495 \
\ MC1495 ﺭﺍﻱ
=tL linear multiplier OT
=tL ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲOT
R 14
14 ﺹ
34O
ﺱ43
V}
{ﻓﻲ
Ry J
ﺭﺍﻱ ﺝ
—— 3 13 8 12 O7
ﺃﺡ١٢ ٨ ١٣ ٣ ——
~ -ISV
~ -ISV
Ry Rip
ﺭﻱ ﺭﻳﺐ
Re
ﻳﻜﺮﺭ
Ri Output offset
ﺇﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﺇﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﺭﻱ
adjust
ﻳﻌﺪﻝ
¥-input offset N-input offset
ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ-N ﺇﺯﺍﺣﺔ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺇﺯﺍﺣﺔ-¥
adjust adjust
ﺿﺒﻂ ﺿﺒﻂ
9
ﺹ
+15 vo-—W—4 p>—ANA-—15o V
ANA-—15o V—< ﺹW—4—- ﺻﻮﺕ15+
Rg my Ry Ws
RG ﺑﻠﺪﻱ ﺭﻱWs
Basic Applications of the Multiplier
ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ
Applications of linear multipliers are numerous. Some basic applications are now
presented.
. ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻋﺮﺽ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ.ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺔ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ
Multiplier The most obvious application of a linear multiplier is, of course, to multiply
ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻭﺿﻮﺣﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺒﻊ
two voltages as indicated in Figure 17~—13.
.13-~17 ﺟﻬﺪﻳﻦ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
FIGURE 17-13
13-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
MultiplPi er. po KVyV,
, ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﻮﻝ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﻒ.ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺇﻳﻪ
Squaring Circuit A special case of the multiplier is a squaring circuit that is realized by
ﺣﻠﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻭﻫﻲ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ
simply applying the same voltage to both inputs by connecting the inputs together as
shown
ﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﻴﻚ ﺳﻮﻯ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻼ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻠﻴﻦ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﻣﻌﺎ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ
in Figure 17-14.
.14-17 ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
FIGURE 17-14
14-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Squaring circuit. .
. .ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ
\ -——————————_6 KV?
ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ؟6_——————————- \
THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER) @& 827
FIGURE 17-15
Your = =
Divide Circuit The circuit in Figure 17-15 shows the multiplier placed in the feedback
loop of an op-amp. The basic operation is as follows. There is a virtual ground at the in-
verting (—) input of the op-amp and therefore the current at the inverting input is negligi-
ble. Therefore, /, and /, are equal. Since the inverting input voltage is 0 V, the voltage across
R, is KV,Voyrz and the current through R, is
— KVVour
7
R,
The voltage across R, is Vy, so the current through R, is
Vv
1, = —
Ry
Since J, = —h,
KVyWVour _ _ Vx
R, R,
V. _ VR,
OUT — KV,R>
If R, = KR,,
Vy
Vour = y
y
Square Root Circuit The square root circuit is a special case of the divide circuit where
Vour is applied to both inputs of the multiplier as shown in Figure 17-16.
FIGURE 17-16
M0 Vouy = VVy
12:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
THE LINEAR MULTIPLIER) @& 827
827 &@ (ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ
FIGURE 17-15
15-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
KV Vout r Divide circuit.
KV Vout r ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ.
Your = =
= = ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺹ ﺑﻚ
Divide Circuit The circuit in Figure 17-15 shows the multiplier placed in the feedback
ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﺪﺓ15-17 ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
loop of an op-amp. The basic operation is as follows. There is a virtual ground at the in-
ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺃﺭﺽ ﺍﻓﺘﺮﺍﺿﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ. ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ.ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺟﻊ ﺃﻣﺒﻴﺮ
verting (—) input of the op-amp and therefore the current at the inverting input is
negligi-
.ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﺴﻴﺔ )—( ﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻠﻮﺑﺔ ﻣﻬﻤﻞ
ble. Therefore, /, and /, are equal. Since the inverting input voltage is 0 V, the voltage
across
ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻋﺒﺮ، ﻓﻮﻟﺖ0 ﻧﻈﺮﺍ ﻷﻥ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻠﻮﺏ ﻫﻮ. ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺎﻥ،/ ﻭ،/ ، ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ.ﺑﻠﻲ
R, is KV,Voyrz and the current through R, is
R، ﻫﻮKV، Voyrz ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝR، ﻫﻮ
— KVVour
ﻛﻔﻔﻮﺭ-
7
ﺡ
R,
،ﺹ
The voltage across R, is Vy, so the current through R, is
ﻫﻮR ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻋﺒﺮ،Vy ﻫﻮR ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻋﺒﺮ
Vv
ﺕ
1, = —
١, = —
Ry
ﺭﺍﻱ
Since J, = —h,
،J، = —h ﻣﻨﺬ
KVyWVour _ _ Vx
KVyWVour _ _ Vx
R, R,
، ﺭ،ﺹ
Solving for Vout,
،Vout ﺣﻞ ﻝ
V. _ VR ,
V. _ VR ,
OUT — KV,R>
< ﺭ، ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ- ﺧﺎﺭﺝ
If R, = KR,,
،،R، = KR ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ
Vy
ﺃﻧﺖ
Vour = y
ﺍﻧﻈﺮ = ﺫ
y
ﻭ
Square Root Circuit The square root circuit is a special case of the divide circuit where
ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ ﻫﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺣﻴﺚ
Vour is applied to both inputs of the multiplier as shown in Figure 17-16.
.16-17 ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻼ ﻣﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞVour ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ
FIGURE 17-16
16-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Square root circuit.
.ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﺬﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻲ
M0 Vouy = VVy
M0 = ﻓﻮﻱVVy
828 m COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
Mean Square Circuit In this application, the multiplier is used as a squaring circuit with
its output connected to an op-amp integrator as shown in Figure !7-17. The integrator pro-
duces the average or mean value of the squared input over time, as indicated by the inte-
gration sign (J).
FIGURE 17-17
gy
Mean square circuit,
SECTION 17-2
REVIEW 1. Compare a four-quadrant multiplier to a one-quadrant multiplier in terms of the
inputs that can be handled.
2. If 5 Vand 1 Vare applied to the inputs ofa multiplier and its output is 0.5 V, what
is the scale factor? What must the scale factor be for an output of 5 V?
3. How do you convert a basic multiplier to a squaring circuit?
As you learned in Section 17—1, amplitude modulation is the process of varying the am-
plitude of a signal of a given frequency (carrier) with another signal of much lower fre-
quency (modulating signal). One reason that the higher-frequency carrier signal is
necessary 1s because audio or other signals with relatively low frequencies cannot be trans-
mitted with antennas of a practical size. The basic concept of standard amplitude modula-
tion is illustrated in Figure 17-18.
A Multiplication Process
If a signal is applied to the input of a variable-gain device, the resulting output is an
amplitude-modulated signal because V,,,, = A,V;,. The output voltage is the input voltage
13:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
828 m COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
ﻡ828 ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ ﺑﻄﻮﻝ-
Mean Square Circuit In this application, the multiplier is used as a squaring circuit with
ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻛﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ،ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺑﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ
its output connected to an op-amp integrator as shown in Figure !7-17. The integrator
pro-
ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﻳﺪ.17-7! ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞop-amp ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻞ ﻣﺨﺮﺟﺎﺗﻪ ﺑﻤﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ
duces the average or mean value of the squared input over time, as indicated by the
inte-
ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ،ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺮﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ
ﻳﺴﺘﻨﺘﺞ
gration sign (J).
.(J) ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺑﺸﺮ
FIGURE 17-17
17-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
yg
ﺍﻟﺘﻲ- ﺍﻟﺬﻱ
Mean square circuit,
,ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﺮﺑﻌﺔ
b—O Viyp-p = | KV" dt
= | ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ" ﺩViyp-p ﺏ—ﻳﺎ
SECTION 17-2
2-17 ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ
REVIEW 1. Compare a four-quadrant multiplier to a one-quadrant multiplier in terms of
the
ﻗﺎﺭﻥ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺭﺑﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻊ ﻭﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺭﺑﻊ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ.1 ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ
inputs that can be handled.
ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ
2. If 5 Vand 1 Vare applied to the inputs ofa multiplier and its output is 0.5 V, what
ﻓﻤﺎﺫﺍ، ﻓﻮﻟﺖ0.5 ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻬﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻭﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺧﺮﺟﻪ1 ﻭ5 ﻣﻦ.2
is the scale factor? What must the scale factor be for an output of 5 V?
؟V 5 ﻫﻮ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻢ؟ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﺨﺮﺝ
3. How do you convert a basic multiplier to a squaring circuit?
ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﻌﻴﺔ؟.3
17-3 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ17-3
Amplitude modulation (AM) is an important method for transmitting information. Of
ﻝ.( ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ ﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕAM) ﻳﻌﺪ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ
course, the AM superheterodyne receiver is designed to receive transmitted AM
ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺳﻠﺔAM ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ ﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝAM ﺗﻢ ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ،ﻭﺑﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻝ
signals. Jn this section, we take a further look at amplitude modulation and show how
ﻧﻠﻘﻲ ﻧﻈﺮﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻭﻧﻮﺿﺢ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ، ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ.ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ
the linear multiplier can be used as an amplitude-modulated device.
.ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻛﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ
After completing this section, you should be able to
ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ،ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ
= Discuss the fundamentals of amplitude modulation
= ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ
= Explain how AM is basically a multiplication process
ﻫﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺿﺮﺏAM = ﺍﺷﺮﺡ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺃﻥ
® Describe sum and difference frequencies
® ﻭﺻﻒ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ
= Discuss balanced modulation
= ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ
Describe the frequency spectra
ﻭﺻﻒ ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ
= Explain standard AM
AM = ﺷﺮﺡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻴﺎﺭ
As you learned in Section 17—1, amplitude modulation is the process of varying the am-
. ﻓﺈﻥ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻫﻮ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ،17-1 ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ
plitude of a signal of a given frequency (carrier) with another signal of much lower fre-
ﺳﻌﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ )ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ( ﻣﻊ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺭﺳﻮﻡ ﺃﻗﻞ ﺑﻜﺜﻴﺮ
quency (modulating signal). One reason that the higher-frequency carrier signal is
ﺃﺣﺪ ﺃﺳﺒﺎﺏ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻫﻮ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲ ﻫﻲ.(ﻛﻮﻳﻨﺴﻲ )ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ
necessary 1s because audio or other signals with relatively low frequencies cannot be
trans-
ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻳﺔ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻧﻘﻞ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﻧﺴﺒﻴﺎ1
mitted with antennas of a practical size. The basic concept of standard amplitude
modula-
ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ.ﻣﺰﻭﺩ ﺑﻬﻮﺍﺋﻴﺎﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺣﺠﻢ ﻋﻤﻠﻲ
tion is illustrated in Figure 17-18.
.18-17 ﺗﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
A Multiplication Process
ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ
If a signal is applied to the input of a variable-gain device, the resulting output is an
ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻫﻮ،ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺴﺐ
amplitude-modulated signal because V,,,, = A,V;,. The output voltage is the input
voltage
ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻫﻮ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ.،؛V،،،، = A،V ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻌﺪﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻷﻥ
AMPLITUDE MODULATION & 829
Currier signa)
o—, f
i .
Amplitude
,
modulator
Sou, ——©
Modulating signal tn
/
Ina broadcast radio system. this would ‘The envelope (variation in the amplitude)
be the audio signal (voice or music). of the output signal follows the shape of
the modulating signal.
FIGURE 17-18
multiplied by the voltage gain. For example, if the gain of an amplifier is made to vary si-
nusoidally at a certain frequency and an input signal is applied at a higher frequency, the
output signal will have the higher frequency. However, its amplitude will vary according to
the variation in gain as illustrated in Figure 17-19. Amplitude modulation is basically a
multiplication process (input voltage multiplied by a variable gain).
FIGURE 17-19
Gain variation
v= V,sin 2aft
where V, is the peak voltage and fis the frequency. Two different sinusoidal signals can be
expressed as follows:
v, = Vipysin 27f\t
Vo V>/p)sin 27 fot
1
The general trigonometric identity for the product of two sinusoidal functions is
|
(sin A)(sin B) = 3 Leos(A — B) — cos(A + B)|
Vin Ya)
Vy. = 5 leos(2afit — 2arf,t) — cos(2af\t + 2mfor)|
Vien Vo
= Te 2 [cos 2a(f, — fo)t — cos 2a(f, + fo)e]
You can see in Equation 17-2 that the product of the two sinusoidal voltages V, and V; con-
tains a difference frequency (f, — f4) and a sum frequency (f, + f,). The fact that the prod-
uct terms are cosine simply indicates a 90° phase shift in the multiplication process.
A graphical picture of the frequency content of a signal is called its frequency spectrum. A
frequency spectrum shows voltage on a frequency base rather than on a time base as a wave-
form diagram does. The frequency spectra of the product of two sinusoidal signals are
shown in Figure 17-20. Part (a) shows the two input frequencies and part (b) shows the out-
put frequencies. In communications terminology, the sum frequency is called the upper-
side frequency and the difference frequency is called the lower-side frequency because
the frequencies appear on each side of the missing carrier frequency.
As mentioned, the linear multiplier acts as a balanced modulator when a carrier signal and
a modulating signal are applied to its inputs, as illustrated in Figure 17~21. A balanced
modulator produces an upper-side frequency and a lower-side frequency, but it does not
15:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
830 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
= ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ830
The general trigonometric identity for the product of two sinusoidal functions is
ﺍﻟﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﻠﺜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺘﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﻫﻲ
|
|
(sin A)(sin B) = 3 Leos(A — B) — cos(A + B)|
|( ﺏ+ ﻟﻴﻮ)ﺃ — ﺏ( — ﻛﻮﺱ)ﺃ3 = ()ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ ﺃ()ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ ﺏ
Applying this identity to the previous formula for v,v2,
,v,v2 ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻟـ
Vin Ya)
(ﻫﻮ ﺍﻧﺎ
Vy. = 5 leos(2afit — 2arf,t) — cos(2af\t + 2mfor)|
VY. = 5 2)ﻟﻴﻮafit — 2arf,t) — cos(2af\t + 2mfor)|
Vien Vo
ﻓﻘﻂ ﻓﻮ
= Te 2 [cos 2a(f, — fo)t — cos 2a(f, + fo)e]
= Te 2 [cos 2a(f, — fo)t — cos 2a(f, + fo)e]
Vyen Vary View V.
.V ﻋﺮﺽ ﻓﻴﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﻓﺎﺭﻱ
Equation 17-2 Vjv> = eos 2a(f, —fe)t - eos 2a(f, + fo)t
Vjv> = eos 2a(f, —fe)t - eos 2a(f, + fo)t 2-17 ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ
You can see in Equation 17-2 that the product of the two sinusoidal voltages V, and V;
con-
؛ ﻳﺨﺪﻉV ﻭV ﺃﻥ ﻣﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻴﻴﻦ2-17 ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﻯ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ
tains a difference frequency (f, — f4) and a sum frequency (f, + f,). The fact that the prod-
ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ.(,f, + f) ( ﻭﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺗﺮﺩﺩf, — f4) ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻓﺮﻕ
uct terms are cosine simply indicates a 90° phase shift in the multiplication process.
. ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ90 ﻫﻲ ﺟﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﻳﺸﻴﺮ ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻃﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﻮﻝ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭuct ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ
Analysis of Balanced Modulation
ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ
Since amplitude modulation is simply a multiplication process, the preceding analysis is
ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﻫﻮ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ،ﻭﺑﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺠﺮﺩ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺿﺮﺏ
now applied to carrier and modulating signals. The expression for the sinusoidal carrier
sig-
ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻴﺔ.ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻪ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﺮ
nal can be written as
ﻛـnal ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ
Ve = Vejp)Sin Qarfet
Ve = ﻓﻴﺠﺐ(ﺳﻴﻦ ﻗﺮﻓﻴﺖ
Cc c
ﻧﺴﺨﺔ ﺝ
Assuming a sinusoidal modulating signal, it can be expressed as
ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻛـ،ﺑﺎﻓﺘﺮﺍﺽ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ
Vn = Vyyy)Sin 27hy l
Vn = Vyyy)Sin 27hy l
mo TE
TEﻝ
Substituting these two signals in Equation 17-2,
،2-17 ﺍﺳﺘﺒﺪﺍﻝ ﻫﺎﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ
VYy = “0 moo Inf. — f,)t - Ase aco Qn(f. + fa)t
VYy = "0 moo Inf. — f,)t - Ase aco Qn(f. + fa)t
An output signal described by this expression for the product of two sinusoidal signals is
ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺻﻮﻓﺔ ﺑﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﻫﻲ
produced by a linear multiplier. Notice that there is a difference frequency term (f. — f,,,)
(,,,f. — f) ﻻﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ.ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ
and a sum frequency term (f. + f,,), but the original frequencies,f. and f,,, do not appear
ﻻ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ،،،f ﻭ.f، ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻴﺔ،(،،f. + f) ﻭﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ
alone in the expression. Thus, the product of two sinusoidal signals contains no signal
with
ﻭﺣﺪﻩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﻻ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻊ
the carrier frequencyf,, or with the modulating frequencyf,,, . This form of amplitude
mod-
ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ. ،،،f ﺃﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ،fﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ
ulation is called balanced modulation because there is no carrier frequency in the
output.
.ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺣﺎﻣﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ
The carrier frequency is “balanced out.”
."ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ "ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ
The Frequency Spectra of a Balanced Modulator
ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻠﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ
A graphical picture of the frequency content of a signal is called its frequency spectrum.
A
ﺃ.ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻯ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺑﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ
frequency spectrum shows voltage on a frequency base rather than on a time base as a
wave-
ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺯﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﻮﺟﺔ
form diagram does. The frequency spectra of the product of two sinusoidal signals are
ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﻫﻲ.ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﻳﻔﻌﻞ
shown in Figure 17-20. Part (a) shows the two input frequencies and part (b) shows the
out-
ﺍﻟﺠﺰﺀ )ﺃ( ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺰﺀ )ﺏ( ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻲ.20-17 ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
put frequencies. In communications terminology, the sum frequency is called the upper-
. ﻳﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ، ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ.ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ
side frequency and the difference frequency is called the lower-side frequency because
ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻲ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﻷﻧﻪ
the frequencies appear on each side of the missing carrier frequency.
.ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻘﻮﺩﺓ
The Linear Multiplier as a Balanced Modulator
ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻛﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ
As mentioned, the linear multiplier acts as a balanced modulator when a carrier signal
and
ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ ﻛﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﻭ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﺫﻛﺮﻧﺎ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺎ
a modulating signal are applied to its inputs, as illustrated in Figure 17~21. A balanced
ﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ.21~17 ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ،ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﺧﻼﺗﻬﺎ
modulator produces an upper-side frequency and a lower-side frequency, but it does
not
ﻟﻜﻨﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻔﻌﻞ ﺫﻟﻚ،ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ
AMPLITUDE MODULATION ® 831
Sin fe
(a) Input frequencies
fi — fin Se tdin
P FIGURE 17-21
| lo ee f
oOo“ fe ~ fin io fe + fn
So
produce a carrier frequency. Since there is no carrier signal, balanced modulation is some-
times known as suppressed-carrier modulation. Balanced modulation is used in certain
types of communications such as single side-band systems, but it is not used in standard
AM broadcast systems.
EXAMPLE 17-3
Determine the frequencies contained in the output signal of the balanced modulator in
Figure 17-22.
FIGURE 17-22
f. =5 MHz0————_
f, = 10 kHz 0
Related Problem Explain how the separation between the side frequencies can be increased using the
same carrier frequency.
f ~ fin f to + Sn
V. p V, V,. 1) Vin
Equation 17-3 Vv out = Vipin Qaft + cos 2a (f. — fn)t — Pn og 2a(f. + fade
2
Notice in Equation 17~3 that the first term is for the carrier frequency and the other two terms
are for the side frequencies. Let’s see how the carrier-frequency term gets into the equation.
If a de voltage equal to the peak of the carrier voltage is added to the modulating signal
before the modulating signal is multiplied by the carrier signal, a carrier-signal term appears
in the final result as shown in the following steps. Add the peak carrier voltage to the mod-
ulating signal, and you get the following expression:
Vin
ep) + Y, in(p)SIN 27,yf
out
sa ) cos 2rr(f. + finr)t
This result shows that the output of the multiplier contains a carrier term and two side-
frequency terms. Figure 17-24 illustrates how a standard amplitude modulator can be im-
plemented by a summing circuit followed by a linear multiplier. Figure 17-25 shows a
possible implementation of the summing circuit.
17:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
832 COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ832
The lower-side frequency is
ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﻫﻮ
fo ~fn = 5 MHz — 10 kHz = 4.99 MHz
fo ~fn = 5 ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ4.99 = ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ10 — ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ
Related Problem Explain how the separation between the side frequencies can be
increased using the
ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ ﺍﺷﺮﺡ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ
same carrier frequency.
ﻧﻔﺲ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ
Standard Amplitude Modulation (AM)
(AM) ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ
In standard AM systems, the output signal contains the carrier frequency as well as the
sum
ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ، ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔAM ﻓﻲ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ
and difference side frequencies. The frequency spectrum in Figure |7--23 illustrates stan-
ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻊ23--7| ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ.ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ
dard amplitude modulation.
.ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ
FIGURE 17-23 Carrier
ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ23-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
The output frequency spectrum of a
ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﺃ
standard amplitude modulator.
.ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ
f ~ fin f to + Sn
Sn + ﻭ ~ ﺯﻋﻨﻔﺔ ﻭ ﺇﻟﻰ
The expression for a standard amplitude-modulated signal is
ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﻤﻨﺔ ﻫﻮ
Equation 17-3 Vv = Vipin Qaft + V. p V, cos 2a (f. — fn)t — PV,. 1n) Vin og 2a(f. + fade
ﺗﺘﻼﺷﻰ+ .f)ﺃog 2 ﻥ( ﻓﻴﻦVv = Vipin Qaft + V. p V, cos 2a (f. — fn)t — PV,. 1 3-17 ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ
out 2
2 ﺧﺎﺭﺝ
Notice in Equation 17~3 that the first term is for the carrier frequency and the other two
terms
ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻣﺨﺼﺺ ﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﻴﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ3~17 ﻻﺣﻆ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ
are for the side frequencies. Let’s see how the carrier-frequency term gets into the
equation.
. ﺩﻋﻮﻧﺎ ﻧﺮﻯ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺪﺧﻞ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ.ﻫﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﺔ
If a de voltage equal to the peak of the carrier voltage is added to the modulating signal
ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻤﺖ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺟﻬﺪ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﻳﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺫﺭﻭﺓ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ
before the modulating signal is multiplied by the carrier signal, a carrier-signal term
appears
ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ،ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺿﺮﺏ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺑﺎﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ
in the final result as shown in the following steps. Add the peak carrier voltage to the
mod-
ﺃﺿﻒ ﺫﺭﻭﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻊ.ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ
ulating signal, and you get the following expression:
: ﻭﺗﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ،ulting ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ
Vi+n Y ,
،ﻥ ﺹ+ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ
ep) in(p)SIN 27,y f
ﺹ ﻭ،SIN 27(ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺒﻲ( ﻓﻲ )ﻉ
Multiply by the carrier signal.
.ﺍﺿﺮﺏ ﺑﺈﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ
Vout = (V.r,)sin 2af.t) (Voip) + V,n(p)sin af pt)
Vout = (V.r,)sin 2af.t) (Voip) + V,n(p)sin af pt)
Ve¢pysin Qf. + VicpyYin(p) (Sin Qaf.t) (sin 2h pt)
Ve¢pysin Qf. + VicpyYin(p) (Sin Qaf.t) (sin 2h pt)
carrier term product term
ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ
Apply the basic trigonometric identity to the product term.
.ﻗﻢ ﺑﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﻠﺜﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ
Veep) Val
ﻧﺎﺋﺐ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ( ﻓﺎﻝ
Vi = V2,ysin Zaft + ees Qm(f. — f,)t —
Vi = V2,ysin Zaft + ees Qm(f. — f,)t —
V.. sa Vin ) cos 2rr(f. + finr)t
V.. sa Vin ) cos 2rr(f. + finr)t
out
ﺧﺎﺭﺝ
This result shows that the output of the multiplier contains a carrier term and two side-
ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺢ ﻧﺎﻗﻞ ﻭﺍﺛﻨﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﺍﻧﺐ
frequency terms. Figure 17-24 illustrates how a standard amplitude modulator can be
im-
. ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻤﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻌﺎﻻ24-17 ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ.ﻣﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ
plemented by a summing circuit followed by a linear multiplier. Figure 17-25 shows a
ﺃ25-17 ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ.ﺗﻜﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺟﻤﻊ ﺗﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺧﻄﻲ
possible implementation of the summing circuit.
.ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ ﻟﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻊ
AMPLITUDE MODULATION & 833
5 n 2nf,fo—-4
FIGURE 17-24
R, R, FIGURE 17-25
EXAMPLE 17-4
A carrier frequency of 1200 kHz is modulated by a sinusoidal wave with a frequency
of 25 kHz by a standard amplitude modulator. Determine the output frequency
spectrum.
FIGURE 17-26
So thn
—> f
LI75kHz 1200kHz 1225 kHz
18:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
AMPLITUDE MODULATION & 833
833 ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻭ
Veups Vivin + Ming Si 270 ft
Veups Vivin + Ming Si 270 ﻗﺪﻡ
5 n 2nf,fo—-4
٤-—ﻑ,ﺥ ﻥ ﺃﻧﻒ
Viana Macys Visi py Yinp)
)
L—o V=,,,sin 2 f.¢ + ——— cos Inf. — ff — ————cos 2m f. +,
L—o V=,,,sin 2 f.¢ + ——— cos Inf. — ﻡ ﻭ2 ﻭﻣﺎ ﻳﻠﻴﻬﺎ — ———— ﻛﻮﺱ. +،
\ si a 7 .
. 7 \ ﺳﻲ ﻭ
FIGURE 17-24
24-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Basic block diagram of an amplitude modulator.
.ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﺨﻄﻴﻄﻲ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ
R, R, FIGURE 17-25
25-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ، ﺭ،ﺹ
Vian © AW AW Implementation of the summing
ﻓﻴﺎﻥ © ﻧﻌﻢ ﻧﻌﻢ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻊ
Ry circuit in the amplitude modulator.
.ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺭﺍﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ
Vivi sin 2 ft o——\AA,——
——,AA\—— ﺍﻟﻌﻴﺶ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻗﺪﻣﻴﻦ ﺃﻭ
DO Vinay & Vinci 20 fil
ﻓﻠﺲ20 ﻓﻴﻨﺎﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺴﺎﺀ
EXAMPLE 17-4
4-17 ﻣﺜﺎﻝ
A carrier frequency of 1200 kHz is modulated by a sinusoidal wave with a frequency
ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ1200 ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻟﻎ
of 25 kHz by a standard amplitude modulator. Determine the output frequency
ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ. ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ25
spectrum.
.ﻧﻄﺎﻕ
Solution The lower-side frequency is
ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻲ ﻫﻮ
fe — fy = 1200 kHz — 25 kHz = 1175 kHz
ﺧﺬ١١٧٥ = ﺧﺬ — ﺃﺥ ﺧﺬ١٢٠٠ = ﻓﻲ — ﻓﻲ
The upper-side frequency is
ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ ﻫﻮ
fe + fy = 1200 kHz + 25 kHz = 1225 kHz
ﻓﻲ +ﻓﻲ = ١٢٠٠ﺧﺬ +ﺃﺥ ﺧﺬ = ١٢٢٥ﺧﺬ
The output contains the carrier frequency and the two side frequencies as shown in
ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﻴﻦ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ
Figure 17-26.
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .26-17
FIGURE 17-26
ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ 26-17
So thn
ﻭﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﺑﻌﺪ
—> f
—< ﻑ
LI75kHz 1200kHz 1225 kHz
ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ 1200ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ 1225ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ LI75
834 =& COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
Related Problem Compare the output frequency spectrum in this example to that of a balanced
modulator having the same inputs.
SECTION 17-3
REVIEW 1. What is amplitude modulation?
2. What is the difference between balanced modulation and standard AM?
3. What two input signals are used in amplitude modulation? Explain the purpose of
each signal.
4. What are the upper-side frequency and the lower-side frequency?
5. How can a balanced modulator be changed to a standard amplitude modulator?
The mixer is basically a frequency converter because it changes the frequency of a sig- —
nal to another value. The mixer in a receiver system takes the incoming modulated RF
signal (which is sometimes amplified by an RF amplifier and sometimes not) along with
the signal from the local oscillator and produces a modulated signal with a frequency
equal to the difference of its two input frequencies (RF and LO). The mixer also produces
a frequency equal to the sum of the input frequencies. The mixer function is illustrated in
Figure 17-28.
FIGURE 17-28
es : . Modulated sum and
Modulated carrier signal.f . ri / ‘ The mixer function.
= - ——_ Mixer -———_ difference frequencies
(from RF amplifier or antenna)
f, +f. and f, —S
In the case of receiver applications, the mixer must produce an output that has a fre-
quency component equal to the difference of its input frequencies. From the mathematical
analysis in Section 17-3, you can see that if two sinusoidal signals are multiplied, the prod-
uct contains the difference frequency and the sum frequency. Thus, the mixer is actually a
linear multiplier as indicated in Figure 17-29.
EXAMPLE 17-5
Determine the output expression for a multiplier with one sinusoidal input having a
peak voltage of 5 mV and a frequency of 1200 kHz and the other input having a peak
voltage of 10 mV and a frequency of 1655 kHz.
(5 mV)(10 mV)
— —————0s 277 (1655 kHz + 1200 kHz)t
No
Vou = (25 pV)cos 277(455 kHz)t — (25 pV)cos 277(2855 kHz)é
Related Problem What is the value of the peak amplitude and frequency of the difference frequency
component in this example?
In the receiver system, both the sum and difference frequencies from the mixer are ap-
plied to the IF (intermediate frequency) amplifier. The IF amplifier is actually a tuned am-
plifier that is designed to respond to the difference frequency while rejecting the sum
frequency. You can think of the IF amplifier section of a receiver as a band-pass filter plus
an amplifier because it uses resonant circuits to provide the frequency selectivity. This is il-
lustrated in Figure 17-30.
= 100.7 MHz
EXAMPLE 17-6
Determine the output frequency of the IF amplifier for the conditions shown in
Figure 17-31.
FIGURE 17-31
an =
Rh Was
380 kHz. ——————>
IF wos }—————_»
yj.
. amplifier AME
f, = 1035 kHz
Solution The IF amplifier produces only the difference frequency signal on its output.
Related Problem Based on your basic knowledge of the superheterodyne receiver from Section 17-1,
determine the IF output frequency when the incoming RF signal changes to 1550 kHz.
21:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
836 @ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
@ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ836
Applying the trigonometric identity, (sin A)(sin B) = 4[cos(A — B) — cos(A + B)],
،[(sin A)(sin B) = 4[cos(A — B) — cos(A + B) ،ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﻠﺜﻴﺔ
(5 mV)(LO mV)
( ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ( )ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ5)
= —————~ cos 277(1655 kHz — 1200 kHz)r
= —————~ cos 277(1655 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ1200 — )ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰr
out 7
7 ﺧﺎﺭﺝ
(5 mV)(10 mV)
( ﻣﻠﻠﻲ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ10)( ﻣﻠﻠﻲ ﻓﻮﻟﺖ5)
— —————0 s 277 (1655 kHz + 1200 kHz)t
ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ( ﻃﻦ1200 + ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ1655) 277 ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ0 ————— —
oN
ﻋﻠﻰ
Vou = (25 pV)cos 277(455 kHz)t — (25 pV)cos 277(2855 kHz)é
Vou = (25pV)cos 277(455 )ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰt — (25pV)cos 277(2855 )ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰé
Related Problem What is the value of the peak amplitude and frequency of the
difference frequency
ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺳﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻭﺓ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ
component in this example?
ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ؟
In the receiver system, both the sum and difference frequencies from the mixer are ap-
. ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ،ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
plied to the IF (intermediate frequency) amplifier. The IF amplifier is actually a tuned am-
. ﻫﻮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺻﻮﺕ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻁIF ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ.( )ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂIF ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻠﻪ ﺑﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
plifier that is designed to respond to the difference frequency while rejecting the sum
ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻤﻢ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀ ﺭﻓﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ
frequency. You can think of the IF amplifier section of a receiver as a band-pass filter plus
ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻹﺿﺎﻓﻲIF ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﻗﺴﻢ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ.ﺗﻜﺮﺍﺭ
an amplifier because it uses resonant circuits to provide the frequency selectivity. This is
il-
ﻫﺬﺍ ﻏﻴﺮ.ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﺮﻧﻴﻦ ﻟﺘﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ
lustrated in Figure 17-30.
.30-17 ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
FIGURE 17-30 Mix er (mul tiplier)
( ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ )ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ30-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Example of frequencies in the mixer
ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ
and IF portion of a receiver. r 290. MEY rin = 19007 MHz IF 1) FNAME
FNAME (1 ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﺫﺍ19007 = ﺭﻳﻦMEY .290 ﺹ.ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﺟﺰﺀ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
, fig = 10.7 MHz amplifier come
ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ ﻳﺄﺗﻲ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ10.7 = ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ،
= 100.7 MHz
ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ100.7 =
EXAMPLE 17-6
6-17 ﻣﺜﺎﻝ
Determine the output frequency of the IF amplifier for the conditions shown in
ﻟﻠﻈﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺿﺤﺔ ﻓﻲIF ﺣﺪﺩ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ
Figure 17-31.
.31-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
FIGURE 17-31
31-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
an Rh Was IF
IF ﻛﺎﻥRhﻭ
= 380 kHz. ——————> wos }—————_»yj .
. wos }—————_»yj <—————— . ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ380 =
. amplifier AME
AME ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺼﻮﺕ.
f, = 1035 kHz
ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ1035 = ،ﻭ
Solution The IF amplifier produces only the difference frequency signal on its output.
. ﺑﺈﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﺮﺟﻪIF ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
Sou = Sug = fo — f- = 1035 kHz — 580 kHz = 455 kHz
ﺧﺬ٤٥٥ = ﺧﺬ٥٨٠ — ﺧﺬ١٠٣٥ = ﺳﻮ = ﺻﺞ = ﻑ — ﻑ
Related Problem Based on your basic knowledge of the superheterodyne receiver from
Section 17-1,
،1-17 ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺻﻠﺔ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺘﻚ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺑﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ
determine the IF output frequency when the incoming RF signal changes to 1550 kHz.
. ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ1550 ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ ﺇﻟﻰIF ﺣﺪﺩ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺧﺮﺝ
AM DEMODULATION ® 837
SECTION 17-4
REVIEW 1. What is the purpose of the mixer in a superheterodyne receiver?
2. How does the mixer produce its output?
3. Ifa mixer has 1000 kHz on one input and 350 kHz on the other, what frequencies
appear on the output?
17-5 AM DEMODULATION
The linear multiplier can be used to demodulate or detect an AM signal as well as to
perform the modulation process that was discussed in Section 17-3. Demodulation can
be thought of as reverse modulation. The purpose is to get back the original
modulating signal (sound in the case of standard AM receivers). The detector in the
AM receiver can be implemented using a multiplier, although another method using
peak envelope detection is common.
After completing this section, you should be able to
= Describe AM demodulation
Audio modulated IF
Audio
oli, — x ae |
.
1p ————___1
0 15 kHz
Filter response
FIGURE 17-32
Basic AM demodulator.
Receiver
subsystem
—>] —
(through IF
(kHz) amplifier) (kHz)
990 1000 L010 f 445 455 465 f
When the modulated output of the IF amplifier is applied to the demodulator along with
the IF, sum and difference frequencies for each input frequency are produced as shown in
Figure 17-34. Only the 10 kHz audio frequency is passed by the filter. A drawback to this
type of AM detection is that a pure IF must be produced to mix with the modulated IF.
SECTION 17-5
REVIEW 1. What is the purpose of the filter in the linear multiplier demodulator?
2. Ifa 455 kHz IF modulated by a 1 kHz audio frequency is demodulated, what
frequency or frequencies appear on the output of the demodulator?
= Explain how the local oscillator and mixer operate with the IF amplifier
™ State the purpose of the audio amplifier
= Discuss the LM386 audio power amplifier
IF Amplifiers
The IF amplifier in a receiver is a tuned amplifier with a specified bandwidth operating at a cen-
ter frequency of 455 kHz for AM and 10.7 MHz for FM. The IF amplifier is one of the key fea-
tures of a superheterodyne receiver because it is set to operate at a single resonant frequency
that remains the same over the entire band of carrier frequencies that can be received. Figure
17-35 illustrates the basic function of an IF amplifier in terms of the frequency spectra.
23:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
838 @ COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
@ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ838
FIGURE 17-33 Carrier IF
IF ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ33-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
An AM signal converted to IF.
.IF ﺇﻟﻰAM ﺗﻢ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ
Receiver
ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻲ
subsystem
ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻋﻲ
—>] —
—>] —
(through IF
)ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺇﺫﺍ
(kHz) amplifier) (kHz)
()ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ( ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ( )ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ
990 1000 L010 f 445 455 465 f
990 1000 L010 f 445 455 465 f
When the modulated output of the IF amplifier is applied to the demodulator along with
ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺰﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻊIF ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﻟﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
the IF, sum and difference frequencies for each input frequency are produced as shown
in
ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲIF ﻳﺘﻢ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ
Figure 17-34. Only the 10 kHz audio frequency is passed by the filter. A drawback to this
ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻴﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ. ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ10 ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ.34-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
type of AM detection is that a pure IF must be produced to mix with the modulated IF.
. ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝIF ﻧﻘﻲ ﻟﺨﻠﻄﻪ ﻣﻊIF ﻫﻮ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝAM ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ
FIGURE 17-34 455 kHz — 445 kHz = 10 kHz
ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ10 = ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ445 — ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ455 17-34 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
+45 kH2 455 KHz + 445 kHz = 900 KHz
ﺧﺬ٩٠٠ = ﺧﺬ٤٤٥ + ﺧﺬ٤٥٥ ﻛﺤﻖ٤٥+
Example of demodulation.
.ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ
455 kHz o4 Low-pass L—-O 1() kHz
)( ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰL—-O 1 ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾo4 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ455
465 kHz 465 kHz — 455 kHz = 10 kHz filter
ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ10 = ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ455 — ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ465 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ465
465 kHz. + 455 kHz = 920 kHz
ﻫﺮﺗﺰ920 = ﻫﺮﺗﺰ455 + . ﻫﺮﺗﺰ465
SECTION 17-5
5-17 ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ
1. What is the purpose of the filter in the linear multiplier demodulator?
ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺰﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻲ؟.1
REVIEW
ﻣﺮﺍﺟﻌﺔ
2. Ifa 455 kHz IF modulated by a 1 kHz audio frequency is demodulated, what
ﻓﻤﺎﺫﺍ، ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ1 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻠﻪ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺻﻮﺗﻲIfa 455 ﻳﺘﻢ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ.2
frequency or frequencies appear on the output of the demodulator?
ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺨﺮﺝ ﻣﺰﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ؟
17-6 IF AND AUDIO AMPLIFIERS
ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ17-6
In this section, amplifiers for intermediate and audio frequencies are introduced. A
ﺃ.ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ
typical IF amplifier is discussed and audio preamplifiers and power amplifiers are
ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺟﻲ ﻭﻣﻀﺨﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻭﻣﻀﺨﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔIF ﺗﻤﺖ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
covered. As you have learned, the IF amplifier in a communications receiver provides
ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕIF ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ، ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﺖ.ﻣﻐﻄﺎﺓ
amplification of the modulated IF signal out of the mixer before it is applied to the
ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻟﺔ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰIF ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻢ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ
detector. After the audio signal is recovered by the detector, it goes to the audio
preamp
ﺗﺬﻫﺐ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ، ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺘﻌﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ.ﻛﺎﺷﻒ
where it is amplified and applied to the power amplifier that drives the speaker.
.ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻀﺨﻴﻤﻪ ﻭﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
After completing this section, you should be able to
ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ،ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻢ
= Describe IF and audio amplifiers
ﻭﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕIF = ﻭﺻﻒ
= Discuss the function of an IF amplifier
IF = ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
= Explain how the local oscillator and mixer operate with the IF amplifier
IF = ﺍﺷﺮﺡ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﻣﻊ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
™ State the purpose of the audio amplifier
™ ﺍﺫﻛﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
= Discuss the LM386 audio power amplifier
LM386 = ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻲ
IF Amplifiers
ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺇﺫﺍ
The IF amplifier in a receiver is a tuned amplifier with a specified bandwidth operating at
a cen-
ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺻﻮﺕ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻁ ﺫﻭ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻣﺤﺪﺩ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺮﻛﺰIF ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
ﻣﻜﺒﺮ
ter frequency of 455 kHz for AM and 10.7 MHz for FM. The IF amplifier is one of the key
fea-
. ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔIF ﻳﻌﺪ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ.FM ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻟـ10.7 ﻭAM ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻟـ455 ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺛﺎﻟﺚ
tures of a superheterodyne receiver because it is set to operate at a single resonant
frequency
ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺋﻖ ﻷﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻃﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺭﻧﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ
that remains the same over the entire band of carrier frequencies that can be received.
Figure
ﺷﻜﻞ.ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻟﻬﺎ
17-35 illustrates the basic function of an IF amplifier in terms of the frequency spectra.
. ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻃﻴﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩIF ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ35-17 ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
IF AND AUDIO AMPLIFIERS ®& 839
Frequency band
passed by IF aniplifier
Mixer
output
450 kHz 455 kHz 460 kHz 2.45 MHz 2.455 MHz 2.46 MHz
| | :
Mixer
° J
0.995 MHz 1 MHz 1.005 MHz x > 450 kHz 455 kHz 460 kHz
4
1.455 MHz
Local
oscillator
FIGURE 17-35
Assume, for example, that the received carrier frequency off, = 1 MHz is modulated by
an audio signal with a maximum frequency of f,, = 5 kHz, indicated in Figure 17—35 by the
frequency spectrum on the input to the mixer. For this frequency, the local oscillator is at a
frequency of
f, = 1 MHz + 455 kHz = 1.455 MHz
The mixer produces the following sum and difference frequencies as indicated in Figure 17-35.
Since the IF amplifier is a frequency-selective circuit, it responds only to 455 kHz and
any side frequencies lying in the 10 kHz band centered at 455 kHz. All of the frequencies
out of the mixer are rejected except the 455 kHz IF, all lower-side frequencies down to
450 kHz, and all upper-side frequencies up to 460 kHz. This frequency spectrum is the au-
dio modulated intermediate frequency.
Although the detailed circuitry of the IF amplifier may differ from one system to another, it
always has a tuned (resonant) circuit on the input or on the output or on both. Figure 17—36(a)
shows a basic IF amplifier with tuned transformer coupling at the input and output. The gen-
eral frequency response curve is shown in Figure 17—36(b).
24:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
IF AND AUDIO AMPLIFIERS ®& 839
IF 839 &® ﻭﻣﻀﺨﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
Frequency band
ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ
passed by IF aniplifier
IF animplifier ﻣﺮﺕ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ
Mixer
ﺧﻼﻁ
output
ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺝ
450 kHz 455 kHz 460 kHz 2.45 MHz 2.455 MHz 2.46 MHz
ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ2.46 ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ2.455 ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ2.45 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ460 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ455 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ450
||:
||:
Mixer
ﺧﻼﻁ
0.995 MHz 1 MHz 1.00 5 MHz ° x J > 450 kHz 455 kHz 460 kHz
ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ460 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ455 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰx J > 450 ° ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ5 1.00 ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ1 ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ0.995
4
٤
1.455 MHz
ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ1.455
Local
ﻣﺤﻠﻲ
oscillator
ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ
FIGURE 17-35
35-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
A n illustration of the basic function of the IF amplifi er in an AM receiver.
.AM ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝIF ﺭﺳﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﻲ ﻟﻠﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ
Assume, for example, that the received carrier frequency off , = 1 MHz is modulated by
ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻠﻪ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ1 = ، ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﺔ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻒ،ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ
،ﻟﻨﻔﺘﺮﺽ
an audio signal with a maximum frequency of f,, = 5 kHz, indicated in Figure 17—35 by
the
ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ35-17 ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ، ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰf،، = 5 ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺻﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺑﺄﻗﺼﻰ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ
frequency spectrum on the input to the mixer. For this frequency, the local oscillator is at
a
a ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﻋﻨﺪ، ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ.ﻃﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺧﻼﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ
frequency of
ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻝ
f, = 1 MHz + 455 kHz = 1.455 MHz
ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ 455 +ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = 1.455ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ f، = 1
The mixer produces the following sum and difference frequencies as indicated in Figure
17-35.
ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ .35-17
f, + f. = 1.455 MHz + | MHz = 2.455 MHz
ﻭ + ،ﻭ 1.455 = .ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ | +ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ = 2.455ﻣﻴﻐﺎﻫﻴﺮﺗﺰ
f, — f. = 1.455 MHz — 1 MHz = 455 kHz
ﻭ - ،ﻭ 1.455 = .ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ — 1ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = 455ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ
f, + Uf. + fy) = 1.455 MHz + 1.005 MHz = 2.46 MHz
ﻭ + ،ﺍﻟﺠﺒﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ + .ﺍﻟﺴﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ( = 1.455ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ 1.005 +ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = 2.46ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ
+ 0.995 MHz = 2.45 MHz
0.995 +ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = 2.45ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ
fo + Ge — fy) = 1.455 MHz
ﻣﻴﺠﺎﻫﺮﺗﺰ fo + Ge — f) = 1.455
f, — Gf. + fy) = 1.455 MHz — 1.005 MHz = 450 kHz
ﻭ — ،ﻓﺮﻧﻚ ﻏﻴﻨﻲ fy) = 1.455 + .ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ — 1.005ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = 450ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ
f, — (f — fy) = 1.455 MHz — 0.995 MHz = 460 kHz
ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ — 0.995ﻣﻴﺠﺎ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ = 460ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ f، — (f — fy) = 1.455
Since the IF amplifier is a frequency-selective circuit, it responds only to 455 kHz and
ﻧﻈﺮﺍ ﻷﻥ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ IFﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺩﺩ ،ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﺴﺘﺠﻴﺐ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻟـ 455ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﻭ
any side frequencies lying in the 10 kHz band centered at 455 kHz. All of the frequencies
ﺃﻱ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻴﺔ ﺗﻘﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ 10ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻤﺮﻛﺰﺓ ﻋﻨﺪ 455ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ .ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ
out of the mixer are rejected except the 455 kHz IF, all lower-side frequencies down to
ﻳﺘﻢ ﺭﻓﺾ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﻭﺝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻁ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺀ 455ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ،IFﻭﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺻﻮﻻ ﺇﻟﻰ
450 kHz, and all upper-side frequencies up to 460 kHz. This frequency spectrum is the
au-
450ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ،ﻭﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻳﺔ ﺗﺼﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ 460ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ .ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻫﻮ
dio modulated intermediate frequency.
ﺩﻳﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﻀﻤﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ.
Although the detailed circuitry of the IF amplifier may differ from one system to another,
it
ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺼﻴﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ IFﻗﺪ ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺁﺧﺮ ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ
always has a tuned (resonant) circuit on the input or on the output or on both. Figure
)17—36(a
ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻃﺔ )ﺭﻧﺎﻧﺔ( ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﺝ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻠﻴﻬﻤﺎ .ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ )36-17ﺃ(
shows a basic IF amplifier with tuned transformer coupling at the input and output. The
gen-
ﻳﻌﺮﺽ ﻣﻀﺨﻢ IFﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻗﺘﺮﺍﻥ ﻣﺤﻮﻝ ﻣﻀﺒﻮﻁ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ .ﺍﻟﺠﻨﺮﺍﻝ-
eral frequency response curve is shown in Figure 17—36(b).
ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻣﻨﺤﻨﻰ ﺍﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ) 36-17ﺏ(.
840 =&® COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
FIGURE 17-36
f (kHz)
Audio Amplifiers
Audio amplifiers are used in a receiver system following the detector to provide amplification
of the recovered audio signal and audio power to drive the speaker(s), as indicated in Figure
17-37. Audio amplifiers typically have bandwidths of 3 kHz to 15 kHz depending on the re-
quirements of the system. IC audio amplifiers are available with a range of capabilities.
MNO
WiHANI HN fvwwuyfii|Ui iy
HN \v“ ———»
hy au
detector
Audio
Ss
amplifier Sound waves
Recovered audio Amplified audio
\udio modulated IF
FIGURE 17-37
The LM386 Audio Power Amplifier This device is an example of a low-power audio ampli-
fier that is capabie of providing several hundred milliwatts to an 8 speaker. It operates from
any de supply voltage in the 4 V to 12 V range, making it a good choice for battery operation.
The pin configuration of the LM386 is shown in Figure 17-38(a). The voltage gain of the
LM386 is 20 without external connections to the gain terminals, as shown in Figure 17—38(b).
A voltage gain of 200 is achieved by connecting a 10 wF capacitor from pin | to pin 8, as shown
in Figure 17—38(c). Voltage gains between 20 and 200 can be realized by a resistor (Rg) and
capacitor (Cg) connected in series from pin | to pin 8 as shown in Figure 17—38(d). These ex-
ternal components are effectively placed in parallel with an internal gain-setting resistor.
Co CG Rg
Gain [1 ai (2)
o—— oo
Q3)
Pin configuration and gain connections for the LM386 audio amplifier.
25:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
840 =&® COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
=&® ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ840
FIGURE 17-36
36-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
A basic IF amplifier with a tuned
ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻊ ﺿﺒﻄﻪIF ﻣﻀﺨﻢ
circuit on the input and output.
.ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ
f (kHz)
(ﻭ )ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ
Audio Amplifiers
ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ
Audio amplifiers are used in a receiver system following the detector to provide
amplification
ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﻟﺘﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻀﺨﻴﻢ
of the recovered audio signal and audio power to drive the speaker(s), as indicated in
Figure
ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ،(ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺮﺩﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ )ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ
ﻟﻺﺷﺎﺭﺓ
17-37. Audio amplifiers typically have bandwidths of 3 kHz to 15 kHz depending on the
re-
. ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻹﺭﺳﺎﻝ15 ﻛﻴﻠﻮ ﻫﺮﺗﺰ ﺇﻟﻰ3 ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻱ ﻳﺘﺮﺍﻭﺡ ﻣﻦ
ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ.17-37
quirements of the system. IC audio amplifiers are available with a range of capabilities.
. ﻣﻊ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕIC ﺗﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ.ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ
MNO iy au
MNO iy ﺃﻭ
Audio
ﺻﻮﺗﻲ
WiH ANI HN fvwwuyfiiU| i hHN y \v“ ———» detector Recovered audio am pliSfis er
Amplified audio Sound waves
WiH ﻭHN fvwwuyfiiU| i hHN y \v“ ———» ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻌﺎﺩam pliSfis er ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ
ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎﺕ
\udio modulated IF
\udio ﺍﻟﺘﻀﻤﻴﻦIF
FIGURE 17-37
37-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
The audio amplifier in a receiver system.
.ﻣﻜﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ
The LM386 Audio Power Amplifier This device is an example of a low-power audio
ampli-
. ﻳﻌﺪ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﻣﺜﺎﻻ ﻟﻤﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺕ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔLM386 ﻣﻀﺨﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻲ
fier that is capabie of providing several hundred milliwatts to an 8 speaker. It operates
from
ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻣﻦ. ﻣﻜﺒﺮﺍﺕ ﺻﻮﺕ8 ﻭﻫﻮ ﻗﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﺌﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻠﻲ ﻭﺍﻁ ﻟﻤﻜﺒﺮ ﺻﻮﺕ
any de supply voltage in the 4 V to 12 V range, making it a good choice for battery
operation.
. ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺠﻌﻠﻪ ﺧﻴﺎﺭﺍ ﺟﻴﺪﺍ ﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻄﺎﺭﻳﺔ، ﻓﻮﻟﺖ12 ﻓﻮﻟﺖ ﺇﻟﻰ4 ﺃﻱ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺇﻣﺪﺍﺩ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ
The pin configuration of the LM386 is shown in Figure 17-38(a). The voltage gain of the
ﻛﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻣﻦ.()ﺃ38-17 ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞLM386 ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﺑﻮﺱ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺹ ﺑـ
LM386 is 20 without external connections to the gain terminals, as shown in Figure
17—38(b).
.()ﺏ38-17 ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ، ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻼﺕ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺑﺄﻃﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺴﺐLM386 20 ﺗﺒﻠﻎ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ
A voltage gain of 200 is achieved by connecting a 10 wF capacitor from pin | to pin 8, as
shown
ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺒﻴﻦ،8 ﻭﺍﻁ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ | ﺇﻟﻰ ﺩﺑﻮﺱ10 ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﻞ ﻣﻜﺜﻒ200 ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﻛﺴﺐ ﺟﻬﺪ ﻗﺪﺭﻩ
ﻳﺘﻢ
in Figure 17—38(c). Voltage gains between 20 and 200 can be realized by a resistor (Rg)
and
( ﻭRg) ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻡ200 ﻭ20 ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﻣﻜﺎﺳﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺑﻴﻦ.()ﺝ38-17 ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
capacitor (Cg) connected in series from pin | to pin 8 as shown in Figure 17—38(d). These
ex-
ﻫﺆﻻﺀ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﻴﻦ.()ﺩ38-17 ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ8 ﻣﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻟﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ | ﻟﻠﺪﺑﻮﺱ
(Cg) ﻣﻜﺜﻒ
ternal components are effectively placed in parallel with an internal gain-setting
resistor.
.ﻳﺘﻢ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻱ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ ﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﺴﺐ
Co CG Rg
CG RG ﺷﺮﻛﺔ
Gain [1 ai (2)
(2) ﺁﻱ1] ﺍﻟﺮﺑﺢ
o—— oo
ﺃﻭﻩ ﻧﻌﻢ
Q3)
(ﻗﻊ
FREQUENCY MODULATION & 841
+9 V FIGURE 17-39
C Cy
Input from The LM386 as an AM audio power
detector amplifier.
luF P
Cy
C3 |
0.0022 uF J 30 WE nq
Volume u
control
SECTION 17-6
REVIEW . What is the purpose of the IF amplifier in an AM receiver?
=
Figure 17-40 illustrates both a square wave and a sine wave modulating the frequency of a
carrier. The carrier frequency is highest when the modulating signal is at its maximum positive
amplitude and is lowest when the modulating signal is at its maximum negative amplitude.
fo ag
/ A
f
\ A
/
—————————— SS
EN FNY IN
\ \ }
(a) Frequency modulation with a square wave (b) Frequency modulation with a sine wave
FIGURE 17-40
Examples of frequency modulation.
FIGURE 17-41
Voltage-controlled
Frequency modulation with a oscillator
voltage-controlled oscillator. vco. FM
output
FIGURE 17-42
elle
27:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
842 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
= ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ842
Figure 17-40 illustrates both a square wave and a sine wave modulating the frequency of
a
a ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺑﻌﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ40-17 ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
carrier. The carrier frequency is highest when the modulating signal is at its maximum
positive
ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺗﻪ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﺐ
.ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻞ
amplitude and is lowest when the modulating signal is at its maximum negative
amplitude.
.ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﻭﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺃﺩﻧﻰ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻗﺼﻰ ﺳﻌﺔ ﺳﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ
fo ag
ﻟﺤﺞ
/
/
f
F
A
ﺃ
\A
\ﺃ
/
/
—————————— SS
ﺱ.—————————— ﺱ
EN FNY IN
ﻓﻲFNYﻭ
\\}
\\}
(a) Frequency modulation with a square wave (b) Frequency modulation with a sine wave
)ﺃ( ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﻣﺮﺑﻌﺔ )ﺏ( ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺔ
FIGURE 17-40
40-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Examples of frequency modulation.
.ﺃﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ
A Basic Frequency Modulator
ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ
Frequency modulation is achieved by varying the frequency of an oscillator with the
mod-
ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ
ulating signal. A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is typically used for this purpose, as
( ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽVCO) ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻬﺪ.ulating ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ
illustrated in Figure 17-41.
.41-17 ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
FIGURE 17-41
41-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Voltage-co ntrolled
ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ
Frequency modulation with a oscillator
ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ
voltage-controlled oscillator. vco. FM
vco. FM .ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻬﺪ
output
ﺍﻧﺘﺎﺝ
Generally, a variable-reactance type of voltage-controlled oscillator is used in FM
applica-
.FM ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺫﻭ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ،ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ
tions. The variable-reactance VCO uses the varactor diode as a voltage-variable
capacitance,
، ﺫﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻛﺴﻌﺔ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪVCO ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ.ﺷﺆﻭﻥ
as illustrated in Figure 17-42, where the capacitance is varied with the modulating
voltage, V,,,.
.،،،V ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﺔ ﺑﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ،42-17 ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
FIGURE 17-42
42-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Basic variable-reactance VCO. V.
VCO ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ.ﺫﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ.
— | | > | PM
— | | < | ﻣﺴﺎﺀ
ell e
ﺇﻳﻞ
THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) ™ 843
FM Demodulation
Except for the higher frequencies, the standard broadcast FM receiver is basically the same
as the AM receiver up through the IF amplifier. The main difference between an FM re-
ceiver and an AM receiver, other than the frequency band, is the method used to recover the
audio signal from the modulated IF.
There are several methods for demodulating an FM signal. These include slope detec-
tion, phase-shift discrimination, ratio detection, quadrature detection, and phase-locked
loop demodulation. Most of these methods are covered in detail in communications
courses. However, because of its importance in many types of applications, we wil] cover
the phase-locked loop (PLL) demodulation in the next section.
SECTION 17-7
REVIEW 1. How does an FM signal carry information?
2. On what principle are most VCOs used in FM based?
= Discuss the LM565 PLL and explain how it can be used as an FM demodulator
° mv
VIS
Voltage-
controlled
oscillator
VCO
The general operation of a PLL 1s as follows. The phase detector compares the phase
difference between the incoming signal, V,, and the VCO signal, V,. When the frequency
of the incoming signal, f;, is different from that of the VCO frequency,f,, the phase angle
between the two signals is also different. The output of the phase detector and the filter is
proportional to the phase difference of the two signals. This proportional voltage is fed to
the VCO, forcing its frequency to move toward the frequency of the incoming signal until
the two frequencies are equal. At this point, the PLL is locked onto the incoming fre-
quency. If f; changes, the phase difference also changes, forcing the VCO to track the in-
coming frequency.
The phase-detector circuit in a PLL is basically a linear multiplier. The following analysis
illustrates how it works in a PLL application. The incoming signal, V;, and the VCO signal,
V,, applied to the phase detector can be expressed as
= V,sin(2af,t + 0,)
V,sin(2af,t + 6,)
II
<
where 6, and @, are the relative phase angles of the two signals. The phase detector multi-
plies these two signals and produces a sum and difference frequency output, V,, as follows:
fi=fo
and
2afit = 27f,t
Va = iVo
[cos(6; — 6,) — cos(4afit + 6; + 6,)]
The second cosine term in the above equation is a second harmonic term (2 x 27f,f) and
is filtered out by the low-pass filter.
29:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
844 B COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
ﺏ ﺩﻭﺍﺋﺮ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻﺕ844
FIGURE 17-43 Output ts: proportional to
ﻳﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻊ: ﺍﻹﺧﺮﺍﺝ43-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Low-pass ' PIO}
{PIO' ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ
V, Phase phase difference of ¥; and ¥,,.
V، ؛ ﻭ¥ ﻓﺮﻕ ﻃﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ¥،،.
Basic PLL block diagram. filter
ﻣﻨﻘﻲ. ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲPLL ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ
f ——| detector O
O ﻭ ——| ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ
° mv
ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ°
VIS
ﻓﻴﺲ
Voltage-
-ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﺍﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﻰ
controlled
ﺧﺎﺿﻊ ﻟﻠﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ
oscillator
ﻣﺬﺑﺬﺏ
VCO
VCO
The general operation of a PLL 1s as follows. The phase detector compares the phase
ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻳﻘﺎﺭﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ. ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲPLL 1sﺍﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻟﻞ
difference between the incoming signal, V,, and the VCO signal, V,. When the frequency
ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ.VCO V ﻭﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓV ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ
of the incoming signal, f;, is different from that of the VCO frequencyf,,, the phase angle
ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ،،،VCO ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ،؛f ،ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ
between the two signals is also different. The output of the phase detector and the filter
is
ﻣﺨﺮﺝ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﻫﻮ.ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ
proportional to the phase difference of the two signals. This proportional voltage is fed
to
ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﻲ ﻝ.ﻳﺘﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻣﻊ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ
the VCO, forcing its frequency to move toward the frequency of the incoming signal
until
VCO، ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺠﺒﺮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩﻩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺮﻙ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ ﺣﺘﻰ
the two frequencies are equal. At this point, the PLL is locked onto the incoming fre-
. ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩPLL ﻳﺘﻢ ﻗﻔﻞ، ﻋﻨﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ.ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﻥ ﻣﺘﺴﺎﻭﻳﺎﻥ
quency. If f; changes, the phase difference also changes, forcing the VCO to track the in-
ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺘﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻞVCO ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺠﺒﺮ، ﻳﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ، ﺇﺫﺍ ﻭ؛ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮﺍﺕ.ﻛﻮﻳﻨﺴﻲ
coming frequency.
. ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻡ
The Phase Detector
ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ
The phase-detector circuit in a PLL is basically a linear multiplier. The following analysis
ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ. ﻫﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ ﺧﻄﻲPLL ﺇﻥ ﺩﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻓﻲ
illustrates how it works in a PLL application. The incoming signal, V;, and the VCO signal,
،VCO ﻭﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ،؛V ، ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ.PLL ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ
V,, applied to the phase detector can be expressed as
ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺒﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻛـV ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ
= V,sin(2af,t + 0,)
(،0 + ﺭ،2AF) ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ،= ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ
V,sin(2af,t + 6,)
(،6 + ﺭ،2AF) ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔ،ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ
< II
> ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ
where 6, and @, are the relative phase angles of the two signals. The phase detector
multi-
ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪﺩ. ﻭ@ ﻫﻲ ﺯﻭﺍﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ6 ﺣﻴﺚ
plies these two signals and produces a sum and difference frequency output, V,, as
follows:
: ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ،V ،ﻳﻄﺒﻖ ﻫﺎﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﻭﻓﺮﻕ ﺧﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ
V, V,sin(27f,t + 6;) X V,sin(2af,t + @,)
V، V،27) ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔf،t + 6 )؛X V،2) ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻴﺌﺔaf،t + @،)
d
ﺩ
VV.
VV.
i vo cos[2af;t + 6;) — (2af,t + 0,)] - x cosl (2mf;t + 0;) + (2af,t + 0,)]
i vo cos[2af;t + 6;) — (2af,t + 0,)] - x cosl (2mf;t + 0;) + (2af,t + 0,)]
When the PLL is locked,
،PLL ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻗﻔﻞ
fi=fo
ﻓﻲ=ﻑ
and
ﻭ
2afit = 27f,t
2afit = 27f,t
Therefore, the detector output voltage is
ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ ﻟﻠﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﻫﻮ
Va = i Vo [cos(6; — 6,) — cos(4afit + 6; + 6,)]
Va = i Vo [cos(6; — 6,) — cos(4afit + 6; + 6,)]
The second cosine term in the above equation is a second harmonic term (2 x 27f,f) and
( ﻭx 27f,f 2) ﺣﺪ ﺟﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺃﻋﻼﻩ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻓﻘﻲ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ
is filtered out by the low-pass filter.
.ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺼﻔﻴﺘﻪ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ
THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) @ 845
where 6, = 6, — @,, where 6, is the phase error. The filter output voltage is proportional to
the phase difference between the incoming signal and the VCO signal and is used as the
control voltage for the VCO. This operation is illustrated in Figure 17-44.
KIL
| >< Si 7 fo 2fj + fo) |
f | fi ~ fo
So
EXAMPLE 17-7
A PLL is locked onto an incoming signal with a frequency of 1 MHz at a phase angle
of 50°. The VCO signal is at a phase angle of 20°. The peak amplitude of the incoming
signal is 0.5 V and that of the VCO output signal is 0.7 V.
(a) What is the VCO frequency?
(b) What is the value of the control voltage being fed back to the VCO at this point?
Related Problem _ If the phase angle of the incoming signal changes instantaneously to 30°, indicating a
change in frequency, what is the instantaneous VCO control voltage?
In a PLL, the control voltage fed back to the VCO is applied as a reverse-bias voltage to
the varactor diode within the VCO. The frequency of oscillation is inversely related to ca-
pacitance for an RC type oscillator by the formula
1
to ~ 2tRC
and for an LC type oscillator by the formula
These formulas show that frequency increases as capacitance decreases and vice versa.
Capacitance decreases as reverse voltage (control voltage) increases. Therefore, an in-
crease in control voltage to the VCO causes an increase in frequency and vice versa. Basic
VCO operation is illustrated in Figure 17-45. The graph in part (b) shows that at the nom-
inal control voltage, Veq,om, the oscillator is running at its nominal or free-running fre-
quency, fornom- An increase in V, above the nominal value forces the oscillator frequency to
increase, and a decrease in V, below the nominal value forces the oscillator frequency to de-
crease. There are, of course, limits on the operation as indicated by the minimum and max-
imum points. The transfer function or conversion gain, K, of the VCO is normally expressed
as a certain frequency deviation per unit change in control voltage.
K = he
AV,
FIGURE 17-45
Socmax)
Jotnom)
Control voltage .
Soonin)
v.o—+, VCO
c
Veunin) Viecnom) Veumax)
(a) (b)
EXAMPLE 17-8
The output frequency of a certain VCO changes from 50 kHz to 65 kHz when the
control voltage increases from 0.5 V to 1 V. What is the conversion gain, K?
Figure 17-46 shows the PLL and two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency but with
a phase difference, 6,. For this condition the PLL is in lock and the VCO control voltage is
constant. If f, decreases, @, increases to @,, as illustrated in Figure 17-47. This increase in
8, is sensed by the phase detector causing the VCO control voltage to decrease, thus de-
creasing f, until f, = f, and keeping the PLL in lock. If f; increases, 8, decreases to 6,, as il-
lustrated in Figure 17-48. This decrease in 8, causes the VCO control voltage to increase,
thus increasing f, untilf, = f, and keeping the PLL in lock.
FIGURE 17-46
FIGURE 17-47
! Mi
\" Etabe Low-pass
PLL action when f, decreases.
Oo | —oO
detector filter
6
Vv. t,
VCO
ji| 1
Jt
f
| \
| |
Pa
{ i
el
e
as
D
32:ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﺭﻗﻢ
THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) ® 847
PLL) ® 847) ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ
Figure 17-46 shows the PLL and two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency but with
ﻭﺇﺷﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ ﺟﻴﺒﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﻟﻬﻤﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻣﻌﻬﻤﺎPLL ﺧﻂ17-46 ﻭﻳﺒﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
a phase difference, 6,. For this condition the PLL is in lock and the VCO control voltage is
ﻛﺬﻟﻚVCO ﻓﻲ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ ﻭﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢPLL ﻳﻜﻮﻥ، ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ.،6 ،ﻓﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ
constant. If f, decreases, @, increases to @,, as illustrated in Figure 17-47. This increase in
ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ.47-17 ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ،@ ﺯﺍﺩﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ،@ ،f ﺇﺫﺍ ﻧﻘﺼﺖ.ﺛﺎﺑﺖ
8, is sensed by the phase detector causing the VCO control voltage to decrease, thus de-
ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ،VCO ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺸﻌﺎﺭﻩ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ،8
creasing f, until f, = f, and keeping the PLL in lock. If f; increases, 8, decreases to 6,, as il-
-il ﻛﻤﺎ، 6 ﻳﻨﻘﺺ ﺇﻟﻰ، 8 ، ﺇﺫﺍ ﻭ؛ ﻳﺰﻳﺪ. ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞPLL ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ،f، = f ﺣﺘﻰ،f ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻌﻴﺪ
lustrated in Figure 17-48. This decrease in 8, causes the VCO control voltage to increase,
،VCO ﺇﻟﻰ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ8 ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﺑﻤﻘﺪﺍﺭ.48-17 ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
thus increasing f, untilf , = f, and keeping the PLL in lock.
. ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞPLL ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ،f، untilf، = f ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ
FIGURE 17-46
46-17 ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ
Vv;/ \ PLL in lock under s tatic condition
Vv;/ \ PLL ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ
; fi Phase ConsMta a nt Low-p-apasss Oo (f, = frand constant 8,).
; fi ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔConsMta a nt Low-p-apass Oo (f، = 8 ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﺭﺍﻧﺪ،).
: Vv detector filter
Vv ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﻛﺎﺷﻒ:
lJ 8
8 ﺇﻝ ﺟﻲ
|= 4
|= ٤
tol
ﺭﺳﻮﻡ
Lt
ﺍﻟﻤﻼﺯﻡ ﺃﻭﻝ
nee iv
ﻻ ﺭﺍﺑﻌﺎ
Io
ﻫﺬﺍ
tt
ﺗﻲ ﺗﻲ
Vv, I 4 ,
، ﺃﻧﺎ ﺡ،ﺑﻒ
tet V,
,ﺗﻴﺖ ﺏ
I Constant
ﺃﻧﺎ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ
; f VCO
; ﻭ ﻓﻜﻮ
! Mi FIGURE 17-47
47-17 ! ﺍﻷﺷﻜﺎﻝ
PLL action when f, decreases.
.f ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻨﺎﻗﺺPLL ﻋﻤﻞ
\" Etabe Low-pass
"."ﺇﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻤﺮﻳﺮﺓ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ
Oo | detector filter —oO
oO— ﻭ | ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ
6
ﻁ
Vv. t,
ﺭ.ﺍﻟﺠﺮﺩ
7
ﺡ
VCO
VCO
ji 1 f
ﻭ1 ﻣﻦ
| Jt
ﺕ.| ﺝ
|\
|\
||
||
{P a i
}ﻉ ﻁ
el
ﻫﻮ
e
ﺇﻧﻬﺎ
sa
ﻋﻠﻰ
D
ﺩ
848 = COMMUNICATIONS CIRCUITS
FIGURE 17-48
1
VCO
T ‘ T f
| f it
| 1 lt |
| ' ia
\ | it
1 1 \ ii)
| | 1 |
i | il
! | tl
| | 9. it 801
iV 1 | I~ 11 fr
a | \ a) /
/ \4 | / \ tt | \
/ \ I | / il f \
/ \1 | / \t ‘i
\! | \ | | \
/ 1 | \i | \
Vo1 | I)
4 | ! V4 ! |
\ / \ | \ |
\ | \ |
\ | / | |
\ / \ j \ |
iS \ VV
Lock Range Once the PLL is locked, it will track frequency changes in the incoming sig-
nal. The range of frequencies over which the PLL can maintain lock is called the lock range
or tracking range. Limitations on the hold-in range are the maximum frequency deviations
of the VCO and the output limits of the phase detector. The hold-in range is independent of
the bandwidth of the low-pass filter because, when the PLL is in lock, the difference fre-
quency (f; — f,) is zero or a very low instantaneous value that falls well within the band-
width. The hold-in range is usually expressed as a percentage of the VCO frequency.
Capture Range Assuming the PLL is not in lock, the range of frequencies over which it
can acquire lock with an incoming signal is called the capture range. Two basic conditions
are required for a PLL to acquire lock. First, the difference frequency (f, — f;) must be low
enough to fall within the filter’s bandwidth. This means that the incoming frequency must
not be separated from the nominal] or free-running frequency of the VCO by more than the
bandwidth of the low-pass filter. Second, the maximum deviation, Af,,,,, of the VCO fre-
quency must be sufficient to allow f, to increase or decrease to a value equal to f;. These
conditions are illustrated in Figure |7—49; and when they exist, the PLL will “pull” the
VCO frequency toward the incoming frequency untilf, = fj.
FIGURE 17-49
o—— Af — >]
— - = F f
(a)
al = ~
f
J : i, 7 if
The free-running frequency of the VCO is set by the values of R, and C; in Figure 17-50
according to the following formula. The frequency is in hertz when the resistance is in ohms
and the capacitance is in farads.
1.2
PARC,
= ==
:
Equation 17-5
He
+v Low-pass filter
oO = ]
(10)
— 2) Ls; ]- i 13.6kQ
| ||
+ 0 0 it (VCO control voltage)
.
Diff inputs (3) |. hese . AmplifierpM (6) cael eon
o— . detector | . O Ref output
lase
Phase COMparat
comparatori (5) iS ao | 5 Sr
input ° (af.
VCO output Orta
VCO
- LM565
(8) (9) Q)
R, C
|
FIGURE 17-50
Equation 17-6
8fo
Sock = +
Vo Cc
where Vcc 1s the total voltage between the positive and negative de supply voltage terminals.
The capture range is given by
. 1 2T flock
Equation 17-7 =4—, /—
Fear = t5 7 (3600 2)C,
The 3600 is the value of the internal filter resistor in ohms. You can see that the capture
range is dependent on the filter bandwidth as determined by the internal resistor and the ex-
ternal capacitor Cy.
‘Ni |
(10)
\" | | f
2)
v MW o
(3) (7)
O Oy
LM565 0
(S) (6)
ee
(4)
(8) (9) ()
|.
FIGURE 17-51
EXAMPLE 17-9
Determine the values for R,, C,, and C, for the LM565 in Figure 17-51 for a free-
running frequency of 455 kHz and a capture range of +10 kHz. The de supply
voltages are +6 V.
I 27 feck
=4—, | —_———
Feap 2m V (3600 2)C,
fe =~ LL 2Thiock .
Related Problem What can you do to increase the capture range from +10 kHz to +15 kHz?
| SECTION 17-8
REVIEW . List the three basic components in a phase-locked loop.
WN =
. What is another circuit used in some PLLs other than the three listed in Question 1?
. What is the basic function ofa PLL?
. What is the difference between the lock range and the capture range ofa PLL?
BR