Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Soran University
Faculty of Sciences
Department of Mathematics

Plase plane Analysis

Prepared by:

Sakina Fathel Xurshid

S111@soran.edu.iq

Supervised by:

Honar Jamal Hamad

This project submitted to the Department of Mathematics

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Bachelor of Basic Education (BSc)

Faculty of Basic Education

April 2023
Contents

Introduction 2

1 Phase plane analysis 4

1.1 Second order systems of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) . . . . . . 4

1.2 Phase portrait properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3 Steady states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Classification of the fixed points 10

2.1 Classification of the fixed points: real eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.2 Classification of the fixed points: complex eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.3 Classification of the fixed points: equal eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Bibliography 29

I
Acknowledgments

First of all I would like to express my warmest

Sakina

Soran
May, 2023

i
Contents

ii
Introduction

Study of the Phase Plane Analysis in Mathematical Biology, requires systems of two lin-
ear ODE of the first order. In this research we will be mostly interested in sub-systems
describing the interaction of two Species. Denoting by x (t) and y (t) the time-dependent
population densities of the Two species, a general evolution equation describing the in-
teraction species would be of the form

dx dy
= f (x, y), = g(x, y)
dt dt

This is a system of first order ODEs which autonomous, i.e. time t does not appear
explicitly in the tow velocity functions f and g. Time evolution depends only on the
current state (x, y) of the system. As in the case of dynamics of single species, there is a
tool-set for the qualitative analysis of systems that falls short of a fully fledged solution
of the ODEs. in particular leading to a classification of the possible forms of stationary
points in a two-species system. The phase plane is then first set-up by drawing straight
lines representing the two eigenvectors. Then the phase plane is plotted by using full lines
instead of direction field dashes. The signs of the eigenvalues will tell how the system’s
phase plane behaves: If the signs are opposite, the intersection of the eigenvectors is a
saddle point. If the signs are both positive, the eigenvectors represent stable situations
that the system diverges away from, and the intersection is an unstable node. If the signs
are both negative, the eigenvectors represent stable situations that the system converges
towards, and the intersection is a stable node.

1
Introduction CONTENTS

This dissertation is aimed to illustrate the importance of notion of Phase

Plane Analysis and its stationary in Mathematical Biology.

2
Outline of the Chapters

Chapter 1 is devoted to Phase portrait properties and how to find its steady
states.

Chapter 2 is concerned with Classification of the fixed points(Real, Complex

and equal eigenvalues.

3
Chapter 1

Phase plane analysis

Majority of biological processes can be represented by systems of autonomous

non-linear ordinary differential equations. In general, such systems are hard
to solve analytically, and it is crucial to understand what methods are available
for the analysis before proceeding further with much more involved biological
systems than we have considered so far in this course. In this chapter we
will concentrate on systems of autonomous non-linear differential equations
without spatial dependence and look at the technique called phase plane anal-
ysis, which is a tool from non-linear dynamics used to study such systems.
We will also be looking at the linear stability analysis in such systems and
classification of the fixed points, or steady states.

1.1 Second order systems of ordinary differential equa-

tions (ODEs)

Consider a general autonomous second order system of ODEs, which can be

written as

4
Phase plane analysis CHAPTER 1. PHASE PLANE ANALYSIS

dx
ẋ = = f (x, y)
dt (1.1)
dy
ẏ = = g(x, y)
dt
where functions f and g are smooth and t > 0. The initial condition for system
1.1 is
x(0) = x0 and y(0) = y0 . (1.2)

The system is called linear if it can be written as

def dx
ẋ = = ax + by
dt

def dy
ẏ = = cx + dy
dt
where a, b, c, d are constants. Otherwise, the system 1.1 is called nonlinear.

We can represent solutions of system 1.1 with initial condition 1.2 as tra-
jectoris (or integral paths) in the x − y plane, which is called phase plane. We
can can solve the system 1.1 graphically for any number of initial conditions,
and plot the solutions. This graph is called phase plane portrait.

1.2 Phase portrait properties

Gradient of the phase trajectories passing through the point (x0 , y0 ) is given
by
dy g(x, y) g(x0 , y0 )
= |(x0 ,y0 ) =
dx f (x, y) f (x0 , y0 )
If g(x0 , y0 ) = 0 and f (x0 , y0 ) ̸= 0, then we have

g(x, y)
|(x ,y ) = 0
f (x, y) 0 0

5
Phase plane analysis CHAPTER 1. PHASE PLANE ANALYSIS

which gives horizontal line segments in the phase plane.

If g(x0 , y0 ) ̸= 0 and f (x0 , y0 ) = 0 , then

g(x, y)
|(x ,y ) → ∞
f (x, y) 0 0
which gives vertical line segments in the phase plane.

1.3 Steady states

Definition 1. (Steady states)

Fixed point or steady state is a point (x∗ , y ∗ ) such that

f (x∗ , y ∗ ) = g(x∗ , y ∗ ) = 0

Note 2. Fixed points are also called equilibria or stationary points because x and y do
not depend on t there.

Let E ∗ = (x∗ , y ∗ ) be a steady state of system 1.1. In order to understand the

behavior of phase trajectories in a close neighborhood of the steady state, we
introduce a small perturbation such that

x = x∗ + x̂, y = y ∗ + ŷ (1.3)

where x̂ << 1 and ŷ <<. Substituting 1.3 into 1.1 gives:

dx̂
dt
= f (x∗ + x̂, y ∗ + ŷ)
(1.4)
dŷ
dt
= g(x∗ + x̂, y ∗ + ŷ)

6
Phase plane analysis CHAPTER 1. PHASE PLANE ANALYSIS

Since x̂ << 1 and ŷ << 1, we can use Taylor expansion to obtain:

∂f ∗ ∗ ∂f
f (x∗ + x̂, y ∗ + ŷ) = f (x∗ , y ∗ ) + x̂ (x , y ) + ŷ (x∗ , y ∗ ) + h.o.t
∂x ∂y
∂f ∗ ∗ ∂f
= x̂ (x , y ) + ŷ (x∗ , y ∗ ) + h.o.t
∂x ∂y
and, similarly,

∂g ∗ ∗ ∂g
g(x∗ + x̂, y ∗ + ŷ) = g(x∗ , y ∗ ) + x̂ (x , y ) + ŷ (x∗ , y ∗ ) + h.o.t
∂x ∂y

∂g ∗ ∗ ∂g
= x̂ (x , y ) + ŷ (x∗ , y ∗ ) + h.o.t
∂x ∂y
where f (x∗ , y ∗ ) = 0 and g(x∗ , y ∗ ) = 0 as (x∗ , y ∗ ) is a steady state. Taking into
account linear terms only, we can now re-write the system 1.5 in matrix form:
 
∂f ∂f
 
∂x
(x∗ , y ∗ ) ∂y
(x∗ , y ∗ )  
x̂˙
  x̂
 =
 
 (1.5)
ŷ˙ 
∂g ∂g
 ŷ
∂x
(x∗ , y ∗ ) ∂y
(x∗ , y ∗ )

System 1.5 is a linear autonomous system, which in principle, can be solved.

This system is called linearisation of nonlinear system 1.1 near a steady state
E ∗ = (x∗ , y ∗ ). In almost all situations, the behaviour of the linearised system is
the same as the behaviour of the nonlinear system in a close proximity of the
steady state. In order to consider the dynamical behaviour of the nonlinear
system far away from the steady state, we have to take into account higher
order terms.

Definition 3. (Jacobian)

7
Phase plane analysis CHAPTER 1. PHASE PLANE ANALYSIS

Matrix J defined as
 
∂f ∂f
∂x
(x∗ , y ∗ ) ∂y
(x∗ , y ∗ )  
  fx fy 
 
J= = |(x∗ ,y∗ ) (1.6)


∂g ∂g
 gx gy
∂x
(x∗ , y ∗ ) ∂y
(x∗ , y ∗ )

is called the Jacobian matrix at the steady state E ∗ = (x∗ , y ∗ ).

Since system 1.5 is linear, we can look for solutions of the form

   
x̂ c1
u = ceλt , where u =   and u =  
ŷ c2

Substituting this solution into the system 1.5 gives,

λceλt = Jceλt ⇒ (J − λI)c = 0

where I is the 2 × 2 identity matrix. We are interested in non-zero solutions,

therefore, we must require that

det(J − λI) = 0

which gives a quadratic equation for finding λ. Let λ1 and λ2 be eigenvalues

of the Jacobian matrix J, which can be found as

fx − λ fy 1 1 1
= 0 ⇒ λ1,2 = trJ ± [(trJ)2 − 4detJ] 2
gx gy − λ 2 2

where trJ = fx + gy and J = fx gy − fy gx

Definition 4. (Linear stability)

8
Phase plane analysis CHAPTER 1. PHASE PLANE ANALYSIS

A steady state E ∗ = (x∗ , y ∗ ) is linearly asymptotically stable if

Reλ1 < 1 and Reλ2 < 1

Definition 5. (Global stability)

A steady state E ∗ = (x∗ , y ∗ ) is globally asymptotically stable if there is a neighborhood
U of E ∗ such that
lim (x(t), y(t)) = (x∗ , y ∗ )
t→∞

for all (x(0), y(0)) ∈ U .

Following Definition 4 , for linear stability we need trJ < 0 and detJ > 0.

9
Chapter 2

Classification of the fixed points

Eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix can be real, complex, equal etc, therefore,
we have to separate them into different cases.

2.1 Classification of the fixed points: real eigenvalues

Suppose λ1 , λ2 are real and distinct and the corresponding eigenvectors are
denoted by v1 and v2 . Therefore,

Jv1 = λ1 v1 , Jv2 = λ2 v2

and we seek a solution as a linear combination of v1 and v2 , i.e.

u = C1 v1 + C2 v2

Substituting this solution into equation (3.5), we obtain

dC1 dC2
= λ1 C1 , = λ2 C 2
dt dt

10
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

with the initial condition C1 (t = 0) = C10 and C2 (t = 0) = C20 . Therefore,

C1 = C10 eλ1 t , C2 = C20 eλ2 t

and so,
u = C10 eλ1 t v1 + C20 eλ2 t v2 (2.1)

(I) Node, Type I

Consider λ1 , λ2 which are real and distinct and let λ1 and λ2 have the
same sign.

1. Suppose λ1 < λ2 < 0

ˆ For C10 = 0 and C20 ̸= 0, we have

 
x̂
  = c02 eλ2 t v2
ŷ

ˆ This means that all solutions tend to (0, 0) as t → ∞ (sinceλ1 < λ2 <
0).

ˆ Close enough to the origin, all solutions tend to zero along the vec-
tor v1 .

11
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

Figure 1: Phase portrait of a stable node: all trajectories go to (0,

0).

Definition 6. (Stable node)

A steady state in this case is called a stable node since all phase trajectories
tend to (0, 0) as t → ∞.
An example of such behaviour is plotted in Figure 1.

2. Suppose now that λ1 > λ2 > 0.

ˆ The solution still has the form 2.1 but now all solutions tend away
from the origin (0, 0).

Definition 7. (Unstable node)

A steady state in this case is called an unstable node since all phase tra-
jectories tend to (0, 0) as t → −∞.

ˆ Saddle

3. Suppose λ1 , λ2 have different signs.

ˆ Suppose λ1 < 0 < λ2 . Then

−eλ1 t v1 → (0, 0) along v1 as t → ∞

−eλ2 t v2 → (0, 0) along v2 as t → −∞

ˆ There are two different directions on v1 and v2 .

Definition 8. (Saddle)
A steady state in this case is called a saddle point singularity. It is always
unstable

Example 9. Consider the following system of non-liner ODEs.

12
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

dx
dt
= y − x3
(2.2)
dy
dt
= 1 − xy

(a) Fined the equilibria of the system and analyses their stability.

Solution. the equilibria (u∗ , v ∗ ) of the system (1) satisfy the following system of
equation  
 y ∗ − x∗3 = 0.  y ∗ = x∗3
⇒
 1 − x∗ y ∗ = 0  1 = x∗4

which gives (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (1, 1) and (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (−1, −1) In order to analyses the stability
of theses steady states, we start by calculating the Jacobian matrix J:
   
∗2
fx fy −3x 1
J=  (x∗ ,y ∗ ) = 
∗ ∗
gx gy −y −x

first, we start by analysing the stability properties of the steady state (x∗ , y ∗ ) =
(1, 1). At (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (1, 1) the Jacobian J has the form
 
−3 1
J= .
−1 −1

which give the characteristic equation as

(−3 − λ)(−1 − λ) + 1 = 0 ⇒ λ2 + 4λ + 4 = 0 ⇒ (λ + 2)2 = 0

the characteristic equation has a double root λ1 = λ2 = −2 this means that the
steady state (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (1, 1) is stable node. Now, at a steady state (x∗ , y ∗ ) =

13
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

(−1, −1), the Jacobian matrix J becomes

 
−3 1
J= .
1 1

and the characteristic equation has the form

√ √
(−3 − λ)(1 − λ) − 1 = 0 ⇒ λ2 + 2λ − 4 = 0 ⇒ λ1 = −1 + 5 and λ2 = −1 − 5.

This means that the equilibrium (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (−1, −1) is a saddle point , and there
for it is unstable.

(b) Sketch the phase portrait.

Solution. the phase portrait of system (1) is sketched in figure 1. It clearly shows
that (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (1, 1) is a stable node (all trajectories go into that steady state ),
and the steady state (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (−1, −1) is a saddle point (all trajectories go away
from it).

Figure 1 sketch of the phase portrait of system (1). the steady state (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (1, 1)
is a stable node and the steady state (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (−1, −1) is a saddle.

14
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

2.2 Classification of the fixed points: complex eigen-

values

Suppose λ1 and λ2 are complex. Complex eigenvalues of a real matrix come

in complex conjugate pairs, i.e. let

λ1 = α − iβ = λ∗2 , and λ2 = α + iβ = λ∗1 β ̸= 0

where α and β are real and * denotes complex conjugate. We also have two
complex eigenvectors v1 and v2 associated with these eigenvalues, i.e.

Jv1 = λ1 v1 , Jv2 = λ2 v2

15
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

Figure 2: Phase portrait of a saddle point.

and they complex conjugate of each other (v1 = v2∗ ). The solution u can now
be found as before in the form

u = C10 eλ1 t v1 + C20 eλ2 t v2

but now Ci0 , λi and vi , i = 1, 2 are complex, and thus is u. Let u be real,
therefore,
u = C10 eλ1 t v1 + C10∗ eλ2 t v2 = C10 eλ1 t v1 + (C10 eλ1 t v1 )∗

and this is real since for any complex number z, the following is true:z + z ∗ 2R.
After some calculations, we have
     
M1 K1
u = eαt [Mcos(βt) + Ksin(βt)] = eαt    cos(βt) +   sin(βt) 
M2 K2

where M = (M1 , M2 )T , K = (K1 , K2 )T are real, constant vectors, which can be

expressed in terms of Ci0 , i = 1, 2 and the components of the eigenvectors
ei , i = 1, 2. Equivalently, we have

x̂ = eαt [cos(βt)M1 + sin(βt)K1 ], ŷ = eαt [cos(βt)M2 + sin(βt)K2 ]

where Mi and Ki , i = 1, 2 are real constants.

16
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

1. α > 0. In this case x̂ and ŷ are exponentially increasing and oscillating.

This case is shown in F igure3.3.

Definition 10. (Unstable spiral)

An equilibrium point in this case is called an unstable spiral since the integral
paths leave the equilibrium point.

2. α < 0. In this case we have the same situation as before but now x̂
and ŷ are exponentially decaying and oscillating as time increases. This
situation is illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 3: Phase portrait of an unstable spiral.

Figure 4: Phase portrait of a stable spiral.

Definition 11. (Stable spiral) An equilibrium point in this case is called a stable
spiral since the integral paths go toward the equilibrium point.

x̂ = cos(βt)M1 + sin(βt)K1 , ŷ = cos(βt)M2 + sin(βt)K2

17
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

We can further express x̂ and ŷ as

K2 x̂ − K1 ŷ = P cos(βt), −M2 x̂ + M1 ŷ = P sin(βt)

where P = K2 M1 − K1 M2 let x̂ = K2 x̂ − K1 ŷ and ye = −M2 x̂ + M1 ŷ and this

gives us
x)2 + (e
(e y )2 = P 2

e − ye plane, which is equivalent to a

which is a formula for a circle in x
closed ellipse in the x̂ − ŷ plane with the centre at the origin. This case is
shown in Figure 5. Stability here is determined by higher order terms.

Figure 5: Phase portrait of a center point singularity.

Definition 12. (Centre)

An equilibrium point in this case is called a centre, which is an example of a limit cycle.

Definition 13. (Limit Cycle)

A limit cycle is an integral path, which is closed and does not have equilibrium points.

Example 14. Consider a lake in which people regularly go fishing .We wish to model
the fish fishermen interaction under the following assumption :

* Fish grow logistically in the absence of fishing.

* The presence of fishermen depresses fish growth at a rate jointly proportional to the
fish and fishermen populations.

18
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

* Fishermen are attracted to the lake at a rate proportional to the amount of fish in the
lake.

* Fishermen are discouraged from the lake at a rate directly proportional to the number
of fishermen already there. a mathematical model for this situation is:

dN N
dt
= rN (1 − K
) − bN M,
(2.3)
dM
dt
= cN − dM.

(a) Write down a non-dimensionalise of the model.

Solution. Let N(t) be the fish population and M(t)be the fishermen population.fish pop-
ulation grows logistically and fishermen population grows with a rate proportional to
the amount of the fish.Taking into account these assumptions together with the assump-
tions given in the statement of the problem, we have the following mathematical model
describing fish-fishermen interaction:

Where r,K,b,c and d are positive constants .The system (2) has 5 parameters,so we
should try to reduse the number of model parameters ,This can be done using non-
(dimensionalisation)**. Let N = N ∗ u, M = M ∗ v and t = t∗ t and substitute these
variable into the system (2):

N ∗ du ∗ N ∗u ∗ ∗ du ∗ N ∗u
. = rN u(1 − − bN m uv, ⇒ = rt u(1 − − bt∗ M ∗ uv,
t∗ dr K dr K

M ∗ dv ∗ ∗ dv cN ∗ t∗
. = cN u − dm v, ⇒ = u − dt∗ v.
t∗ dr dr M∗
Let
1 r
N ∗ = K, t∗ = , M∗ =
r b

And with thease substation, the last system becomes

19
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

du
dr
= u(1 − u) − uv,
(2.4)
dv cbK
dr
= r2
u − dr v.

Let α = d/r and β = cbK/r2 and substituting these into the system (3) give a non-
dimensionalised system

du
dr
= u(1 − u) − uv,
(2.5)
dv
dr
= βu − αv.

(b) calculate the steady states of non-dimensional model study their stability
properties and draw a phase portrait.

Solution. The steady states of system (4) satisfy


 u∗ (1 − u∗ ) − u∗ v ∗ = 0,
 βu∗ − αv ∗ = 0

There are two steady states ,namely,.

β
(u∗ , v ∗ ) = (0, 0) and (u∗ , v ∗ ) = ( α+β
α
, α+β )

In order to determine the stability of these states ,we first calculate the Jacobian J at a
steady state (u∗ , v ∗ ) as
   
∗ ∗ ∗
fu fu 1 − 2u − v −u
J=  (u∗ ,v ∗ ) = 
gv gv β −xα

20
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

At a zero steady state (u∗ , v ∗ ) = (0, 0) ,the Jacobian has the form
 
1 0
J= 
β α

Which gives the characteristic equation for eigenvalues λ as

(−λ + 1)(−α − λ) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 1 and λ2 = −α

Since λ1 > 0 and λ2 < 0,the zero equilibrium of the system (4), (u∗ , v ∗ ) = (0, 0) is a
saddle point At the seady state (u∗ , v ∗ ) = (α/(α + β), β/(α + β)), the Jacobian is
 
α α
− (α+β) − (α+β)
J= 
β −α

Which gives a characteristic equation in the form

α
λ2 + ( + α)λ + α = 0
(α + β)

which give two eigenvaluse λ1,2 as

r
1 α 1 α
λ1,2 =− ( + α) ± ( + α)2 − 4α
2 α+β 2 α+β

This means that the steady state (u∗ , v ∗ ) = (α/(α + β), β/(α + β)) is

a stable node if
1
α( + 1)2 > 4
α+β

a stable spiral if
1
α( + 1)2 < 4
α+β
The phase portraits of system (4)are sketched in figure 2(when non-zero steady state is a

21
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

stable node )and in figure 3 (for parameter values, where non-zero steady state is a stable
spiral )

Figure 2: sketch of the phase portrait of system(4) parameter values are α = 4 and
β = 1.The trivial steady state is a saddle point and a non-trivial steady state is a stable
node.

Figure 3:sketch of the phase portrait of system(4).parameter values are α = 1 and

β = 1 the trivial steady state is saddle point and non-trivial steady state is a stable
spiral.

(c) what would be the effect of adding fish to the lake at a constant rate?
Discuss it by modifying the mathematical model form part(a).

Solution. If fish is added to the lake at a constant non-dimensionless rate γ, the system
(4) becomes

22
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

du
dt
= u(1 − u) − uv + γ
(2.6)
dv
dt
= 1βu − αv

The qualitative behavior of the system(5) is the same as that of system(4)but steady state
levels of fish and fishermen are increased ,and (0.0)is not a steady state anymore

2.3 Classification of the fixed points: equal eigenval-

ues

Suppose λ1 = λ2 = λ. In this case the situation becomes highly nontrivial since

solutions involve term teλt and there is only one eigenvector along which the
solutions tend to (0, 0). Unstable node is plotted in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Phase portrait of an unstable node (type II), λ > 0.

Definition 15. (Node (Type II))

An equilibrium point in this case is called a node (Type II), which can be either stable
if λ < 0 or unstable is λ > 0.

Definition 16. (Star)

In the case when the solutions do not contain terms teλt , the singularity is called a star.
It can also be stable (λ < 0) or unstable (λ > 0).

23
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

The star singularity is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Phase portrait of a stable star, λ < 0.

Classification of the fixed points is summrised in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Summary diagramme showing different types of fixed point

singularities.

Example 17. the interaction between two populations with demitasses N1 and N2 is
modeled by

dN1 N1
dt
= rN1 (1 − K
) − αN1 N2 (1 − e−bN1 ),
(2.7)
dN1
dt
= −dN2 + eN2 (1 − e−bN1 )

24
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

where a,b,d,e,r,and K are positive constants.

(a) Non-dimensionless the model by using

e d
N1 = N1∗ u N2 = N2∗ v t = t∗ τ α= δ= , β = bK. (2.8)
τ τ

Solution. Substituting the expression (7) in to the system (6) given

N1∗ du ∗ N1∗ u ∗

∗
. = rN 1 u(1 − ) − αN1∗ N2∗ uv(1 − e−bN1 u ),
t dτ K

N2∗ dv ∗

∗
. = −dN2∗ v + eN2∗ v(1 − e−bN1 u ),
t dτ
which can be re-written as

du N ∗u ∗
= rt∗ u(1 − 1 ) − αt∗ N2∗ uv(1 − e−bN1 u ),
dτ K

dv ∗
= −dt∗ v + et∗ v(1 − e−bN1 u ),
dτ
letting
r 1
N1∗ = K, N2∗ = , t∗ =
α r
given
du
= u(1 − u) − uv(1 − e−bKu ),
dτ
dv d e
= v + v(1 − e−bKu ),
dτ r r
using the substitution
e d
α= , δ= , β = bK
r r
we obtain the non-dimiensionalised system

25
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

du
dr
= u(1 − u) − αv(1 − e−βα ),
(2.9)
dv
dr
= −δv + αv(1 − eβu ).

(b) determine the equilibria of the non-dimensional system and note any
parameter restrictions show that a non-zero N2 -population can exist if
β > βc = ln(1 − δ/α).

Solution. Steady states of the system (8) satisfy

∗
u∗ (1 − u∗ ) − u∗ v ∗ (1 − e−βu ) = 0,

∗
−δv ∗ + αv ∗ (1 − e−βv ) = 0

the solution of this system are (u∗ , v ∗ ) = (0, 0)(both species die out), (u∗ , v ∗ ) = (1, 0)
(the first species survive and the second species die out) and a non-zero steady state
(both species survive ), which can be found as a solution of

 1 − u∗ − v ∗ (1 − e−βu∗ ) = 0.
 −δv ∗ + αv ∗ (1 − eβu∗ ) = 0

Solving the last system gives

1 δ δ
u∗ = − ln(1 − ) > 0 if δ < α ⇒ ln(1 − ) < 0
β α α

α 1 δ δ
v∗ = (1 + ln(1 − )) > 0 if β > ln(1 − ), δ < α.
δ β α α
therefor the non-trivial steady state

1 δ α 1 δ
(u∗ , v ∗ ) = ( ln(1 − ), (1 + ln(1 − )))
β α δ β α

26
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

is positive if δ < α and β > βc = ln(1 − δ/α).

(c) Analyse the linear stability of the equilibria in the case of the non-zero
steady state determine its stability with out classifying it.

Solution. in order to analyses the stability of the equilibria we first calculate the
Jacobian matrix component and construct the Jacobian matrix J.Recall that

f (u, v) = u(1 − u) − uv(1 − e−βu ), g(u, v) = −δv + αv(1 − e−βu ).

therefor
fu = 1 − 2u − v(1 − e−βu ) − βuve−βu ,

fv = −u(1 − e−βu ),

gu = αβve−βu

gv = −δ + α(1 − e−βu )

We can now write the Jacobian matrix for any steady state (x∗ , y ∗ ) as
   
∗ ∗ −βu∗ ∗ ∗ −βu∗ ∗ −βu∗
fu fu 1 − 2u − v (1 − e ) − βu v e −u (1 − e )
J=  (u∗ ,v ∗ ) = ∗ ∗

gv gv αβv ∗ e−βu −δ + α(1 − e−βu )

At the steady state (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (0, 0) we have

 
1 0
J= ,
0 −δ

Which gives the characteristic equation as

(1 − λ)(δ − λ) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = 1, λ2 = −δ

Since λ1 > 0 and λ2 < 0 the steady state (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (0, 0) is a saddle At the steady

27
ClassificationCHAPTER
of the fixed 2.
points
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIXED POINTS

state (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (1, 0) the Jacobian becomes

 
−β
−1 −1 + e
J= ,
0 −δ + α(1 − e−β )

Which gives the characteristic equation for finding the eigenvalues as

(−1 − λ)(−δ + α(1 − e−β ) − λ) = 0 ⇒ λ1 = −1, λ2 = −δ + α(1 − e−β) .

| {z }
≥0

This yields that the steady state (x∗ , y ∗ ) = (1, 0) is

A stable node if δ > α(1 − e−β )

A saddle if δ < α(1 − e−β ) .Note change in stability properties here.

Now we consider a non-trivial steady state (x∗ , y ∗ ) ̸= (0, 0) The Jacobian can be
written as  
−u∗ + βu∗ (1 − u∗ − v ∗ ) − αδ u∗
 
J=
 

 
αβv ∗ (1 − αδ ) 0

Calculating the trJ and detJ gives

∗
trJ = −u∗ + βu∗ (1 − u∗ − v ∗ ) = −u∗ + β(−u∗ v ∗ e−βu ) < 0

and
δ
detJ = δβuv(1 − )>0
α
Since trJ < 0 and detJ > 0 the non-trivial steady state

1 δ α 1 δ
(u∗ , v ∗ ) = ( ln(1 − ), (1 + ln(1 − )))
β α δ β α
Is stable

28
 Bibliography

[1] James D.Murray, ”Mathematical Biology I:An Introduction,3rd Edition. Vol.

17. Geo-physics and Planetary Sciences, 2001.

[2] Shonkwiler, Ronald W., And James Herod. Mathematical Biology: An in-
troduction with maple and Mat lab. Springer Science and Business Me-
dia,2009.

[3] Rubinow, Sol I. Introduction to mathematical biology. Wiley, 1975.

29