Building the Colosseum

(Research Paper)

A Critical insight into the construction techniques used in the building

of the Colosseum

By Taso Bouzinelos
Student ID: 0550991

For AHCL-2206H
Instructor: Dr. James Cook

Date: March 31, 2015

 Taso Bouzinelos 1

The Colosseum stands as an architectural achievement of the Flavian

dynasty (69- 96 C.E.). It was the first freestanding amphitheater in Roman

history, something that was never before implemented in amphitheater

construction (Fig. 1). The first Flavian emperor, Vespasian, commissioned the

Colosseum in 70 C.E. with the intent of bolstering his political image. He

incorporated previous architectural elements from the Augustan period to

legitimize his rule as emperor. One great example of this was the Theater of

Marcellus, which Vespasian copied the column styles and incorporated it in the

Colosseum. This was achieved through the use of construction techniques,

which dictated the social hierarchy and performance of this amphitheater. An

element in which the construction techniques used in the Colosseum dictated its

outcome can be seen through an analysis of building materials used in the

construction of the amphitheater. In turn, this had a social/political impact on the

Flavian dynasty. Both aspects of the Colosseum not only provide tremendous

insight into the construction techniques, but they also lay out the template of

propaganda for bolstering the public image of the Flavian emperors.

This can be done by reference to the drainage systems in the Colosseum,

the materials used in its construction and the seating system in the Roman

amphitheater. All of these innovations used in the construction of the Colosseum

increase the reputation of the Flavian emperors. The Flavians can, in turn, use

the Colosseum as a political tool to win the support of the Roman people. The

construction methods used in the Colosseum, such as the drainage systems, the

materials, and the seating system, bolstered the public image of the Flavians.
 Taso Bouzinelos 2

The first construction method used in the Colosseum that bolstered the

public image of the Flavians was the drainage systems. In fact, this element of

the Colosseum led to its success. During the amphitheater’s construction, the

major problem its Roman engineers faced was to revert Nero’s lake into more

suitable ground for building the Colosseum.1 To solve this problem, the engineers

developed a drainage system, which directed water along the south of the site.

This joined with the main drainage system that carried Rome’s effluent under the

streets into the River Tiber.2 For the most part, this system was efficient. The

function of the drainage system in the Colosseum made it suitable for workers to

build on top of it.

Aside from this, implementing a drainage system in the Colosseum proves

that it could host naumachiae or naval battles. The arena itself had no

subterranean structure when it was opened. This made it possible to flood it and

allow the Flavians to stage naval battles.3 Large basins of water were dug in the

arena to accommodate this. These basins were covered for normal

performances, but could be made available when required for special events in

the Colosseum. For instance, the hunting of aquatic creatures such as crocodiles

and hippopotamuses was made possible through this system.4 To support this

claim, the Roman historian, Suetonius, mentions that Titus, the eldest son of

Vespasian, staged a naumachiae on the old artificial lake of Nero’s Domus Aurea

during the inauguration of the Colosseum in 80 C.E. (Suet. Tit. 7.). This made it

1
Hopkins and Beard 2005, 142.
2
Connolly 2003, 39.
3
Kohne, Ewigledben, and Jackson 2000, 25.
4
Kohne, Ewigledben, and Jackson 2000, 34.
 Taso Bouzinelos 3

possible for the Flavian emperors to stage naumachiae and essentially increase

their public image through the presentation of naval battles. Although, in order to

accomplish this feat of ingenuity, the Colosseum needed an effective drainage

system. Evidence for this drainage system is evident through the remains of lead

pipes,5 however, most of the lead pipes were stripped out during the Middle

Ages.6 Conduits ran round the outside of the building.7 In fact, four large water

conduits to a main drainage system – built on the outside to control the flow of

water coming out of the Colosseum. This consisted of 3000 meters of water

channels which included inflow and outflow pipes. These lead pipes were

essential for the drainage systems of the Colosseum. They supplied the cisterns

required for an internal water supply, which was necessary to host the

naumachiae.8

The results of the excavations conducted from 1973 to 1977 were

particularly interesting. It provided the collecting drains used in the Colosseum

needed to stage naval battles or hunting expeditions.9 In particular,

archaeologists identified two strata in the southern collecting drain put down

under the last Flavian emperor, Domitian (r. 81-96 C.E.). The first layer produced

a deposit of silty clay; the second contained chiefly construction materials used to

build the Colosseum.10 This is significant for understanding the impact the

drainage systems had on the preservation of the Colosseum.

5
Rea 2000, 99.
6
Connolly 2003, 158.
7
Connolly 2003, 39.
8
Connolly 2003, 40.
9
Rea 2000, 99.
10
Rea 2000, 99.
 Taso Bouzinelos 4

Along with this, the success of the drainage systems proves not only that

the Colosseum was built on a drained lake, but also demonstrates that the

drainage systems used in the Colosseum were effective. In the 19th century,

Italian archaeologist, Antonio Nibby, did some excavations of the drainage

system in the Colosseum. In his excavations, Nibby found that the drainage

system was still intact and functional. In fact, he even re-used the ancient

drainage structures in order to continue excavations of the piazza or platform in

the Colosseum.11 The preservation of these drainage systems used in the

Colosseum is a testament to ever-growing image of the Flavians through the

construction of drainage systems in the Colosseum.

The second construction technique used in the construction of the

Colosseum that bolstered the public image of the Flavian emperors is the

foundation materials. In fact, the materials used in the construction of the

Colosseum were essential for conveying Flavian propaganda. The materials

used in the Colosseum consisted of travertine, tufa, bricks and concrete, all of

which are local to Italian Peninsula. However, the amount materials used in the

construction of the Colosseum is staggering. In the entire monument, the

Colosseum consisted of 100,000 cubic meters of hard travertine limestone, 300

tones of iron clamps, 250,000 cubic meters of mortar and over a million bricks. 12

This is a tremendous amount of building materials used for one building, let alone

an amphitheater. Besides these materials, it is important to note how the

Colosseum was constructed. One of the major elements of the Colosseum was

11
Schingo 2000, 73-74.
12
Connolly 2003, 41.
 Taso Bouzinelos 5

the wooden platform in which the gladiators would fight against each other. No

remains of the arena floor itself survive in the archaeological record since it was

completely made of wood,13 although there is some evidence of what it could

have looked like. First, the wooden construction of the arena was lain directly on

the walls of tufa blocks.14 The wooden structure was then connected between

purlin and tuff wall by means of the dovetailed woods. A piece of wood in the

form of a double dovetail could have been inserted into the voids to establish the

connection between the stonewalls and the purlins. This type of construction

provided stability and strength for the rigorous events being performed on the

wooden platform of the Colosseum.

On top of this, brick arches were positioned directly under the wooden

platform to provide more support.15 This system of brick arches also created a

network of tunnels (hypogea) underneath the seating area (cavea), which was

used for access to the stadium and for storage (Fig. 2).16 This brick network of

tunneling is new and innovative in Roman amphitheater construction. Prior to the

Colosseum, stone amphitheaters of the Republican period did not have room for

storage or housing exotic animals in preparation for major spectacle events.

Compared to the Colosseum, Roman architects did not use mortar or concrete to

build Republican amphitheaters, but based their construction on the topography

of the land. In other words, Republican amphitheaters that were made of stone

were built into hills or man-made mounds. With the introduction of concrete and

13
Beste 2000, 83.
14
Beste 2000, 82.
15
Beste 2000, 87.
16
Connolly 2003, 37.
 Taso Bouzinelos 6

mortar, the architects of the Colosseum were able to build a freestanding

amphitheater that was able to facilitate a complex network of tunnels for

movement and storage. This innovation alone bolstered the public image of the

Flavian emperors, as the Colosseum could house more animals and objects.

This means more spectacles can be performed at the Colosseum.

Besides this, the brick arches were framed with engaged columns, half

columns carved into the travertine blocks surmounted with an architrave and

cornice. This created the effect of a combined colonnade and arcade.17 The

result was a network of rib vaults and relieving arches that channeled the load of

the brick wall away from the crown to the ribs and then onto the tufa walls. 18 Ribs

built entirely of radially-laid bipedales are a full bay wide and placed at intervals

that correspond to stairs located above at Level III. The rib was evidently meant

to provide further protection against the added weight of the stair, and the device

of leaving a section open may have aided somehow in the construction

process.19 The four at the main axes were differentiated from the other seventy-

six and it is generally assumed that these were used by the performers and the

emperor and his party or by the officials presenting the show.20 On top of this, an

underground passage linked it directly to the arena in the amphitheater, so that

the gladiators could reach the scene of their combat without being seen by the

public (Fig. 3).21 To understand this, it is important to talk about the foundations

of the cavea. It took the form of an oval ring consisting of two parts: lower
17
Connolly 2003, 50.
18
Lancaster 2005, 78.
19
Lancaster 2005, 79.
20
Hopkins and Beard 2005, 128.
21
Kohne, Ewigledben, and Jackson 2000, 33.
 Taso Bouzinelos 7

construction is constructed of opus caementicium with caementa of leucititic lava,

the heaviest of the local volcanic stones; was built in a trench dug into the

underlying alluvium and bedrock. The upper foundation contains drainage

channels as well as galleries and service-rooms to house the various mechanical

devices employed during the spectacles in the Colosseum.

Another important element in this construction is concrete. This material

was laid systematically in layers that correspond to the floor levels of the galleries

and drains.22 It even was laid on top of tufa and travertine blocks in both the

vertical and horizontal joints to provide more support for the entire foundation. 23

This provides archaeologists with much information on the construction process

that is complementary in relation to stonewalls and arches.24 The use of concrete

in these structures makes it not only stronger, but more durable and secure when

Roman builders continued building on top of it. These are the main reasons of

why foundation materials used in the construction of the Colosseum bolstered

the public image of the Flavian emperors.

The third construction method used in the Colosseum that bolstered the

public image of the Flavian emperors was the seating system (Fig. ). The seating

system was primarily arranged according to a Roman’s social status. The first

section of this seating system was known as the ima cavea.25 This was strictly

reserved for Roman senators and members of the old Roman aristocracy. It

provided an excellent view of the spectacles that occurred in the Colosseum and

22
Lancaster 2005, 60.
23
Lancaster 2005, 64-65.
24
Lancaster 2005, 73.
25
Connolly 2003, 53.
 Taso Bouzinelos 8

was in close proximity to the podium. This is where the emperor and the royal

family would sit and ‘conduct’ the games for the entertainment of the Roman

people. The second section of the Colosseum was known as the maenianum

primum, which consisted of members from the equestrian class. The second

level had a much bigger capacity than the first and this mainly consisted of

members from the Roman military. In fact, they were becoming more involved in

Roman politics with the advent of the Colosseum. By looking at this perspective,

it would make sense that Vespasian would make this section of the Colosseum

larger than the first. This is because Vespasian himself was a general in the

Roman army and it was his soldiers who elected him to power. It would be right

of him to appreciate them in this way, which in turn bolsters the public image of

the Flavian dynasty.

Above this is the third level, which was known as maenianum secundum

imum. This is where the ordinary (male) citizens sat here. The fourth level and

final level of the seating system used in the Colosseum was known as the

maenianum secundum summum.26 This is where the poor, women and slaves

would sit when attending the Colosseum. This type of social hierarchy in the

Colosseum can be also seen in relation to the three different types of columns on

each level. The bottom storey had columns of the Doric order, the second of the

Ionic order and the third of the Corinthian order. The Doric order is reminiscent of

Classical Greece, in which the aristocracy was trying to emulate in terms of

culture and language. In other words, the Roman aristocracy were “Phil-

Hellenes” or lovers of Greek things. The Ionic order is associated with the East
26
Connolly 2003, 53.
 Taso Bouzinelos 9

and the Corinthian order is strongly associated with Rome. The decoration of the

Colosseum’s façade represents an important innovation in amphitheater

architecture.27 The Colosseum was the first amphitheater that we know to have

used Greek architectural orders for its façade.28 These are the ways in which the

seating system bolstered the public image of the Flavian emperors.

All of these construction techniques used in the Colosseum led to a

bolstering public image among the Flavian emperors. Although, it is important to

understand the implications for this. When Vespasian embarked on his grand

plan for the Colosseum in 70C.E., he was trying to do something that no one had

ever attempted before. Vespasian wanted to build an all-purpose, permanent,

stone amphitheater that would be the greatest entertainment venue in the

world.29 He wanted to diminish Nero’s memory (damnatio memoriae) from

Roman history and place a monument in its place. This was the Colosseum. It

was constructed on the atrium of Nero’s dismantled Domus Aurea or Golden

House, and was dedicated as a victory monument of the Roman-Jewish Wars.30

This was not the only justification for Vespasian building an amphitheater on top

of Nero’s Domus Aurea. Vespasian claims that the construction of the

Colosseum was an ‘Augustan’ project, for he had learned that that Augustus

wished to erect such an amphitheater in the center of the city (Suet. Vesp.9.1).

This is apparent when looking at Flavians coins (Fig. 5) and relief from the Tomb

of the Haterii (Fig. 6), which depicts a triumphal quadrigae over the entrances to

27
Welch 2007, 138.
28
Welch 2007, 138-139.
29
Connolly 2003, 31.
30
Elkins 2014, 73.
 Taso Bouzinelos 10

viewing platforms on the short axis.31 Most of the Colosseum sestertii of Titus and

all those of Domitian show the Colosseum, and the porticus of the Baths of Titus,

all symbols of Flavian achievement.32 The fact that the pulvinaria coin types of

Titus and Domitian represent chairs, thrones, naturally leads to the assumption

that the Colosseum was the venue for the funerary games of Vespasian, Titus

and later emperors.33

From this, the Colosseum puts the world on display, so too is the world

already a thing made for spectacular consumption.34 Originally, it was

Vespasian’s first task was to reconstruct the ceremonial center of Rome (Fig. 7),

to stamp his own identity on the city and to wipe away the memory of Nero. 35 It

was a brilliantly calculated political gesture to obliterate Nero’s memory with a

monument to public entertainment. In building, the Colosseum, Vespasian was

dramatically making the point that the profits of Roman military success belonged

to the common people of Rome.36 The Roman Colosseum was the fruit of Roman

victory over the Jews.37 Monarchy was so firmly entrenched that emperors could

readily risk, even periodically enjoy, confronting their citizen-subjects

collectively.38 The celebration of the amphitheater and its games in poetry and

the application of Greek architectural orders and statues to the façade of the

Colosseum both reflect a shift in the amphitheater’s status during the mid- to later

31
Elkins 2014, 75.
32
Elkins 2014, 93.
33
Elkins 2014, 104-5.
34
Gunderson 2003, 647.
35
Hopkins and Beard 2005, 28.
36
Hopkins and Beard 2005, 32.
37
Hopkins and Beard 2005, 34.
38
Hopkins and Beard 2005, 40.
 Taso Bouzinelos 11

first century AD. The games were consciously embraced as an integral part of

the Roman cultural self-image.39 The new building type and its games were an

important component of the Roman public self-image which, during the republic,

was largely military.40 The exceptional nature of this gift to the Roman people can

also be seen in another attempt to give its inauguration permanence.41 These are

the main reasons in which the construction methods used in the Colosseum

bolster the public of the Flavians.

The Colosseum stands as an architectural achievement of the Flavian

dynasty (69- 96 C.E.). It was the first freestanding amphitheater in Roman

history, something that was never implemented in amphitheater construction

before. The first Flavian emperor, Vespasian, commissioned the Colosseum in

70 C.E. Vespasian incorporated previous architectural elements from the

Augustan period to legitimize his rule as emperor, most notably, the Theater of

Marcellus. This was achieved through the use of construction techniques, which

dictated the social hierarchy and performance of this amphitheater. An element in

which the construction techniques used in the Colosseum dictated its outcome

can be seen through an analysis of materials used to construct the amphitheater

and its social/political impact on the Flavian dynasty. Both aspects of the

Colosseum not only provide tremendous insight into the construction techniques,

but they also lay out the template of propaganda for bolstering the public image

of the Flavian emperors.

39
Welch 1991, 273.
40
Welch 1991, 277.
41
Wiedemann 1992, 18.
 Taso Bouzinelos 12

This can be done by reference to the drainage systems in the Colosseum,

the materials used in its construction and the seating system. All of these

innovations increase the reputation of the Flavian emperors. They, in turn, can

use the Colosseum as a political tool to win the support of the Roman people.

The construction methods used in the Colosseum such as the drainage systems,

the materials, and the seating system bolstered the public image of the Flavians.
 Taso Bouzinelos 13

Illustrations

Figure 1. An artist’s reconstruction of how the Colosseum would have looked like
in antiquity (Dartmouth College 2013).
 Taso Bouzinelos 14

Figure 2. A western view of the underground chambers (hypogea) in the

Colosseum, ca. late 1st century C.E. (Walks of Italy 2011).
Taso Bouzinelos 15
 Taso Bouzinelos 16

Figure 3. A floor plan of the major entrances and passageways in the Colosseum
(Baskets Life Travel 2014).

Figure 4. A reconstructed drawing of the seating system used in the Colosseum

when it was operational (Philip Smith 2004).
 Taso Bouzinelos 17

Figure 5. (Left) Sestertius of Titus depicting the Colosseum flanked by the Meta
Sudans and porticus of the Baths of Titus, (Right) Titus surrounded by the spoils
of war, ca. 80-81C.E. (Jeff Starck 2014).
 Taso Bouzinelos 18

Figure 6. A tomb relief from the Tomb of the Haterii depicting the architectural
and figural elements that decorated the Colosseum, ca. 100-110 C.E. (Andrea
Pepe 1998-2012)
 Taso Bouzinelos 19

Figure 7. A map depicting most of the important sites of Roman architecture

situated in Rome; the Colosseum is situated between the Baths of Trajan and the
Palace of Augustus (W.W. Norton 2010).
 Taso Bouzinelos 20

Sources for Illustrations

Baskets Life Travel. 2014. “10 things to show your kids at the Roman
Colosseum,” Baskets Life Travel. Accessed on March 25, 2015.
http://basketslifetravel.com/10-things-to-show-your-kids-at-the-roman-
collosseum/

Dartmouth College. 2013. “Rome FSP 2013,” Dartmouth College. Accessed on

February 12, 2015. https://romefsp2013.wordpress.com/page/2/

Pepe, Andrea. 1998-2012. “Imago,” The Colosseum. Accessed on March 25,

2015. http://www.the-colosseum.net/NEWTEST/en/architecture/imago_en.htm

Smith, Philip. 2004. “Amphitheatrum,” University of Chicago. Accessed on March

25, 2015. http://www.istrianet.org/istria/architecture/urban/amphitheatrum.htm

Starck, Jeff. 2014. “Roman coin rarity in Chicago auction celebrates Colosseum,”
Coin World. Accessed March 25, 2015. http://www.coinworld.com/news/roman-
coin-rarity-in-chicago-auction-celebrates-colosseum.html

Walks of Italy. 2011. “Colosseum underground tours extend opening dates &
allows independent visits,” Walks of Italy. Accessed on March 25, 2015.
https://www.walksofitaly.com/blog/rome/colosseum-underground-opening-dates-
tours-rome-hypogeum

W.W. Norton & Company. 2010. “The Civilization of Ancient Rome,” W.W. Norton
& Company. Accessed on February 12, 2015.
http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/western-civilization17/ch/05/visual-
evidence.aspx
 Taso Bouzinelos 21

Primary Sources

Suetonius. The Twelve Caesars, transl. R. Graves (Harmondsworth, UK:

Penguin Books, 1957, repr. 1967).

Secondary Sources

Beste, H.J. 2000. “The construction and phases of development of the wooden
arena flooring of the Colosseum,” Journal of Roman Archaeology 13, 79-92.

Connolly, P. 2003. Colosseum (London, UK: BBC Books).

Elkins, N.T. 2014. “The Procession and Placement of Imperial Cult Images in the
Colosseum,” Papers of the British School at Rome 82, 73-107.

Gunderson, E. 2003. “The Flavian Amphitheater all the world as stage,” in

Flavian Rome: Culture, Image, Text, eds. A.J. Boyle and W.J. Dominik. (Leiden,
NL: Koniniklijike Brill), 637-658.

Hopkins, K. and M. Beard. 2005. The Colosseum (Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press).

Kohne, E., C. Ewigledben, and R. Jackson, eds. 2000. Gladiators and Caesars:
The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome (Berkley, University of California
Press).

Lancaster, L.C. 2005. “The process of building the Colosseum: the site, materials
and construction techniques,” Journal of Roman Archaeology 18, 57-82.

Rea, R. 2000. “Studying the valley of the Colosseum (1970-2000): achievements

and prospects,” Journal of Roman Archaeology 13, 93-103.

Schingo, G. 2000. “A history of earlier excavations in the arena,” Journal of

Roman Archaeology 13, 69-78.

Welch, K.E. 2007. The Roman Amphitheatre: From its Origins to the Colosseum
(New York: Cambridge University Press).

Welch, K.E. 1991. “Roman amphitheaters revived,” JRA 4, 272-81.

Wiedemann, T. 1992. Emperors and Gladiators (London and New York,

Routledge).