SPE 92412
Asphaltene Deposition During Drilling With Emulsified Drilling Fluids
I. Fjelde, SPE, RF-Rogaland Research
Copyright 2005, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2005 SPE International Symposium on Oilfield
Chemistry held in Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 2 – 4 February 2005.
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Abstract
If the reservoir oil and drilling mud filtrate of drilling fluids
are not compatible, mixing of these fluids in the oil reservoir
can cause formation damages. For environmental reasons base
oils with low aromatic content are preferred in emulsified
drilling fluids. The potential for asphaltene deposition by
mixing of emulsified drilling fluids and reservoir oils has been
studied using stock tank oils with low and high asphaltene
content. Two low aromatic emulsified drilling fluids were
used, one with mineral base oil and one with synthetic base
oil. Asphaltene deposition was studied both in bulk
experiments and in floods using core-plugs of sandstone
outcrop of low-to-medium permeability.
When crude oils and mud filtrates were mixed in bulk,
asphaltene deposition was detected in all cases. The formation
damage was largest when the mud filtrates were mixed with
the crude oil with the highest asphaltene content. During back-
flooding with the same crude oil, the formation damages
caused by asphaltene deposition were removed. It is concluded
that the potential for formation damage by asphaltene
deposition is highest for reservoir oils with high
concentrations of asphaltene close to the onset of asphaltene
deposition. The potential will increase with decreasing
aromatic content in the emulsified drilling fluids. If the
reservoir oil is not saturated with asphaltenes and the damage
area can be swept by the reservoir oil, formation damages
caused by asphaltene deposition can be nonpermanent. If
white oil is used in laboratory experiments, the potential for
asphaltene deposition and removal of this damage can come
out wrong.
Introduction
Formation damages can be formed during drilling, completion
and production, and will reduce the well productivity. In the
EU-project Well Productivity 2002 in the ENERGIE part of
the 5th Frame Programme, one of the objectives was to
characterize the main formation damage mechanisms for
emulsion-based drilling fluids and the conditions under which
each mechanism may dominate. These drilling fluids contain
emulsions with continuous oil-phase and dispersed brine
droplets, w-o emulsions, and dispersed solids. They are also
called oil-based drilling fluids (OBM). OBM systems show
excellent drilling performance, e.g. they have high lubricity,
stabilize reactive clays, preserve hole-stability, resist
contamination and produce firm, dry cuttings1-4. In this paper
the study of asphaltene deposition during drilling of oil
reservoirs is reported. It was in this work assumed that the
mud filtrate (MF) and reservoir oil were mixed during drilling.
Solubility of asphaltenes was studied by mixing of MFs and
oils simulating the reservoir oil.
Asphaltenes are defined as insoluble in alkanes and soluble
in aromatic solvents like toluene and benzene5-7. Usually
n-pentane or n-heptane is used as precipitation agents for
asphaltenes. The potential for asphaltene deposition does not
depend on the asphaltene concentration, but rather on the ratio
between the asphaltenes and resins8. Resins are found to
disperse the asphaltene aggregates in the crude oils.
Deposition of asphaltenes can therefore be a problem also in
reservoirs with light crude oils9. It has been reported that the
potential for asphaltene deposition can depend on several
parameters, e.g. pH, salinity, crude oil composition, pressure,
temperature and swelling of oil10-17. Increase in the size of
asphaltene aggregates, i.e. number of asphaltene molecules in
the asphaltene aggregates, is observed when the onset of
asphaltene deposition is approached18. When the size of the
aggregates becomes too large to be dispersed by the resins,
asphaltene deposition will occur. Deposition of asphaltenes in
oil reservoirs can reduce the permeability of the rock. The
ability of crude oils to act as solvents for asphaltenes can also
affect the wettability of solid surfaces. Wettability depends
therefore of many of the same parameters as asphaltene
deposition18-19. Asphaltene deposition and adsorption/
aggregation of asphaltenes on rock surfaces can change the
wettability to more oil-wet conditions and thereby lower the
oil relative permeability.
The potential for asphaltene deposition is known to
increase with decreasing aromatic content5-7. For
environmental reasons the aromatic content in the base oils
used in OBM systems has been reduced. When low aromatic
OBM systems are used, the aromatic content in the MFs can
be lower than in the reservoir oils. Mixing of the reservoir oil
and MF can then increase the aggregation of asphaltenes. If
the asphaltene aggregates become too large, asphaltene
deposition can occur. This can cause reduction of the
permeability. In addition, the wettability can be altered to
2 SPE 92412

more oil-wet conditions, and this is expected to reduce the oil Table 1
relative permeability. The solubility of asphaltene molecules Composition of artificial formation water.
and/or the dispersion of asphaltene aggregates have been Salt Concentration, g/l
reported to be affected by chemicals, e.g. cationic surfactants NaCl 24.79
can increase the solvency of asphaltenes20. Chemicals in OBM
MgCl2.6H2O 11.79
systems may also affect the solubility of asphaltenes.
Most of the nickel (Ni) and vanadium (V) in reservoir oils KCl 0.80
are bonded to molecules in the asphaltene fractions21-23. CaCl2.2H2O 1.60
Dilution of crude oils and asphaltene deposition will reduce
the concentrations of these ions. Asphaltene deposition was in
the project studied by determination of the Ni and V Table 2
concentrations by Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass STOs used in study of asphaltene deposition.
Spectrometry (ICPMS). Compatibility of MFs and crude oils STO Code Asphaltene content, weight%
was first studied by determination of asphaltene solubility in Light STO 1 L1 0.8
bulk experiments. Formation damages caused by asphaltene Light STO 2 L2 1.0
deposition were studied by mixing crude oils and MFs in cores
Light STO 3 L3 0.8
at initial water saturation (Swi).
Heavy STO H1 12
Experimental
Fluids. Artificial formation brine was used in core floods to
simulate the formation water. The composition for this brine is Table 3
given in Table 1. Main components in prepared OBM systems.
Four different stock tank oils (STOs) were used in the Component
study of asphaltene deposition, three light oils with low Base oil (mineral base oil or synthetic base oil)
asphaltene content (L1, L2 and L3) and one heavy oil with Emulsifiers (primary and secondary)
high asphaltene content (H1). The asphaltene contents (n-
Lime
heptane) for the STOs are given in Table 2.
Two types of commercial OBM systems were used, one Organoclay
with mineral base oil (MB) and one with synthetic base oil Fluid loss additives (primary and secondary)
(SB, linear alpha olefine (LAO)). The main components in the Water
prepared OBM systems are given in Table 3. The water-oil CaCl2
ratio in all prepared OBM systems was 25/75. Aromatic
Barite
content was less than 1.0w% in MB and 0.0w% in SB. The
mud systems were prepared with and without solids (barite
and organoclay) and with and without Gilsonite (an asphalt Table 4
product) as fluid loss additive. Types of bulk studies carried out.
MFs were prepared by filtration of OBM systems stepwise
from 120 P GRZQ WR  P 0)s prepared from mud
Bulk study Mud fluids Crude oils

systems with MB and SB are called MFMB and MFSB, Preliminary MFMB and MFSB prepared from OBM L1 and L2
study systems without solids and Gilsonite
respectively.
Base oils (MB and SB) L1 and L2
Bulk. STOs and MFs were mixed in different ratios. The Main study MFMB and MFSB prepared from OBM L3 and H1
types of studies carried out are shown in Table 4. In a systems with solids and without
preliminary study, OBM samples without solids (barite and Gilsonite
organoclay) and without Gilsonite were used to prepare MFs.
This was done because the separation of the mud phases was
Core flood. Blaxter sandstone outcrop was selected as a
faster in samples without solids than in samples with solids.
reference rock for consolidated sandstone with low-to-medium
The base oils, MB and SB, were also mixed with STOs in the
permeability. The absolute permeability (brine) was in the
same study. In the main study, MFs were prepared from OBM
range 100-200 md. Swi in the range 0.20-0.25 was established
samples with solids but without Gilsonite.
in Blaxter cores (length 8 cm and diameter 3.8 cm) by
All the prepared mixtures of MFs and STOs were stored at
flooding at 90°C. The cores were aged for 14 days at 90°C.
90°C for one week to reach equilibrium. The Ni and V
MFs prepared from OBM systems with solids and Gilsonite,
concentrations in STOs, MFs, and mixtures of STOs and MFs
were injected into the cores using an inlet filter of 0.45 P
were then determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass
Asphaltene deposition can be a rather slow process and
Spectrometry (ICPMS)21-23. Since some of the mud
emulsions can be formed at high shear rates. A low injection
components contained Ni, the V concentration was used as a
rate (0.02 ml/min) was therefore used. After the injection of
measure of asphaltene concentration. The solubility of
MFs the cores were again aged for 14 days at 90°C before the
asphaltenes was determined by comparing the V
concentrations in mixtures (corrected for dilution by base oil cores were back-produced using the same crude oil as in the
or MF) and crude oils. preparation of the cores. The injection rate during back-
production was 0.02 ml/min during the first pore volume and
SPE 92412 3

was then gradually increased to 0.10 ml/min. A few samples

100
of the effluents were analysed for Ni and V to determine the
back-production profile for Gilsonite.
80
Results
Bulk. MFs prepared from OBM systems without Gilsonite

Normalized V [%] .
60
contained Ni, but V was not detected in these MFs. It was
therefore decided to use the V concentration as a measure of
asphaltene solubility. 40
In the preliminary study, MFs were prepared from OBM
systems without solids (barite and organoclay) and without
20
Gilsonite. When the light crude oils L1 and L2 were mixed
with the base oils (MB and SB) and MFs (MFMB and MFSB),
the solubility of the asphaltenes were reduced. See Figure 1 0

Oil L2

MB

SB

MFMB

MFSB

L2/MB 1:9

L2/SB 1:9

L2/MFMB 1:9

L2/MFSB 1:9
and Figure 2 for oil L1 and L2, respectively. Mixing of MFs
and light reservoir oils can therefore increase the potential for
asphaltene deposition. The asphaltene solubility was in the
same range in L1/MF mixtures and L1/base oil mixtures. This
means that the solubility of asphaltenes from oil L1 was not Figure 2
affected by the chemicals in MFs. The mud chemicals were Normalised V concentration (relative to oil L2) in base oils, MFs,
found to reduce the solubility of asphaltenes from oil L2, L2/base oil mixtures and L2/MF mixtures. The results for mixing in
the volume ratio 1:9 are presented.
because the asphaltene solubility was lower in L2/MF
mixtures than in L2/base oil mixtures. The different effects of
the mud chemicals on asphaltene solubility for the two oils L1
100
and L2, was probably due to different oil compositions. The
type of interaction between oil components and mud
components may depend on the concentrations of polar 80
components in STOs, e.g. the concentrations of acids and
Normalized V [%] .

bases. 60

40

20
100

0
80
Oil L3

MB

SB

MFMB

MFSB

L3/MFMB 1:9

L3/MFSB 1:9
Normalized V [%] .

60

40 Figure 3
Normalised V concentration (relative to oil L3) in base oils, MFs,
L3/base oil mixtures and L3/MF mixtures. The results for mixing in
20 the volume ratio 1:9 are presented.

0 In the main bulk study, MFs were prepared from OBM

systems with solids but without Gilsonite. Ni and V
Oil L1

MB

SB

MFMB

MFSB

L1/MB 1:9

L1/SB 1:9

L1/MFMB 1:9

L1/MFSB 1:9

concentrations in oil L3 were as expected rather low (Ni

5590 ppb and V 1570 ppb). Asphaltene solubility was reduced
by both types of MFs. See Figure 3. MFs with the mineral
Figure 1 base oil (MFMB) gave lower asphaltene solubility than MFs
Normalised V concentration (relative to oil L1) in base oils, MFs, with the synthetic base oil (MFSB).
L1/base oil mixtures and L1/MF mixtures. The results for mixing in In STO with high asphaltene content (H1), the Ni and V
the volume ratio 1:9 are presented.
concentrations (Ni 57753 ppb and V 280533 ppb) were, as
expected, much higher than in the light oil L3. The asphaltene
solubility was also for this oil (H1) reduced both by MFMB
and MFSB. However, for this crude oil the asphaltene
solubility was reduced more by MFSB than MFMB. The same
was also observed for lower H1/MFs ratios, see Figure 4. The
4 SPE 92412

effects of MFMB and MFSB on asphaltene solubility were was approx. 0.015. Less mixing of injected and displaced
therefore different for L3 and H1. As for the light oils in the fluids, oil H1 and MFMB, was therefore obtained. The
preliminary study, this may be due to the different asphaltene deposition was therefore less than in the previous
compositions of STOs. Detailed chemical structures of the step where oil H1 was displaced by MFMB. The Ni and V
mud components were not available for the project. It was concentrations in MFMB were much lower than in oil H1, but
therefore of no value to characterize the different fractions of the Ni/V-ratio in MFMB was much higher than in oil H1.
the STOs. However, it can be concluded that the potential for After 1.0 porevolume (PV) of back-production with oil H1,
asphaltene deposition depends on the compositions of both the Ni and V concentrations were in the same range as in oil
crude oils and OBM systems. H1. This confirmed that the asphaltene deposition was low in
this step, and the displacement of MFMB by oil H1 was very
efficient. This was because the mobility ratio was very low.
120 Ko(Swi) after back-production with oil H1 was 7% higher than
ko(Swi) before MF exposure. This means that the oil
100 permeability before and after MF exposure was in the same
range. The damaged caused by asphaltene deposition was
Normalized V [%]

80
therefore found to be nonpermanent.
60

40
800
20
600
0

dP [mbar]
Crude

MB

SB

MFMB

MFSB

H1/MFMB 1:1

H1/MFMB 1:3

H1/MFMB 1:9

H1/MFSB 1:1

H1/MFSB 1:3

H1/MFSB 1:9

400

200

Figure 4 0
Normalised V concentration (relative to oil H1) in base oils, MFs, 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5
H1/base oil mixtures and H1/MF mixtures. Results for mixing in mud filtrate [PV]
different volume ratios are presented.
Figure 5
Differential pressure (dP) across the core during displacement of
Asphalt products contain molecules similar to asphaltenes oil H1 by MFMB.
in crude oils. In OBM systems containing the asphalt product
Gilsonite, the Ni concentrations in MFs were much higher (>3
times, 18000 ppb) than in the light STOs. It was confirmed 2000 0,5

that the Ni-concentration in the Gilsonite product was high.

This means that the asphalt product was partly soluble in MFs, 1500
0,4

and deposition of this product can occur when MF is mixed

with the reservoir oil. 0,3

Q [ml/min]
dP [mbar]

dp
1000
Q
Core floods. After aging of the core prepared with the heavy 0,2
oil H1 at Swi, the oil H1 was replaced by MFMB (prepared
500
from mud system with solids and Gilsonite). A temporary 0,1
increase in the differential pressure (dP) across the cores were
then observed, and dP was not stabilized. See Figure 5. During 0 0,0
MFMB injection the oil permeability (ko(Swi)) was reduced to 0 2 4 6 8
Crude oil [PV]
approx. 3% of the original ko(Swi). The mixing of the fluids (oil
H1 and MFMB) was efficient in this step, because the Figure 6
mobility ratio for displacement of oil H1 by MFMB was high. Differential pressure (dP) across the core during displacement of
The viscosity ratio for oil H1 and MFMB was approx. 67. MFMB by oil H1.
Since the viscosity of MF (1.2 mPa·s) was much lower than
for oil H1 (80 mPa·s), a drop in the differential pressure was Asphaltene deposition was also studied in cores prepared
expected due to the replacement of fluids. The pressure build with oil L3. See Table 5. When oil L3 was displaced by
up was therefore due to the formation damage caused by MFMB at Swi, the oil permeability was only decreased by
asphaltene deposition. 14%. After new aging for 14 days at 90ºC, MFMB was
After new aging at 90ºC for two weeks, MFMB was replaced by oil L3. The oil permeability was then increased to
replaced by oil H1. No pressure build up was observed in this 6% higher than before exposure to MFMB. In another
step, and the oil permeability was dramatically improved. See coreflood, oil L3 was replaced by MFSB at Swi. The oil
Figure 6. The mobility ratio for displacement of MFMB by oil permeability was then increased by 5%. After new aging for
H1 was low. The viscosity ratio between MFMB and oil H1 14 days at 90ºC, MFSB was replaced by oil L3. The oil
SPE 92412
permeability was then increased to 11% higher than before the
exposure to MFSB. This means that in the worst case only a
slightly decrease in the oil permeability was measured in the
corefloods with oil L3. The amount of asphaltene deposition
that could cause formation damages was also much lower in
the corefloods with oil L3 than in the corefloods with oil H1.
The asphaltenes concentration in the oil L3 was also 15 times
lower than in the oil H1.
The interfacial tension between the oil phase and water
phase was reduced to 3-4 mN/m by the emulsifiers in MFs.
Reduction of interfacial tension can reduce Swi and thereby
increase the oil permeability. In the corefloods, production of
water was not observed during injection of MFs, and Swi was
therefore not changed. When oil L3 was displaced by MFs, the
mobility ratio was only slightly higher than one. The viscosity
ratio between MF and oil L3 was in the range 1.2-1.5. This
means that the mixing of fluids (oil and MFs) were less
effective in the corefloods with oil L3 than in the corefloods
with oil H1. In the back-production of MFs by oil L3 the
mobility ratio was slightly lower than one. The viscosity ratio
between oil L3 and MF was in the range 0.6-0.8. It was
therefore expected that the back-production of MFs with oil
L3 should be less efficient than in the corefloods with oil H1.
This was confirmed by analysis of effluent for Ni and V
concentrations. After 4 PV of oil L3 injection, the Ni and V
concentrations had not reached the levels in the injected oil.
Table 5
Oil permeability before and after MF exposure for
cores saturated with oil L3.
Core exposed to Core exposed to
MFMB MFSB
Flooding step
ko(Swi) ko(Swi)
[mD] [mD]
After aging with STO 112 130
After aging with MF 96 136
After new aging with STO 119 144
Discussions
Mixing of MFs both with the light crude oils and with the
heavy crude oil was found to reduce the asphaltene solubility.
If MFs and reservoir oil is mixed in the reservoir, asphaltene
deposition can reduce the permeability and thereby create a
formation damage. In addition, asphaltene deposition can also
alter the wettability to more oil-wet conditions. Even though
mixing of MFs and light crude oils was found to reduce the
asphaltene solubility in bulk experiments, only minor changes
in permeability was observed when MFs were injected into
cores containing the light oil L3. When MFMB was injected,
the permeability was slightly decreased. However, when
MFSB was injected the permeability was slightly increased.
The asphaltene concentration was also much lower in the light
crude oils (0.8-1.0 weight%) than in the heavy crude oil (H1,
12 weight%). Since the potential for formation damage by
asphaltene deposition depends on the composition of the
reservoir oil, it can be difficult to extrapolate the performance
of the OBM system to the next reservoir. Both the reservoir oil
and OBM system contain many compounds, and the
5
interactions between the compounds in mixtures of MF and
reservoir oil can depend on the conditions. The main
characteristics of the reservoir oil and mud systems can give
however some guide-lines. E.g., the potential for formation
damage by asphaltene deposition will be much higher for
reservoir oils with high asphaltene concentration close to the
onset of asphaltene deposition than for reservoir oils with low
concentration of asphaltenes far from the onset for asphaltene
deposition. Low aromatic OBM systems will have higher
potential for asphaltene deposition than OBM systems with
higher aromatic contents.
If the reservoir oil is not saturated with asphaltenes, it can
dissolve asphaltene depositions and also desorb asphaltene
molecules adsorbed/aggregated on the rock. The compositions
of the reservoir oil will therefore determine whether it can
contribute to removal of asphaltene deposition. In the
corefloods in the presented study, the formation damages
caused by asphaltene deposition were dissolved during back-
production with the crude oils. The oil permeability was then
increased to the same level as before the MF exposure. This
means that formation damage caused by asphaltene deposition
was nonpermanent. Also in the fields the permeability (and
wettability) can be restored in this way. Dissolution of
asphaltene depositions by the reservoir oil will be most
efficient if the sweep efficiency of the damaged area is high.
The drawdown may in some cases be too low to start the back
production and thereby start the removal of asphaltene
deposition. It may then be necessary to remove the damage by
chemicals/solvents, e.g. injection of aromatic solvents. In
horizontal wells the drilling time will usually be much longer
than for vertical wells. The mud invasion can therefore be
much deeper and more severe in horizontal wells than in
vertical wells24. Compared to vertical wells, very low
drawdown pressure is needed to start the oil production in
horizontal wells. This will reduce the viscous forces available
for cleanup of the near wellbore damages, e.g. dissolution of
asphaltene depositions.
The extension of the mixing zone for MF and reservoir oil
will depend on the mobility ratio. The mixing zone will be
largest for displacements with high mobility ratios. For high
viscous reservoir oils, the oil-to-MF mobility ratio during MF
invasion will be higher than one, and good mixing of MF and
reservoir oil will then be obtained. The time before the start of
oil production will be long, and extensive flocculation of
asphaltene aggregates is then possible. If the MF-to-reservoir
oil mobility ratio is higher than one during back-production
with the reservoir oil, good mixing of reservoir oil and MF
will be obtained. In this case, the time for flocculation will be
much shorter than during MF invasion.
Asphaltenes in two different crude oils can be
incompatible, i.e. mixing of two crude oils can give asphaltene
deposition. Asphalt products, e.g. Gilsonite, contain molecules
similar to asphaltene molecules in reservoir oils. Gilsonite was
found to be partly soluble in the MFs. Asphaltenes from the
Gilsonite dissolved in the MF and asphaltenes from reservoir
oil can as asphaltenes from two reservoir oils, be
incompatible. Mixing of asphaltenes from Gilsonite from MF
and from reservoir oil can therefore create formation damages.
Asphaltenes can also cause other types of formation
damages. If the shear rate in the reservoir is high, asphaltene
6 SPE 92412
depositions/aggregates can stabilize emulsions25, 26. Dispersion
of asphaltene depositions can give similar effects as fines
migration.
White oils (paraffin oils) are sometimes used to simulate
the reservoir oil in laboratory experiments carried out to
estimate the potential for formation damages. It is then not
possible to study the effects of asphaltene deposition and other
formation damage mechanisms that depend on reservoir oil
composition, e.g. wettability alterations and emulsion
formation. If white oil is used, removal of formation damages
can also be a problem. E.g., the solubility of mud components
can be different in white oil and reservoir oil, and low
aromatic white oil can not dissolve asphaltene deposition
caused by asphalt products in MF.
Conclusions
If mud filtrate (from OBM system) and reservoir oil are mixed
during drilling of oil reservoirs, asphaltene deposition can
occur and this can cause formation damages. In this study
formation damages caused by asphaltene deposition were
studied in consolidated low-to-medium permeability outcrop
sandstone (100-300 mD).
The solubility of asphaltenes in mixtures of MFs and crude
oils depends on both the reservoir oil composition and the
mud system composition.
The potential for creation of formation damages by
asphaltene deposition also depends on the compositions of
both the reservoir oil and OBM system. It will be highest for
reservoir oils with high asphaltene concentrations close to the
onset of asphaltene deposition and for low aromatic OBM
systems.
Asphalt products (e.g. Gilsonite) partly dissolved in MFs,
have the potential to cause formation damages when MFs and
reservoir oil are mixed.
Formation damages caused by asphaltene depositions can
be non-permanent. If the reservoir oil is not saturated with
asphaltenes, it can dissolve asphaltene depositions. If the
sweep of the damaged area by the reservoir oil is high,
formation damages caused by asphaltene deposition can be
rather easily removed.
The potential for creation and removal of formation
damages by asphaltene deposition can not be determined in
laboratory experiments using white oils (paraffin oils).
Acknowledgements
The reported work was conducted as part of the EU-project
Well Productivity 2002 in the ENERGIE part of the 5th Frame
Programme. I thank Agip, BP, ChevronTexaco, Norsk Hydro
ASA, A/S Norske Shell and European Union of permission to
publish this paper.
Nomenclature
dP = differential pressure, mbar
H1 = crude oil with high concentration of asphaltenes
ICPMS = Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry
ki = permeability of fluid phase: i=o oil phase, i=w
water phase, millidarcy (mD)
LAO = linear alpha olefine
Li = crude oils with low asphaltene concentration,
i=1, 2 or 3
MB = mineral base oil
MF(s) = mud filtrate(s)
MFMB = mud filtrate prepared from mud system with
mineral base oil
MFSB = mud filtrate prepared from mud system with
synthetic base oil (LAO)
Ni = nickel
OBM(s) = invert emulsion drilling fluid(s) or oil-based
drilling fluid(s)
PV = pore volume
SB = synthetic base oil (LAO)
STO = stock tank oil
Swi = initial water saturation, fraction of porevolume
V = vanadium
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