Viroid

Viroids were first discovered by T.O. Diener in the year 1971. Viroids are infectious pathogens that affect only
plants, therefore are also called plant pathogens. Structurally, Viroids are smaller than viruses and possess
circular strands of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) with no protein coating.

Structure Of Viroids
Viroids differ from virus in structure and form. These consists of solely short strands of circular, and single -
stranded RNA without the protein coats.

Characteristic Features Of Viroid:

• They are known as the smallest infectious agent who mainly infects plants.
• They contain only RNA.
• They contain a nucleic acid with low molecular weight and a unique structure.
• They multiply within the host cell and as a result, it causes the death of the host.
• They have two families such as Pospiviroidae- nuclear viroids and Avsunviroidae- chloroplastic viroids.
• They move cell to cell by the plasmodesmata, and a long-distance through the phloem.

Replication of Viroid or Infection of Viroid: Viroids replicate in the nucleus (Pospiviroidae)

or chloroplasts (Avsunviroidae) of plant cells in three steps through an RNA-based mechanism. They require RNA
polymerase II, a host cell enzyme normally associated with synthesis of messenger RNA from DNA, which instead
catalyzes "rolling circle" synthesis of new RNA using the viroid as template.
1. Asymmetric Rolling circle Replication
• Pospiviroids use asymmetric Rolling circle Replication
methods to replicate their RNA.
• In this method an Incoming (+)-circular RNA initially is
transcribed into concatemeric linear (-)-strand RNA.
• After that it serves as the replication intermediate for the
synthesis of concatemeric, linear (+)- strand RNA.
• This (+)- strand RNA subsequently is cleaved into unit length
monomers that are ligated into circles.
2. Symmetric Rolling Circle Replication
• Members of Avsunviroid follow this Symmetric Rolling
Circle Replication method to replicate their RNA.
• In this method the circular positive sense RNA is transcribed
into linear, concatemeric (-)- strand RNA
• Then Instead of serving as the direct template for the
synthesis of linear concatemeric (+)- strand RNA
• After that the concatemeric (-)- strand RNA is cleaved into
unit length molecules followed by circularization
• The circular (-)- RNA then serves as the template for the
synthesis of linear, concatemeric (+)- strand RNA
• When subsequently is cleaved into unit-length monomers and
circularized
Viroid Significance: Viroids causes many plant diseases which in turn cause economic losses to agriculture.
Some example of plant viroids are;
• Potato spindle tuber viroid (potatoes)
• Citrus exocortis (citrus plants) (sometimes called “scalybutt”) this can also infect tomato plants (sometimes called
“tomato bunchy top disease”)
• Citrus gummy bark viroid
• Grapevine viroid
• Dapple peach fruit disease viroid
• Citrus cachexia viroid
• Cucumber pale fruit viroid
• Cadang-cadang is a disease caused by Coconut cadang-cadang viroid (a lethal viroid of Coconut)
• Eggplant latent viroid.
Transmission of Viroids
• Viroids can be transmitted through seed and pollen of infected plants.
• They can be transmitted by aphids from infected plants to other plants.
• They can be transmitted from plant to plant by leaf contact.

Prion
The term Prion means proteinaceous infectious particles. Prions are the infectious agents responsible for several
neurodegenerative diseases in mammals, like, Creutzfeldt Jakob disease. This happens due to the abnormal folding of
the proteins in the brain. It refers to the hypothesis that the infectious agents causing the diseases contain only proteins

Structure of Prion Protein

The prion protein exists throughout the body of a healthy
animal and people. There are present two forms of prion
protein such as;
c
• PrP , it is considered as the normal form of protein.
Here C refers to ‘cellular’ PrP. this protein is structurally
well defined. Cellular, Dominant alpha helix, Easily
soluble, Monomeric, Digested by proteases. Gene PRNP.
• PrPSc, is the infectious form of the prion protein. Here
Sc refers to ‘scrapie’, it is a prion disease that occurs in
sheep. This protein is polydisperse and defined at a
relatively poor level. Disease causing, Beta pleated,
Insoluble, Multimeric, Resistant to digestion.

Characteristics of Prion Protein:

• Prions are unconventional or atypical virus
• Proteinaceous infections particle.
• No Nucleic acid
• Protein is only detectible component
• Replication ability due to lack of Nucleic acid is a challenge to central dogma of molecular biology
• Prion is ultramicroscopic, can be seen under electron microscope.
• These are infectious agent consisting only of protein.
• Each prion protein comprised of about 250 amino acid
• Its length varies from 100-200nm and breath from 10-20nm
• No intracellular form containing
• They are self reproductive and prion disease there is a long inoculation period.
• They show genetic inheritence
Replication of Prion Protein or Mode of Action:
replication such as;
There are two hypotheses on prion protein
Heterodimer model:
• This is the first model to explain how prion
proteins are replicate. According to this
replication model, a single PrPSc molecule
attached with a single PrPC molecule and then
it catalyzes the conversion of PrPC to PrPSc.

• After that two PrPSc molecules combined

with each other and can go on to convert more
PrPC.

Fibril model:
• According to this model PrPSc appears as
fibrils.
• The end portion of this fibril is combined with
PrPC and converted into PrPSc.

Types of Prion Diseases: Prion diseases in Human: 1. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD),

2. Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome, 3. Fatal insomnia, 4. Kuru
Prion diseases in Animal: 1. Scrapie, 2. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, 3. Chronic wasting disease

Viroid Vs Prion
Details Viroid Prion
Definition Viroids are infectious RNA molecules. Prions are infectious protein particles.
Size Viroids are smaller than viruses. Prions are smaller than the viroids.
Composed of composed of single strands of RNA. Prions are composed of only protein molecules.
Complexity Viroids are more complex. Prions are less complex.
Nucleic Acid Present Absent
Protein Absent Present
Infections Viroids infect mostly plants. Prions mainly cause neuro-degenerative diseases.
Type of Citrus exocytic Mad cow diseases in cattle
Diseases Tomato apical stunt Scrapie in sheep and goats
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans
 Mycoplasma
Mycoplasmas are the “smallest, independently replicating prokaryotes”. & a mollicute genus of bacteria
that lack a cell wall around their cell membranes. This characteristic makes them naturally resistant to many
common antibiotics such as penicillin or other beta-lactam antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis.

General Characters of Mycoplasma:

o They are unicellular, smallest, non-motile and
prokaryotic organisms forming fried egg shaped colonies
(Fig. 5 A, B).
o They are pleomorphic i.e., able to change their shape
depending upon culture media.
o They may be rod like, ring like, globoid or filamentous (Fig.
5 C, D). The filaments are of uniform diameter (100-300 nm)
and vary in length from 3 nm to 150 nm.
o Some mycoplasma predominantly assume spherical shape
(300-800 nm in diameter).
o They are ultra-filterable i.e., they can pass through bacteria-
proof filters.
o They do not possess rigid cell wall.
o The cells are delimited by soft tripple layered lipo-
proteinaceous membrane. It is unit membrane about 10 nm thick.
o Within the cytoplasm ribosomes are found scattered in the
peripheral zone. These are 14 nm in diameter and resemble with
bacteria in sedimentation characteristic of both the nucleoprotein
and nucleic acid.
o The ribosomes are 72S type.
o Within the cytoplasm fine fibrillar DNA is present. It is double
stranded helix.
o Mycoplasma generally grow more slowly than bacteria.
o They require sterol for their nutrition.
o They are usually resistant to antibiotics like penicillin,
cephaloridine, vencomycin etc. which action cell wall.
o They are sensitive to tetracycline.
o They are also killed by temperature of 40-55°C in fifteen
minutes.
o They are also killed by temperature of 40-55°C in fifteen
minutes.
o They do not produce spores.
o Like other prokaryotes, they usually divide by binary fission.

Cell Structure of Mycoplasma:

Reproduction:
Mycoplasma reproduce by fission, budding & young
elementary bodies. Sexual & asexual reproduction are
absent.The reproduction by young elementary bodies is
important. In this method, the mycoplasma develops many
small & round bodies called elementary bodies. many small
& round bodies called elementary bodis. Gradually they
develop to form secondary and tertiary bodies. On
maturation, they release from the mother cell & form
quaternary bodies which finally form Mycoplasma.
Economic Importance of Mycoplasma:
1. It causes diseases to plants, animals and human.
2. Some of the Mycoplasma species are commensal organisms.
3. Infertility in human is caused by the three species of Mycoplasma.
4. Mycoplasma dispar is an etiological agent of bronchopneumonia in calves.
5. Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma meleagridis causes respiratory disease in the domestic poultry.
The disease causes substantial losses in the poultry production.
6. Mycoplasmal disease of the ruminants is a socio-economical problem.
7. Mycoplasma pneumonia causes disease in the respiratory tract of human beings resulting in the symptoms
such as the fever, cough, head ache etc.
8. Witches broom of potato, Corn stunt, aster yellow etc. are caused by Mycoplasma.

Archaebacteria
A group of single‐celled microorganisms. A single individual or species from this domain is called an
archaeon. They have no cell nucleus or any other membrane‐bound organelles within their cells.
Characteristics of Archaebacteria:
• Archaebacteria are obligate or facultative anaerobes, i.e.,
they flourish in the absence of oxygen and that is why only
they can undergo methanogenesis.
• The cell membranes of the Archaebacteria are composed
of lipids.
• The rigid cell wall provides shape and support to the
Archaebacteria. It also protects the cell from bursting
under hypotonic conditions.
• The cell wall is composed of Pseudomurein, which
prevents archaebacteria from the effects of Lysozyme.
Lysozyme is an enzyme released by the immune system of
the host, which dissolves the cell wall of pathogenic
bacteria.
• These do not possess membrane-bound organelles such as nuclei, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, lysosomes or chloroplast. Its thick cytoplasm contains all the compounds required for
nutrition and metabolism.
• They can live in a variety of environments and are hence called extremophiles. They can survive in
acidic and alkaline aquatic regions, and also in temperature above boiling point.
• They can withstand a very high pressure of more than 200
atmospheres.
• Archaebacteria are indifferent towards major antibiotics
because they contain plasmids which have antibiotic
resistance enzymes.
• The mode of reproduction is asexual, known as binary
fission.
• They perform unique gene transcription.
• The differences in their ribosomal RNA suggest that they
diverged from both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Reproduction: Archaea reproduce asexually by
binary or multiple fission, fragmentation, or budding;
meiosis does not occur, so if a species of archaea exists in
more than one form, all have the same genetic material.
Cell division is controlled in a cell cycle; after the cell's
chromosome is replicated and the two daughter
chromosomes separate, the cell divides. • Both bacteria
and eukaryotes, but not archaea, make spores.