KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
COURSE: BACHELORS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
COURSE UNIT: TEEE 4206
SUBSTATION-ENGINEERING
ASSIGNMENT(I) ONE

GROUP ONE MEMBERS

NA M E REG. NUM B ER
BYANSI PAUL 19/U/BET/739/PE
SSALI DAVID
SEMAKULA DAVID
NAMUKOOWA DENIS
KIWANUKA ACHILEO

SUBMISSION DATE: 7TH 09 2023

LECTURER: MRS. SOLLOMY AINOMUJUNI

 Question 1.

Write short notes on busba r configura tions in a substa tion

An electrical bus bar is defined as a conductor or a group of conductors used for

collecting electric power from the incoming feeders and distributes them to the outgoing
feeders. In other words, it is a type of electrical junction in which all the incoming and outgoing
electrical current meets

B us Configura tions

The equipment and buses installed in the substation switchyard are arranged and connected in
specific ways to form the different Bus configurations bellow;

Single B us- B a r A rrangem ent

The arrangement of such type of system is very simple and easy. The system has only one bus
bar along with the switch. All the substation equipment like the transformer, generator, the
feeder is connected to this bus bar only.

The a dvanta ges of single bus ba r a rrangem ents a re ;

➢ It has low initial cost.

➢ It requires less maintenance
➢ It is simple in operation
Disa dva nta ges of Single B us- B a rs A rra ngem ent

➢ The only disadvantage of such type of arrangement is that the complete supply is
disturbed on the occurrence of the fault.
➢ The arrangement provides the less flexibility and hence used in the small substation
where continuity of supply is not essential.

Single B us- B a r A rrangem ent with B us Sectiona lized

In this arrangement, the circuit breaker and isolating switches are used. The isolator
disconnects the faulty section of the busbar, hence protects the system from complete
shutdown. This type of arrangement uses one addition circuit breaker which does not much
increase the cost of the system.

A dva nt a ges of sectiona lized bus ba r

➢ The faulty section is removed without affecting the continuity of the supply.
➢ The maintenance of the individual section can be done without disturbing the system
supply.
➢ The system has a current limiting reactor which decreases the occurrence of the fault.

Disadva nt a ges of sectiona lized bus ba r

➢ The system uses the additional circuit breaker and isolator which increases the cost of
the system.
Double B us Sy stem

In double bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in such a way that any outgoing or
incoming feeder can be taken from any of the bus. Actually every feeder is connected to both
of the buses in parallel through individual isolator as shown in the figure.

Double B us Double B rea k er A rra ngem ent

This type of arrangement requires two bus bar and two circuit breakers. It does not require
any additional equipment like bus coupler and switch.

A dva nt a ges of Double B us Double B rea ker

➢ This type of arrangement provides the maximum reliability and flexibility in the supply.
Because the fault and maintenance would not disturb their continuity.
➢ The continuity of the supply remains same because the load is transferrable from one
bus to another on the occurrence of the fault.
Disadva nt a ges of double bus Double brea ker

➢ In such type of arrangement two buses and two circuit breakers are used which
increases the cost of the system.
➢ Their maintenance cost is very high.

Sectiona lized Double B us B a r A rra ngem ent .

In this type of bus arrangement, the sectionalized main bus bar is used along with the auxiliary
bus bar. Any section of the busbar removes from the circuit for maintenance and it is
connected to any of the auxiliary bus bars. But such type of arrangement increases the cost of
the system. Sectionalization of the auxiliary bus bar is not required because it would increase
the cost of the system.

M a in a nd Tra nsfer B us A rra ngem ent

Such type of arrangement uses two types of busbars namely, main busbar and the auxiliary bus
bar. The busbar arrangement uses bus coupler which connects the isolating switches and circuit
breaker to the busbar. The bus coupler is also used for transferring the load from one bus to
another in case of overloading. The following are the steps of transferring the load from one
bus to another. The potential of both the bus bar kept same by closing the bus coupler.

The bus bar on which the load is transferred is kept close. Open the main bus bar. Thus, the
load is transferred from the main bus to reserve bus.
A dva nta ges of M a in and Transfer B us A rra ngem ent

➢ The continuity of the supply remains same even in the fault. When the fault occurs on
any of the buses the entire load is shifted to another bus.
➢ The repair and maintenance can easily be done on the busbar without disturbing their
continuity.
➢ The maintenance cost of the arrangement is less.
➢ The potential of the bus is used for the operation of the relay.
➢ The load can easily be shifted on any of the buses.

Disa dva nta ges of M a in a nd Tra nsfer B us A rra ngem ent

➢ In such type of arrangements, two bus bars are used which increases the cost of the
system.
➢ The fault on any of the bus would cause the complete shutdown on the whole
substation.

One a nd a Half B rea k er A rra ngem ent

In this arrangement, three circuit breakers are required for two circuits. Each circuit of the bus
bar uses the one and a half circuit breaker. Such type of arrangement is preferred in large
stations where power handled per circuit is large.
A dva nta ges of One and a Half B rea k er A rra ngem ent

➢ It protects the arrangement against the loss of supply.

➢ The potential of the bus bar is used for operating the relay.
➢ In such type of arrangement, the additional circuits are easily added to the system.

Disa dva nta ges of One a nd a Half B rea k er A rra ngem ent

➢ The circuit becomes complicated because of the relaying system.

➢ Their maintenance cost is very high.

Ring M a in A rra ngem ent

In such type of arrangement, the end of the bus bar is connected back to the starting point of
the bus to form a ring.
A dva nta ges of Ring M a in A rra ngem ent

➢ Such type of arrangement will provide two paths for the supply. Thus, the fault will not
affect their working.
➢ The fault is localized for the particular section. Hence the complete circuit is not
affected by the fault.
➢ In this arrangement, a circuit breaker can be maintained without interrupting the supply.

Disa dva nta ges of Ring M a in A rra ngem ent

➢ Difficulties occur in the addition of the new circuit.

➢ Overloading occurs on the system if any of the circuit breakers is opened.

M esh A rra ngem ent

In such type of arrangement, the circuit breakers are installed in the mesh formed by the buses.
The circuit is tapped from the node point of the mesh. Such type of bus arrangement is
controlled by four circuit breakers. When a fault occurs on any section, two circuit breakers
have to open, resulting in the opening of the mesh. Such type of arrangement provides security
against bus-bar fault but lacks switching facility. It is preferred for substations having a large
number of circuits.
Double B us Sy stem with B y pa ss Isola tors

This is a combination of the double bus system and main bus and transfer bus system. In
Double Bus System with Bypass Isolators either bus can act as main bus and second bus as
transfer bus. It permits breaker maintenance without interruption of power which is not
possible in a double bus system, but it provides all the advantages of the double bus system.

It, however, requires one additional isolator (bypass isolator) for each feeder circuit and
introduces slight complication in system layout. Still, this scheme is best for an optimum
economy of the system, and it is the best excellent choice for 220 KV system
 Question 2.

Wha t a re instrum ent tra nsform ers a nd give two ty pes of instrum ent
tra nsform ers

Instrum ent tra nsform ers: are current and voltage transformation devices that are used to
step down the transmission and distribution line voltages and currents to levels that can safely
operate measuring instruments, protection devices and control relays by isolating it from the
supply voltages.

Types of Instrument transformers:

1. Current transformers (CT)

2. Voltage transformers or potential transformers (VT or PT)
Current transformers

Transformers that are used to transform currents are known as current transformers. They are
used to reduce high currents to 1A or 5A so that they can be measured using an ammeter or
used in other control circuits. It consists of a single or fewer primary turns and large numbers
of secondary turns. In most types, the current-carrying conductor itself acts as the primary
winding of the transformer.

Figure 1 1. Current transformers (CT)

The primary of the current transformers is connected in series to the line while the secondary
is connected to the measurement, control or protection devices.

Current tra nsform ers serv e two purposes:

➢ Facilitates the measurement of high currents and

➢ Insulation of meters, instruments and protection relays from high voltages.

Based on the type of construction, current transformers are classified into three types as
follows:

1. Window CT or toroidal CT: hollow core through which the current-carrying conductor
or cable is passed.
2. Bar CT: contain a copper or aluminum busbar surrounded by the secondary winding
wound over the ferromagnetic core.
3. Wound CT: They have separate primary and secondary winding.

Volta ge tra nsform er or P otentia l tra nsform ers

Instrument transformers that are used to transform voltages are known as voltage or
potential transformers. They are used to reduce high voltages to 120V or other lower
levels so that they can be measured using a voltmeter or used in other control circuits. It
consists of a magnetic core upon which a large number of primary turns and fewer numbers
of secondary turns are wound. They are designed for optimal performance with high
impedance secondary loads.

Figure 2 Potential transformers

The primary winding of a voltage transformer is connected in parallel with the load for which
the voltage is to be measured or controlled. The secondary winding is connected to measuring
instruments and control devices.
There a re three ty pes of potentia l tra nsform er:

1. Electromagnetic induction type: Principle similar to two winding transformers.

2. Capacitive-coupled type: A capacitive-coupled voltage transformer is a combination of
capacitance voltage divider and electromagnetic type PT.
3. Optical type: An optical voltage transformer works on the principle of Kerr effect, by
which the light which is reflected from a magnetized surface may change both
polarization and reflected intensity.

Question 3.

Wha t a re P rotective rela y s? describe their opera tion ?

Protective relays are essential components in electrical systems that function as sensing
devices. They detect faults, determine their location, and issue tripping commands to circuit
breakers. These circuit breakers then disconnect the faulty element, ensuring the safety and
integrity of the electrical system.

Opera ting P rinciple of P rotective Rela y s

The working of the relay is either depends on the electromagnetic attraction or

electromagnetic induction. The electromagnetic attraction type relay has a solenoid which is
attracted towards the poles of the electromagnet. This relay works on both the AC and DC
supply.
 The electromagnetic induction type relay uses the induction motor inside which the
torque is generated by the process of electromagnetic induction. Such type of relays works
only on ac quantities.

The above image shows the connection of the relay and we can see the primary winding
of the current transformer is connected to the line which is to be protected. The secondary
winding of the current transformer is connected to the relay coil, and there is a tripping circuit
it could be AC or DC and there is a circuit breaker. So, in the case of a short circuit at point F,
there is a huge hike in the current flow, and this current would reach the relay coil and the
relay will operate due to this by closing its contact. So due to this the breaker trip circuit will
close and thus the circuit breaker opens and disconnects the faulty section.

Question 4.

Differentia te between electro- m echanica l a nd solid - sta te rela ys?

The following a re the differences be tween Electro- m echanica l Rela y s (EM Rs) a nd
Solid- sta te Rela y s (SSRs)

Opera ting P rinciple:

➢ EMRs use mechanical switches and coils for operation.

➢ SSRs use semiconductor components like transistors or thyristors.

Speed of Opera tion:

➢ EMRs are slower due to the physical movement of mechanical parts.

➢ SSRs are faster, often switching in microseconds.

Noise a nd Wea r:

➢ EMRs can produce audible noise and may wear out over time.
➢ SSRs are silent and have no mechanical parts to wear out.

Size a nd F orm F actor:

➢ EMRs are larger and heavier.

➢ SSRs are smaller and more compact.
Dura bility :

➢ EMRs may be less durable in harsh conditions.

➢ SSRs are more robust and resilient.

A pplica tions:

➢ EMRs are used where slower switching and noise are acceptable, such as control panels.
➢ SSRs are preferred for fast switching, silent operation, and high-reliability applications
like automation and robotics.

Cost:

➢ EMRs are generally more cost-effective.

➢ SSRs tend to be more expensive due to their solid-state components.

➢ EMRs: Generally, more cost-effective than SSRs since they involve simpler mechanical
components.
➢ SSRs: Tend to be costlier due to the use of semiconductor technology, making them
advantageous in certain applications but at a higher cost.

Electrom a gnetic Interference (EM I):

➢ EMRs can generate electromagnetic interference.

➢ SSRs produce less EMI, making them suitable for sensitive electronic environments.

Input Volta ge Com patibility :

➢ EMRs can work with a wide range of input voltages without additional circuitry.
➢ SSRs may require additional components to handle different input voltage levels.

Longevity :

➢ EMRs have a limited lifespan due to mechanical wear.

➢ SSRs have a longer lifespan because they lack mechanical contacts.

Environm ental Considera tions:

➢ EMRs may be sensitive to vibration, shock, and extreme temperatures.

➢ SSRs are more tolerant of adverse environmental conditions.

Switching Current a nd Volta ge Ra tings:

➢ EMRs can handle high currents and voltages with larger models available.
➢ SSRs typically have lower current and voltage ratings but are available in various
configurations.
Hea t Genera tion a nd Dissipa tion:

➢ EMRs: EMRs produce less heat during operation due to their mechanical nature,
requiring minimal heat dissipation.
➢ SSRs: SSRs generate more heat because of semiconductor components, necessitating
the use of heat sinks for effective heat dissipation and preventing overheating.

Resista nce to Shock s a nd Vibra tions:

➢ EMRs: Susceptible to shocks and vibrations due to mechanical components.

➢ SSRs: Highly resistant to shocks and vibrations, making them suitable for rugged
environments.

Electric A rc Genera tion in High - P ower Circuits:

➢ EMRs: Generate more electric arcs in high-power circuits due to the mechanical
switching action.
➢ SSRs: Produce fewer electric arcs because they use semiconductors for switching,
making them more suitable for high-power applications.

Sola tion:

➢ EMRs: Offer isolation, but it involves physical contacts between input and output.
➢ SSRs: Provide superior isolation with no physical contact between input and output,
making them highly effective at switching larger currents using very small control
currents. This is especially valuable in applications where complete electrical separation
is crucial.
 Question 5.

Wha t is the function of B ushings a nd give rea sons why they fa il.

The term Bushing is used to represent a hollow electrical insulator that helps us to
safely pass an electrical conductor through a conducting barrier like a transformer case, or
circuit breaker case without making any electrical connection with it.

Figure 3 bushing

B ushing F ailures Rea sons:

Bushings, used for electrical insulation in equipment like transformers and circuit
breakers, can fail due to various factors:

A ge a nd Wea r: Aging and deterioration of insulating material over time.

Conta m ina tion: Accumulation of moisture and contaminants leading to tracking and surface
flashovers.

Corona Discha rge: High electrical stress causing ozone production and material degradation.

Overvolta ge: Voltage surges exceeding insulation levels causing breakdown.

M echanica l Stress: Thermal expansion, vibration, or improper installation leading to damage.

M a nufa cturing Defects: Inconsistencies or defects in bushing construction.

P a rtia l Discha rge: Localized breakdown within the insulation material.

Chem ical A tta ck : Exposure to chemicals degrading the insulating material.

Excessive Loa ding: Operating beyond rated capacity causing thermal stress.

Externa l Da m a ge: Physical impacts or accidents compromising structural integrity.

Im proper M a intena nce: Neglecting inspections and cleaning.

Environm ental Conditions: Harsh weather or extreme temperatures accelerating

degradation.

A ge a nd Service Life: Bushings have a finite lifespan, and reaching the end of service life can
lead to rapid deterioration.

Ha rm onics and Distortion: Bushings exposed to systems with high-frequency harmonics or

electrical distortion may experience increased stress and potential failure.

Vibra tion a nd Seism ic Events: Vibrations from equipment or seismic activity can subject
bushings to mechanical stress, potentially causing damage or failure.

Im proper Ha ndling: Mishandling during transportation or installation can introduce physical

damage to the bushing.

La ck of P eriodic Testing: Neglecting routine tests, such as dielectric strength tests or

partial discharge measurements, can result in undetected issues leading to failure.

M a teria l Degra da tion over Tim e: Bushing materials may naturally degrade with age, even
without specific stressors, which can result in reduced insulating capability.
 Question 6.

Wha t is a conta ctor a nd differentia te between the term s dela y on relea se, dela y
on opera te a nd interva l tim ing a s used in conta ctors.
A contactor is a device that is for making and breaking an electrical power circuit. For
example, we usually use a contactor for turning on and off an electrical motor.

Figure 4 contactor

Differen ces between the term s dela y on relea se, dela y on opera te a nd interva l
tim ing a s used in conta ctors.

The terms "delay on release," "delay on operate," and "interval timing" as used in
contactors and time-delay relays, along with brief explanations:

Dela y on Relea se (DOR):

Opera tion: Contacts respond immediately to the control signal, but the delay occurs after the
control signal is removed.

Dela y : The delay occurs when the control signal is de-energized, causing a time delay before
the contacts return to their original state.

Use Ca se: Suitable for applications requiring a device to remain active briefly after the control
signal is removed, such as cooling down equipment.

Dela y on Opera te (DOO):

Opera tion: Contacts remain in their original state when the control signal is applied, with a
delay before changing state.

Dela y : The delay occurs after the control signal is applied, causing a time delay before the
contacts switch to the opposite state.

Use Ca se: Useful for applications where a device or process needs a delayed start after the
control signal is applied, such as motor activation.
 REFERENCES
1. https://www.hagerty.com/media/maintenance-and-tech/how-it-fails-shocks-
bushings-and-ball-joints/
2. https://automationforum.co/what-is-a-protective-relay-and-how-do-
protective-relays-work/
3. https://www.c3controls.com/white-paper/basics-of-contactors/
4. https://www.google.com/search?q=differentiate+between+the+terms+delay
+on+release%2C+delay+on+operate+and+interval+timing+as+used+in+con
tactors.&oq=differentiate+between+the+terms+delay+on+release%2C+dela
y+on+operate+and+interval+timing+as+used+in+contactors.&gs_lcrp=EgZja
HJvbWUyBggAEEUYOdIBBzc3NWowajeoAgCwAgA&sourceid=chrome&ie
=UTF-8#ip=1
5. https://www.electricalclassroom.com/electromechanical-vs-solid-state-relay/
6. https://www.google.com/search?q=bushing&oq=bushing&gs_lcrp=EgZjaHJvb
WUyBggAEEUYOTIHCAEQABiPAjIGCAIQRRg8MgYIAxBFGDwyBggEEEU
YPNIBCDYwNjhqMGo3qAIAsAIA&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8