MODULE 1.
ATOM AND ITS ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE
Atom
- the basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination.
- came from the Greek word Atomos which means indivisible.
- Democritus developed the idea of atoms in 460 BC. He pounded materials in his pestle and
mortar until he had reduced them to smaller and smaller particles which he called Atomos.
The Two Main Parts of an Atom are:
1. Nucleus
- small, positively charged body located at the center of an atom.
- where mass of an atom is concentrated.
- has a diameter of 10-13 cm or 10-5 Å (angstrom)
2. Electrons
- Negatively charged particles that moves around the nucleus in more or
less regions called shells of energy levels.
- Form a sort of clouds around the nucleus.
- Electron cloud gives the atom its volume.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- The first complete attempt to describe all matter.
- Main stimulus for the progress of chemistry during the 19th century.
Postulates:
1. All matter is made up of atoms which are indivisible.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and chemical
properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the
ratio of the number of atoms of any two elements present is either an integer or simple
fraction.
4. A chemical reaction only involves separation, combination, and rearrangement of
atoms; it does not result in their creation and destruction.
(Postulates 1 and 2 of Dalton’s Atomic Theory are modified due to discovery of isotopes, isobars,
and subatomic particles.)
Isotopes Isobars Subatomic Particles
Atoms that have the same Atoms of different elements • Protons
atomic number but with with different atomic numbers • Electrons
different mass numbers. but same mass numbers. • Neutrons
Dalton’s Atomic Theory Postulate 3 supports:
1. Law of Definite Composition- different samples of the same compound always contain
its constituent elements in the same proportion by mass.
2. Law of Multiple Proportions- if two elements can combine to form more than one
compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other
element are in the ratios of small whole numbers.
On the other hand, Postulate 4 supports:
3. Law of Conservation of Mass- matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
History of Atom
• John Dalton (1803) SOLID SPHERE MODEL
- Drawn upon Democritus’ concept of atoms. Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
• Joseph John Thomson (1904) PLUM PUDDING MODEL
- He discovered electrons which he called corpuscles.
- The concept of his Plum Pudding Model is that atom is composed of electrons scattered
throughout a spherical cloud of positive charge.
• Ernest Rutherford (1911) NUCLEAR MODEL
- In his gold foil experiment, he fired alpha particles (positively charged) from Radium, a
radioactive element into a thin gold foil. According to his observations,
1. Most fast-moving alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil.
2. Some of the alpha particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
3. One out of 12,000 alpha particles appeared to rebound.
By these observations, he concluded that:
1. An atom is mostly an empty space.
2. There is a positively charged center in an atom called nucleus where mass of the
atom is concentrated.
3. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
4. The size of nucleus is extremely small.
 • Neils Bohr (1913) PLANETARY MODEL The Periodic Table of Elements
- Developed based on observations of line spectra of the hydrogen atom.
• The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
- It states that electrons move around the nucleus in orbits of fixed sizes and energies.
• The horizontal rows are called periods, and the vertical columns are called groups.
Electron energy in this model was quantized; electrons could not occupy values of
energy between the fixed energy level. • Roughly, three-fourths of the elements are metals located at the left and middle portion of
the table.
• Erwin Schrodinger (1926) QUANTUM MODEL
- Schrodinger states that electrons move in waves. It is impossible to know the exact • The nonmetals are located at the top right corner.
location electrons; instead, we have ‘clouds of probability’ called orbitals in which we • Metalloids or semimetals are located between metals and nonmetals.
are more likely to find an electron. • There is a total of 118 elements.
- Up until now, it is the widely accepted as the most accurate model of the atom. Energy Levels, Sublevels, and Orbitals
Atomic Number and Mass Numbers Main energy level 1 2 3 4
• All atoms of an element have the same number of protons in the nucleus. (n)
Number of 1 2 3 4
• If the element has no charge, the number of protons and electrons are the same.
sublevels per main
• The atomic number = number of protons energy level
Kind and number s s, p s, p, d s, p, d, f
• Neutrons = mass number – atomic number
of orbitals per 1 1, 3 1, 3, 5 1, 3, 5, 7
• Mass number = neutrons + atomic number
sublevel
Maximum number 2 2, 6 2, 6, 10 2, 6, 10, 14
of electrons per 2 8 18 32
ATOMIC MASS
sublevel
𝐴
ATOMIC NUMBER 𝑍𝑋 CHEMICAL SYMBOL
Explanation:

• The main energy level corresponds to the period where an atom belongs.
Average Atomic Mass Example: Sodium (Na) belongs to the 3rd period. Therefore, it has 3 main energy levels.
• The main energy level is divided into sublevels or subshells: s, p, d, f.
• The average atomic mass of each element is expressed in amu and is also known as its s- 1 orbital
atomic weight. p- 3 orbital
d- 5 orbital
Formula to find the average atomic mass f- 7 orbital

(relative abundance of isotope A)(atomic mass of isotope A) + (relative abundance of isotope B)(atomic mass of isotope B) EACH ORBITALS CAN HOLD A MAXIMUM OF 2 ELECTRONS.
 • In the s sublevel, it has only 1 orbital so the maximum number of electrons it can have is 2. For example, the electron configuration of Na is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1. It is obtained by following the order
• In the p sublevel, it has 3 orbitals so the maximum number of electrons it can have is 6. of filling orbitals.
• In the d sublevel, it has 5 orbitals so the maximum number of electrons it can have is 10.
• In the f sublevel, it has 7 orbitals so the maximum number of electrons it can have is 14.

Therefore,

• In the first energy level, the maximum number of electrons are 2.

• In the second energy level, the maximum number of electrons are 8.
• In the third energy level, the maximum number of electrons are 18.
• In the fourth energy level, the maximum number of electrons are 32.

Condensed Electron Configuration

There is a formula that we can use to find the maximum number of electrons in
the main energy level: - Writing the electron configuration in this manner help focus attention on the outermost
electrons of the atom.

2n2 - In writing the condensed electron configuration of an element, the electron

configuration of the nearest noble-gas element of lower atomic number is
represented by its chemical symbol in brackets.
Where n = number of main energy level.
For example, the condensed electron configuration for Na is: [Ne]3s1
- We refer to the electrons represented by the symbol for a noble gas as the noble gas
core of the atom.
Electron Configuration
- The inner-shell electrons are referred to merely as the core electrons.
- describes how electrons are distributed in its atomic orbitals. - The electrons given after the noble gas core are referred to as the outer-shell electrons,
or valence electrons.

Valence Electrons

- Negatively charged particles in the outermost region of atoms that enters into the
formation of chemical bonds.
HOW TO IDENTIFY THE NUMBER OF VALENCE ELECTRONS
• For the Representative elements, their group number is equal to the number
of valence electrons.
• Using the electron configuration: for example, we will use the electron
configuration of Na. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 in this, we just have to identify the highest
main energy level which is 3, and then look at the superscript of it, which is 1.
Therefore, Sodium has only 1 valence electron.
• Using the Bohr Model: first, illustrate the Bohr Model of Na. The number of
This order of occupancy of sublevels is called the aufbau order, which means building up in German.
electrons in the outermost shell is the number of valence electrons.
Hund’s Rule 2. THE AZIMUTHAL OR ANGULAR MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER (𝓵)
- It describes the particular sublevel (s, p, d, f).
- For any set of orbitals of equal energy, such as the set of 2p orbitals, it is found that there is
- Its value depends on the value of Principal Quantum Number.
one electron in each orbital before there is any pairing. This is known as Hund’s Rule.
- The formula for it is 𝓵 = 𝟎 𝒕𝒐 (𝒏 − 𝟏)
For example, if
a. n=1
0 to (1-1) = 0
b. n=2
0 to (2-1) = 0 to 1 (0, 1)
c. n=3
0 to (3-1) = 0 to 2 (0, 1, 2)
d. n=4
0 to (4-1) = 0 to 3 (0, 1, 2, 3)

ALWAYS REMEMBER:

Quantum Numbers Sublevel 𝓵

s 0
- Gives information about the location of an electron in an atom. p 1
- There are four (4) quantum numbers: d 2
f 3
• Principal Quantum Number (n) So, if you encounter a question like this:
• Azimuthal or Angular Momentum Quantum Number (ℓ) What are the sublevels are there in the 6th Main Energy Level?
Answer:
• Magnetic Quantum Number (𝑚ℓ ) n=6
• Spin Quantum Number (𝑚𝑠 ) ℓ= 0 to (6-1) = 0 to 5 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
therefore, the sublevels in the 6th energy level are s, p, d, f, g.

1. THE PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n) 3. THE MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (𝒎𝓵 )
- It corresponds to the Main Energy Level. - Tells how many orbitals are there per sublevel.
For example, if n=1, then the electron is found in the 1st Main Energy Level. - Related to the possible orbitals within the sublevel.
- Do not forget that to we can find the maximum number of electrons using the - The formula for it is 𝒎𝓵= − 𝓵 𝒕𝒐 + 𝓵 , 𝟎
Principal Quantum Number by the formula 2n2. - its value depends on the value of the Azimuthal Quantum Number.

for example,
 if ℓ= 0 then 𝑚ℓ = 0 How to interpret Quantum Numbers?

if ℓ= 1 then 𝑚ℓ = -1 to +1, 0 Example:

if ℓ= 2 then 𝑚ℓ = -2 to +2, 0 a. 2, 0, 0, +1/2 – the electron is found in the 2nd main energy level with the s sublevel in the s
orbital with a spin of +1/2.

4. THE SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (𝒎𝒔 )

- Describes the spin for a given electron. How many electrons are there in the following sets of Quantum Number:
𝟏 𝟏
- It has only two (2) values: − 𝟐
and +𝟐 a. n=1, ℓ=0 – 2 electrons
b. n= 2, ℓ= 1, 𝑚ℓ = -1 - 2 electrons
c. n=2, ℓ= 1, 𝑚ℓ =0, ms= +1/2 – 1 electron
Example problem involving Quantum Numbers

Give the 10 sets of Quantum Numbers for the 10 electrons of Neon.

MODULE 2. PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS
2 2 6
10Ne – 1s 2s 2p
• The Periodic Table is the most significant tool that Chemists use for organizing and
a. 1s2 remembering chemical facts.
n ℓ 𝑚ℓ ms • The periodic table arises from the periodic patterns in the electron configurations of the
1 0 0 +1/2 elements.
1 0 0 -1/2 • Elements in the same column contain the same number of electrons in their outer-shell
orbitals, or valence orbitals.
b. 2s2 • This similarity in valence electronic structure leads to the similarities among elements in the
n ℓ 𝑚ℓ ms same group.
2 0 0 +1/2 • The differences among elements in the same group arise because their valence orbitals are
2 0 0 -1/2 in different shells.

The Modern Periodic Table

6
c. 2p
• The periodic table was first developed by Mendeleev and Meyer based on the similarity in
n ℓ 𝑚ℓ ms
chemical and physical properties exhibited by certain elements.
2 1 +1 +1/2
• Moseley established that each element has a unique atomic number, which added more
2 1 0 +1/2
order to the periodic table.
2 1 -1 +1/2
2 1 +1 -1/2 • The periodic table shows all the atoms from which all matter in the universe is made of.
2 1 0 -1/2
2 1 -1 -1/2
 - Gallium (Ga), Indium (In), and Thallium (Tl) are lustrous moderately reactive
Remember, atom is the smallest particle of a substance while an element is a metals. Gallium melts at 30°C; thus, in hot climates, it is one of the few liquid
substance made up of one kind of atom. elements along with Mercury (Hg) and Bromine (Br).
❖ Group IVA Elements
Example: H element is made up of H atoms. - Carbon, C – nonmetal
- Silicon (Si) – metalloid
Law of Chemical Periodicity - Germanium (Ge) – metalloid
- Tin (Sn) – metal
- The properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers - Lead (Pb) – metal
(number of protons). - Graphite and diamond are the predominant forms of carbon. Diamond is the
Periodicity hardest substance known while graphite, the so-called “lead” in pencils, is one of
the softest. (Their difference is in the arrangement of carbon atoms)
- Recurrence of similar properties at regular intervals when the elements are - Silicon occurs in the form of Silica, SiO, the major component of sand and gravel
arranged in the correct order. used largely for the construction of highways, buildings and dams.
- Tin and lead are widely used in the home and industry.
The Elements
- Bronze is an alloy of 90% Cu and 10% Sn.
❖ Group IA – Hydrogen (H) - the Group IVA are the elements used to make alloys.
- a class by itself ❖ Group VA Elements
- a colorless gas so light and less dense than air - Nitrogen (N) is a nonmetal which is 79% of air.
❖ Group IA – The Alkali metals - Phosphorus (P) is a soft nonmetal solid that occurs in white and allotropic forms.
- soft, lustrous and light but so reactive that they have to be kept from air or - Arsenic (As), a metalloid, exists in 3 allotropic forms: black, metallic form; a gray
moisture metallic form; and a waxy, yellow, nonmetallic form which is unstable
- usually stored in bottle of inert liquid such as mineral oil - Antimony (Sb) exists in gray metallic form and an unstable nonmetallic yellow
❖ Group IIA – The Alkaline-Earth Metals form.
- Resemble the alkali metals, but are much less reactive - Bismuth (Bi) is a lustrous, brittle and rather soft metal
- Beryllium (Be) is very poisonous in incredibly low concentrations ❖ Group VIA Elements
- Magnesium (Mg) is a light, lustrous, tough metal - Oxygen (O), a nonmetal, exists in two allotropic forms: O2 (21% of air) and O3 (or
- Calcium (Ca) is a hard silver metal ozone).
- Strontium (Sr) and Barium (Ba) are soft, reactive metal and should be stored in - Sulfur (S), a nonmetal, is a pale-yellow solid.
mineral oil - Selenium (Se) and Tellurium (Te) exist both as nonmetal and metalloid
- Radium (Ra) is radioactive and extremely dangerous to handle - Polonium (Po) is a dangerous radioactive element.
❖ Group IIIA Elements ❖ Group VIIA – The Halogens
- Boron (B) is the only nonmetallic in Group IIIA. - The halogens are all nonmetals.
- Aluminum (Al) is light, shiny, easily worked, noncorroding metal that is widely - Fluorine (F) is a pale, yellow corrosive gas in the form F2 that reacts with practically
used for household and industrial applications everything. It is acutely toxic.
- Chlorine (Cl), in the form of Cl2, was the first poison gas used in World war I. Its
attractive greenish-yellow color could be displayed in a glass bulb.
 - Bromine (Br) in the form of Br2 is a dense, toxic dark red liquid which evaporates to
reddish-brown vapor. ALWAYS REMEMBER:
- Iodine (I) in the form of I2, is a bluish black lustrous solid which evaporates to a
purple vapor. It dissolves in ethyl alcohol to form a brown solution called “tincture 1. Hydrogen is a class by itself.
of iodine.” 2. The Alkali Metals of Group IA are all soft, lustrous, light and so
- Astatine (At) is a radioactive element that occurs in only minute quantities on reactive.
Earth. 3. The Alkaline-Earth Metals of Group IIA resembles the Alkali Metals but
❖ Group VIIIA – The Noble Gases much less reactive.
- The noble gases are all colorless and exhibit little or no reactivity. 4. Boron is the only nonmetallic in the Group IIIA.
- Radon (Ra) is a radioactive gas. 5. All of the elements in the Group IVA are solids at room temperature.
❖ The Transition Elements 6. The Halogens of the Group VIIA are all nonmetals.
- These are all metallic dense, lustrous, good conductors of heat and electricity and, 7. The Noble Gases of the Group VIIIA are all colorless and exhibit little
in most cases, hard. or no reactivity.
- Some, like platinum and gold, are also rather expensive. They are used in jewelry 8. The Transition Elements are all metallic dense, lustrous, good
because they are unreactive in air and do not tarnish. conductors of heat and electricity, and hard.
- Copper and gold are the colored metals. 9. The Lanthanoids are all metals famous for their similarity in their
- Mercury, the liquid among the transition elements, is so dense (13.5 g/mL) that chemical and physical properties.
lead (Pb), a very dense solid (11 g/mL), will float on it. 10. The Actinoids are all radioactive.
❖ The Zinc Subgroup (Group 2B) 11. All elements after Uranium are produced artificially by nuclear
- Cadmium (Cd) is so resistant to oxidation in air that it is used as a protective coating reactions.
on nails and bolts.
- Zinc (Zn) is an essential element in the human body.
MEMORIZE:
❖ The Inner Transition Elements
- The lanthanoids or rare earths (from 58Ce to 71Lu) are all metals famous for their ELEMENTS IN THEIR LATIN NAMES
similarity of their chemical and physical properties.
1. Gold (Au) – Aurum
- The actinoids (from 90Th to 103Lr) are all radioactive. All the elements after
2. Potassium (K) – Kalium
Uranium (U) are produced artificially by nuclear reactions.
3. Iron (Fe) – Ferrum
4. Sodium (Na) – Natrium
5. Tin (Sn) – Stannum
6. Copper (Cu) – Cuprum
7. Antimony (Sb) – Stibium
8. Silver (Ag) – Argentum
9. Mercury (Hg) – Hydrargyrum
10. Lead (Pb) – Plumbum
11. Tungsten (W) - Wolfram
The Shielding Effect
- Electrons in an atom can shield each other from the pull of nucleus.
- Describes the decrease in attraction between an electron and the nucleus in any
atom with more than one electron shell.
- The more electron shells there are, the greater the shielding effect experienced by
the outermost electrons.
- The shielding effect explains why valence shells electrons are more easily removed
from the atom.
- The nucleus can pull the valence shell in tighter when the attraction is strong and
less tight when the attraction is weakened.
- The more shielding that occurs, the further the valence shell can spread out. As a
result, atoms will be larger.
Additional Information:
• Shielding effect is the repulsive force exerted on valence electrons by
the core electrons.
• The more the core electrons, the greater the shielding effect.
• Remember that all electrons are negatively charged, that is why the
core electrons exerts a repulsive force on valence electrons, causing
them to move farther away.
• The greater the shielding effect, the larger the atomic radius (size).
• The greater the shielding effect, the lower the ionization energy.
• The greater the shielding effect, the lower the electronegativity.
Example:
Why is Cesium bigger than elemental Sodium?
Module Explanation:
The elemental sodium has the electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1. The outer energy level
is n = 3 and there is one valence electron. The attraction between this lone valence electron and the
nucleus with 11 protons is shielded by the other 10 core electrons.
The electron configuration for cesium is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s1.
While there are more protons in a cesium atom, there are also many more electrons shielding the
outer electron from the nucleus. The outermost electron, 6s1, therefore, is held very loosely.
Because of shielding, the nucleus has less control over this 6s1 electron than it does over a 3s1
electron.
My Explanation:
Based on the number of electrons, Cesium has the atomic number of 55 and Sodium has an
atomic number of 11. Now, Cesium is bigger than elemental Sodium because Cesium has a greater
shielding effect, therefore, this causes its atomic radius to be larger.
Effective Nuclear Charge
• Coulomb’s Law of Attraction
- indicates that the strength of the interaction between two electrical charges
depends on the magnitude of the charges and the distance between them.
- Thus, the force of attraction between an electron and the nucleus depends on the
magnitude of the net nuclear charge acting on the electron and the average
distance between the nucleus and the electron.
- The force of attraction increases as the nuclear charge increases.
- The force of attraction decreases as the electron moves farther from the nucleus.
• Effective Nuclear Charge
- is the net positive charge experienced by an electron in a multi-electron atom.
- The term “effective” is used because the shielding effect of negatively charged
electrons prevents higher orbital electrons from experiencing the full nuclear
charge.
Zeff = Z – S
Where:
Z = number of protons in the nucleus (atomic number)
S = number of electrons between the nucleus and the electron in
question (the number of non-valence electrons).
 - Many of the atom’s properties are determined by the effective nuclear charge • The effective nuclear charge experienced by outer electrons increases as we move from
experienced by its outer or valence electrons. element to element across any row (period) of the table.
- Any electron density between the nucleus and an outer electron decreases the • Although the number of core electrons stays the same as we move across a period, the
effective nuclear charge acting on that outer electron. actual nuclear charge increases.
- Because the core electrons are located mainly between the nucleus and the outer • Going down a family (group), the effective nuclear charge experienced by outer- shell
electrons, they are very efficient in shielding the outer electrons. electrons changes far less than it does across a period.
- On the other hand, electrons on the same shell hardly shield each other at all from
the nucleus. For Example,
- The effective nuclear charge experienced by the outer electrons is determined Consider a neutral neon atom (Ne), a sodium cation (Na+), and a fluorine anion (F–). What is the
primarily by the difference between the charge on the nucleus and the charge of effective nuclear charge for each?
the core electrons.
1. Neon (Ne)
For Example, Step 1. figuring out the number of core electrons, which can be determined from the
Magnesium (atomic number 12), and has an electron configuration of [Ne]3s2. The nuclear charge of electron configuration.
the atom is 12+ and the Ne inner core consists of 10 electrons. Very roughly then, we would expect Ne - 1s22s2 2p6 - The valence shell is shell 2 and contains 8 valence electrons.
each outer-shell electron to experience an effective nuclear charge of about 2+.
Step 2. Identify the number of core electrons.
By using the formula, Core e- = atomic # - valence e-
= 10 – 8 = 2 core electrons
Zeff = Z – S therefore, Zeff = 12 – 10 = 2
Step 3. Use the formula Zeff = Z – S
Zeff = 10 – 2 = 8+

2. Fluorine (F)
Fluorine has 9 electrons but F– has gained an electron and thus has 10. The electron
configuration is the same as for Neon and the number of core electrons is 2. The atomic
number for F- is 9, therefore:
Zeff(F-) = 9 – 2 = 7+

3. Sodium (Na)
Sodium has 11 electrons but the Na+ ion has lost an electron and thus has 10. Once again,
the electron configuration is the same as in the previous examples and the number of core
electrons is 2 (by losing one electron, the valence shell becomes the n=2 shell). The atomic
number for Na+ is 11, therefore:
Zeff (Na+) = 11 – 2 = 9+
 In each of the above examples (Ne, F–, Na+), an atom has 10 electrons, but the effective
nuclear charge varies because each has a different atomic number. The sodium cation has
the largest effective nuclear charge, which results in electrons being held the tightest, and
therefore Na+ has the smallest atomic radius.
- The increase in the number of core electrons increases repulsions, pushing the
valence electrons farther from the nucleus.
- The number of core electrons increase is equal to proton increase.
DOWN A GROUP:

3. The Effective Nuclear Charge approximately

Additional Information about Shielding Effect and Effective Nuclear Charge remains the same.
• Shielding and Effective Nuclear Charge 4. Atom gets larger down a group.
- Refer to how the interplay of positive and negative affect the valence shell where
Chemistry occurs.
• Valence electrons experience less attraction to the nucleus because of the repulsions of core Ionization Energy
electrons.
- The energy required to remove an electron from an atom.
• Shielding Effect
- Expressed in Kj/mol
- repelling effect that the core electrons have on valence electrons, and the resulting
decrease in the amount of attraction felt by the valence electrons. IE Trend Across Period
• Effective Nuclear Charge
1. The first electron taken is from the valence shell.
- The amount of attraction exerted on valence electrons by the nucleus.
2. As the valence shell gets closer to the nucleus, the positive force of the nucleus gains a
Periodicity of Atomic Size greater hold on the valence electrons.
3. As the Zeff increases, the nucleus gains even greater hold on the valence electrons, thus it
Across Period
takes more ionization energy to remove an electron.
- The number of protons increases.
IONIZATION ENERGY INCREASES GOING ACROSS PERIODS
- The added electrons go to the same energy shell as previous atoms.
- The number of core electrons remains constant.
- The electrons are pulled inward causing smaller radius. IE Trend Down a Group

1. Zeff remains the same.

ACROSS A PERIOD:
2. The valence electrons get further from the nucleus.
1. The Effective Nuclear Charge increases. 3. Valence electrons feel greater repulsions due to greater shielding.
2. Atom gets smaller across a period 4. The nuclear hold on the valence shell decreases going down a group, thus, the ionization
energy required to remove an electron also decreases.

Down A Group IONIZATION ENERGY DECREASES GOING DOWN A GROUP

- Electrons are added to a new and higher energy shell, therefore putting the valence
electrons much further from the nucleus.
Trends in the Properties of Elements in the Periodic Table Anions

1. Atomic Size
- It decreases across period
➢ Going across period, the valence electrons of all the elements in the same
period are in the same shell. However, as the number of valence electrons
increases, the nuclear charge also increases causing the atom to shrink in
size.
- It increases going down a group
➢ Going down a group, the number of main energy level increases. As the
number of main energy level increases, the atomic size also increases.
DEC
- When an atom gains electrons, its size will increase.
- An anion is larger than its neutral atom counterpart.
Which is larger, Cl or Cl-?
In this case, the ‘-’ superscript on Cl ion means it gained one electron.
Therefore, Cl- ion is larger than the Cl atom.
• Anions are larger than cations.
• Ionic size increases down a group and decreases across periods.

DEC
INC PERIODIC TABLE

INC PERIODIC TABLE

2. Ionic Size
- an ion is an atom that has gained or lost electrons.
- Cation is a positively charged ion, it means the number of protons is greater than
• For cations, as the charge increases, the size decreases.
the number of electrons.
- Anion is a negatively charged ion, it means the number of electrons is greater than
the number of protons.

Cations
Na+ Mg2+ Al3+
- When an atom loses electrons, its size will decrease.
- A cation is smaller than its neutral atom counterpart.

Which is larger, Na or Na+?

In this case, the ‘+’ superscript on Na ion means it lost one electron. Therefore,
Na atom is larger than the Na+
 • For anions, as the charge increases, the size increases. - The lower the ionization energy, the easier it is to remove an electron from an atom.

First Ionization Energy - the amount of energy required to remove one electron from
that atom.
Cl- S2- P3+ Second Ionization Energy - the amount of energy required to remove the second
electron from the ion formed.

1st IE < 2nd IE < 3rd IE

Arrange the following in increasing size: F-, Mg2+, Ne, Na+, O2-

Step 1. Determine if any of them are isoelectronic or has the same number of electrons. If the
INC
atoms are isoelectronic, check the number of protons. HIGHER NUMBER OF PROTONS MEANS
SMALLER IN SIZE.

Formula:
DEC PERIODIC TABLE
Number of electrons = atomic number - charge

F- = 9 – (-1) = 10 electrons

Mg2+= 12 – (+2) = 10 electrons

Ne = 10 – 0 = 10 electrons Consider this example:

Na+ = 11 – (+1) = 10 electrons Choose the atom with the highest Ionization Energy.

O2-= 8 – (-2) = 10 electrons a. Na, Al, Cl, Br – in this case. Cl has the highest Ionization Energy.
b. Na, Na+ , Mg, Mg+ - in this case, the Na+ has the highest Ionization Energy.

All of the them are isoelectronic so we just need to look at their atomic number and arrange them.

By arranging them in increasing size, we will have Mg2+, Na+, Ne, F-, O2-

3. Ionization Energy
- Energy required to remove an electron.
- The higher the ionization energy, the harder it is to remove an electron from that
atom.
Explanation: and therefore, not as much as energy is released when an electron is accepted into
the valence shell.
The Na cation has the higher Ionization energy than the Na atom because when you look at the
diagram, the Na atom is in its 1st ionization energy while the Na cation is already in the 2nd ionization
energy. Also, the Na cation already has 8 valence electrons in the 2nd main energy level. On the other INC
hand, the Mg atom has lower ionization energy than the Mg cation even though their valence
electrons are located in the same shell because the Mg cation is in its 2nd ionization energy. The Mg
cation is nearer in terms of having 8 valence electrons. The nearer the atom is on having 8 valence
electrons, the greater its ionization energy. DEC PERIODIC TABLE

Which has higher 3rd ionization energy, Ca or S?

5. Electronegativity
- It is the ability of atoms to attract electrons towards itself.
- Fluorine is the most electronegative element in the periodic table.
- Metals are less electronegative than nonmetals because metals like to give away
electrons while nonmetals like to acquire electrons.
- As the number of valence electrons increases, the electronegativity increases too.
- As the main energy level increases, the electronegativity decreases.

If we analyze the diagram, the Ca atom has the greater ionization energy because Ca has two
valence electrons in its outermost shell. if those 2 electrons are removed by the 1st and 2nd ionization INC
energy, its valence electrons will become 8 in the 3rd sublevel, making it difficult to remove another
electron.

DEC PERIODIC TABLE

4. Electron Affinity
- The amount of energy released when an atom gains an electron is called electron
affinity.
- Going across a period, the electron affinity increases. This is due to the fact that
the valence electrons are in the same energy level but the nuclear charge becomes 6. Metallic Character
greater. - The more an element exhibits the physical and chemical properties of metals, the
- Going down a group of non-metals, the electronaffinity decreases. This is due to the greater its metallic character.
fact that going down the group the valence electrons are further from the nucleus - The metallic character generally increases as we proceed down a group of the
periodic table.
 - The metallic character decreases as we proceed from left to right in a period.

4. Atomic radius varies periodically with the arrangement of the elements in the periodic
table. It decreases from left to right and increases from top to bottom.
DEC

5. Ionization energy is a measure of the tendency of an atom to resist the loss of an electron.
The higher the ionization energy, the stronger the attraction between the nucleus and an
INC PERIODIC TABLE electron. Electron affinity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to gain an electron. The
more positive the electron affinity, the greater the tendency for the atom to gain an
electron. Metals usually have low ionization energies, and nonmetals usually have high
electron affinities. The electronegativity of an atom is defined as the general tendency of
that atom to attract electrons toward itself in a compound. It is not an energy
SUMMARY: measurement but simply a general tendency for atoms to attract electrons.

Property Across Period Down a Group

Atomic size decreases Increases 6. Noble gases are very stable because their outer ns and np subshells are completely filled.
Ionic size decreases Increases
The metals among the representative elements (in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A) tend to lose
Ionization energy increases Decreases
electrons until their cations become isoelectronic with the noble gases that precede them in
Electronegativity increases Decreases
the periodic table. The nonmetals in Groups 5A, 6A, and 7A tend to accept electrons until
Electron affinity increases Decreases
their anions become isoelectronic with the noble gases that follow them in the periodic
Metallic Character decreases Increases
table.

1. Nineteenth-century chemists developed the periodic table by arranging elements in the

increasing order of their atomic masses. Discrepancies in early versions of the periodic table
were resolved by arranging the elements in order of their atomic numbers.
2. Electron configuration determines the properties of an element. The modern periodic table
classifies the elements according to their atomic numbers, and thus also by their electron
configurations. The configuration of the valence electrons directly affects the properties of
the atoms of the representative elements.
3. Periodic variations in the physical properties of the elements reflect differences in atomic
structure. The metallic character of elements decreases across a period from metals
through the metalloids to nonmetals and increases from top to bottom within a particular
group of representative elements.
MODULE 3. FORMULA WRITING AND NAMING OF COMPOUNDS
• Inorganic compounds - compounds that lack C – H bonds.
Formula Writing
• Chemical formula
- provides a simple and clear method of representing a chemical compound using
symbols for its constituent elements.
- It states the number and type of atoms present in a molecule of a substance.
- The number of atoms is indicated by a subscript following the element symbol.
Example: The chemical formula for water is H2O. The formula shows that there are
2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen present.
 • Oxidation number S -2
- Refers to the number of electrons that an atom loses, gains, or shares when it As -3
bonds with another atom. N -3
- Elements which lose electrons in a chemical reaction, or which have electrons which P -3
are shared with another element deficient in electrons, are assigned positive C -4
oxidation numbers.
- Elements which gain electrons or are deficient in electrons in electrons, are assigned Metals of Variable Oxidation Number
negative oxidation numbers.
Antimony (III) Sb3+
Elements on Fixed Positive Oxidation Number Antimony (V) Sb5+
Elements Charge Arsenic (III) As3+
H +1 Arsenic (V) As5+
Li +1 Bismuth (III) Bi3+
K +1 Bismuth (V) Bi5+
Ag +1 Chromium (II) Cr2+
Na +1 Chromium (III) Cr3+
Ba +2 Cobalt (II) Co2+
Cd +2 Cobalt (III) Co3+
Ca +2 Copper (I) Cu+
Mg +2 Copper (II) Cu2+
Ra +2 Gold (I) Au+
Sr +2 Gold (III) Au3+
Zn +2 Iron (II) Fe2+
Al +3 Iron (III) Fe3+
B +3 Lead (II) Pb2+
C +4 Lead (IV) Pb4+
Si +4 Manganese (II) Mn2+
Manganese (IV) Mn4+
Mercury (I) Hg22+
Elements on Fixed Negative Oxidation Number Mercury (II) Hg2+
Nickel (II) Ni2+
Elements Charge
Nickel (III) Ni3+
Br -1
Platinum (II) Pt2+
Cl -1
Platinum (IV) Pt4+
F -1
Tin (II) Sn2+
H -1
Tin (IV) Sn4+
I -1
O -2
Common Radicals and their Oxidation Numbers Sulfate 𝑺𝑶𝟒 -2
Sulfite 𝑺𝑶𝟑 -2
Acetate 𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟑 𝑶𝟐 -1 Stannate 𝑺𝒏𝑶𝟑 -2
Aluminate 𝑨𝒍(𝑶𝑯)𝟒 -1 Stannite 𝑺𝒏𝑶𝟐 -2
Bicarbonate 𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 -1 Tetraborate 𝑩𝟒 𝑶𝟕 -2
Bismuthate 𝑩𝒊𝑶𝟑 -1 Tetrathionate 𝑺𝟒 𝑶𝟔 -2
Bisulfate 𝑯𝑺𝑶𝟒 -1 Thiosulfate 𝑺𝟐 𝑶𝟔 -2
Bisulfite 𝑯𝑺𝑶𝟑 -1 Zincate 𝒁𝒏(𝑶𝑯)𝟒 -2
Bromate 𝑩𝒓𝟎𝟑 -1 Antimonate 𝑺𝒃𝑶𝟒 -3
Bromite 𝑩𝒓𝑶𝟐 -1 Antimonite 𝑺𝒃𝑶𝟑 -3
Chlorate 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟑 -1 Arsenate 𝑨𝒔𝑶𝟒 -3
Chlorite 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐 -1 Arsenite 𝑨𝒔𝑶𝟑 -3
Cyanate CNO -1 Borate 𝑩𝑶𝟑 -3
Cyanite CN -1 Ferricyanide 𝑭𝒆(𝑪𝑵)𝟔 -3
Hydroxide OH -1 Phosphate 𝑷𝑶𝟒 -3
Hypobromite BrO -1 Phosphite 𝑷𝑶𝟑 -3
Hypochlorite ClO -1 Ferrocyanide 𝑭𝒆(𝑪𝑵)𝟔 -4
Hypophosphite 𝑯𝟐 𝑷𝑶𝟒 -1 Pyroarsenate 𝑨𝒔𝟐 𝑶𝟕 -4
Iodate 𝑰𝑶𝟑 -1 Pyrophosphate 𝑷𝟐 𝑶𝟕 -4
Iodite 𝑰𝑶𝟐 -1 Orthosilicate 𝑺𝒊𝑶𝟒 -4
Metaborate 𝑩𝑶𝟐 -1
Metaphosphate 𝑷𝑶𝟑 -1
Metarsenate 𝑨𝒔𝑶𝟐 -1 The Crisscross Method
Nitrate 𝑵𝑶𝟑 -1
Nitrite 𝑵𝑶𝟐 -1 Rule 1. The element with a positive valence number is written first.
Perchlorate 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟒 -1
Periodate 𝑰𝑶𝟒 -1
Permanganate 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 -1
Thiocyanate SCN -1
Rule 2. Crisscross the valence such that the + valence becomes the subscript of the second element
Carbonate 𝑪𝑶𝟑 -2
Chromate 𝑪𝒓𝑶𝟒 -2 while the negative valence becomes the subscript of the first element. No + and – signs on the
Dichromate 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟕 -2 subscripts. The subscripts denote number of atoms of each element in the formula.
Manganate 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 -2
Metasilicate 𝑺𝒊𝑶𝟑 -2
Molybdate 𝑴𝒐𝑶𝟒 -2
Oxalate 𝑪𝟐 𝑶𝟒 -2
Rule 3. There is no need to write the subscripts if the subscripts are 1.
Peroxide 𝑶𝟒 -2
Rule 4. If the subscripts are the same, cancel the subscripts.
Rule: Name the first element in the formula (the one with a positive oxidation
number) followed by the stem name of the second element (the one with a
negative oxidation number) with an –ide ending.
Rule 5. Reduce the subscripts to lower ratio.

Stem of some common elements:

Rule 6. If the subscript of a radical (polyatomic ion) is greater than 1, it should be enclosed with • Oxygen – ox + -ide → oxide
parenthesis before writing the subscript. • Chlorine – chlor + -ide → chloride
• Bromine – brom + -ide → bromide
• Fluorine – fluor + -ide → fluoride
• Iodine – iod + -ide → iodide
• Nitrogen – nitr + -ide → nitride
Rule 7. In reducing the subscripts to lower terms, only those subscripts that resulted from the
• Hydrogen – hydr + -ide → hydride
crisscross are reduced. The subscripts from the formula of the radical are retained.
• Sulfur – sulf + -ide → sulfide
Rule 8. The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of elements and polyatomic ions in a chemical • Phosphorus – phosph + -ide → phosphide
compound is zero.
Examples:

NaCl – Sodium chloride

Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds
Na2S – Sodium sulfide
Four Categories of Inorganic Compounds:
AgBr – Silver bromide
• Binary Compounds (metal + metal and non-metal + non-metal)
Al2O3 – Aluminum oxide
• Bases
• Binary Acids, Ternary Acids (or oxyacid) CaH2 – Calcium hydride
• Salts of Oxygen Acids Compounds
Mg3N2 – Magnesium nitride

Li3P – Lithium phosphide

Binary Compounds
KI – Potassium iodide
A. Naming Binary Compounds Composed of Metal and Nonmetal
SrF2 – Strontium fluoride
A.1 Metals with Fixed Oxidation Number
Zn3P2 – Zinc phosphide
- The metals with fixed oxidation numbers are the IA and IIA metals plus Al, Zn, and
A.2 Metals with Variable Oxidation Numbers
Ag.
- Compound composed of a metal with variable oxidation number is read in two
different ways: classical method and stock system or the Roman numeral method.

Classical Method

Rule: Using the classical method, the element with a lower oxidation number
is read with the –ous ending while the one with a higher oxidation number is
read with –ic ending. The second element will end with –ide.

B. Naming Binary Compounds Composed of Two Nonmetals

- When naming binary compounds composed of two nonmetals, prefixes are often used to
indicate the number of atoms of each element present in the compound.

Prefix Number
Mono 1
Di 2
Tri 3
Tetra 4
Penta 5
Roman Numeral Method Hexa 6
Hepta 7
Rule: Using the Roman numeral method, the name of the metal is retained Octa 8
with the oxidation number written as Roman numeral beside its name. The Nona 9
Roman numeral is enclosed in parenthesis. There is no space between the Deca 10
name of the metal and the Roman numeral.

Rule: To name a binary nonmetal compound name each element in the order
they appear in the formula using the appropriate prefix to indicate the
number of atoms of the element in the compound. The second element uses
an –ide ending. The prefix mono– is generally omitted with the first element.
B. Naming Acids
Examples:
CO - Carbon monoxide
Fe(OH)2 – Ferrous hydroxide or Iron(II) hydroxide
Fe(OH)3 – Ferric hydroxide or Iron(III) hydroxide
NH4OH – Ammonium hydroxide
- An acid is a compound consisting of hydrogen combined with a nonmetallic
element or with a polyatomic ion that has a negative oxidation number.
- In the formula for an acid, hydrogen is always listed as the first element. (The only
exception to this is water, H2O.)

CO2 - Carbon dioxide B.1 Naming Binary Acids

- Binary acids consist of hydrogen combined with a nonmetal element.
PCl3 - Phosphorus trichloride (monoatomic).
PCl5 - Phosphorus pentachloride Binary acids are named by using the prefix hydro (for hydrogen) followed by the stem name
of the nonmetal element (the 2nd element in the formula) with an –ic ending followed by
NO - Nitrogen oxide the word acid.
NO2 - Nitrogen dioxide
Hydro + stem name of the nonmetal element + ic + Acid
N2O - Dinitrogen monoxide
Examples:
N2O3 - Dinitrogen trioxide
HCl – Hydrochloric Acid (Hydro + chlor + ic + Acid)
N2O5 - Dinitrogen pentoxide
HI – Hydroiodic Acid (Hydro + iod + ic + Acid)
CCl4 - Carbon tetrachloride
HBr – Hydrobromic Acid
Acids and Bases H2S – Hydrosulfuric Acid (sulfur is the stem name of sulfur in acid)
A. Naming Bases HF – Hydrofluoric Acid
- Bases are compounds which consist of a metal and the hydroxide ion (OH-).

Rule: To name a base, name the metal (apply the rules for fixed and variable
B.2 Naming of Ternary Acids (Oxyacids)
oxidation numbers for metals) followed by the word hydroxide.
- Ternary acids are oxygen-containing acids. It consists of three elements: hydrogen,
Examples: a nonmetal, and oxygen.
NaOH – Sodium hydroxide

Ba(OH)2 – Barium hydroxide

 Rule: Oxygen-containing acids are named by using the stem name of the non-
metal element (the middle element) with an –ous ending if the element is in
its lower oxidation state or and –ic ending if the element is in its higher
oxidation state, followed by the word acid.
-ate = -ic + Acid
-ite = -ous + Acid
B.3 Naming of Salts of Oxygen Acids
- These salts consist of a metal or ammonium polyatomic ion (NH +) combined with a
negative polyatomic ion which contains one or more atoms of oxygen.
Rule: To name these compounds, name the metal (apply the rules on fixed
and variable oxidation numbers for metals) followed by the name of the
polyatomic ion.

Examples: Examples:
1. HNO2 (look at the NO2, its name is Nitrite. Therefore, we will change the -ite into -ous) BaSO3 – barium sulfite
HNO2 = Nitrous Acid
BaSO4 – barium sulfate
2. HNO3 (NO3 is Nitrate, so we will change -ate into -ic.) FeCO3 – ferrous carbonate or Iron(II) carbonate
HNO3 = Nitric Acid
Fe(CO3)3 – ferric carbonate or Iron(III) carbonate
3. H2SO3 (SO3 is Sulfite, so -ite is changed to -ous)
NH4NO3 – ammonium nitrate
H2SO3 = Hydrosulfurous Acid
Sn3(PO4)2 – stannous phosphate or tin(II) phosphate
4. H2SO4 (SO4 is Sulfate, so -ate is converted to -ic)
KClO4 – potassium perchlorate
H2SO4 = Hydrosulfuric Acid
Mg3(PO3)2 – magnesium phosphite
NOTE: There is no molecular form of carbonic acid, H2CO3. An aqueous solution of carbon dioxide,
CO2, contains hydrogen carbonate ions, HCO -, and hydrogen ions, H+. KHSO4 – potassium bisulfate
• Sometimes an element may form more than two oxygen-containing acids. In these cases, B.4 Naming of Hydrates
additional prefixes hypo– and per – are used.
Examples: - Hydrates are solid ionic compounds containing or linked to water molecules.
HClO – hypochlorous acid Rule 1. The ionic compound (without the waters of hydration) is named first
HClO2 – chlorous acid by using the rules for naming binary compounds or salts.
HClO3 – chloric acid
HClO4 – perchloric acid Rule 2. Greek prefixes are attached to the word "hydrate" to indicate the
HBrO – hypobromous acid number of water molecules per formula unit for the compound.
HIO – hypoiodous acid Rule 3. When the chemical formula for a hydrated ionic compound is written,
HBrO3 – bromic acid the formula for the ionic compound is separated from the waters of hydration
HIO3 – iodic acid by a centered "dot". The dot indicates that the water is loosely bonded to the
HBrO4 – perbromic acid compound.
HIO4 – periodic acid
Example: The Octet Rule

Step 1. Ba(OH)2•8H2O = Ba(OH)2 is barium hydroxide. - All noble gases (except He) have eight valence electrons.
- An octet of electrons consists of full s and p subshells on an atom.
Step 2. 8H2O = there are 8 water molecules, therefore it is octahydrate.
- The octet rule works mainly for elements in the second period of the periodic table.
Ba(OH)2•8H2O = Barium Hydroxide octahydrate These elements have only 2s and 2p subshells, which can hold a total of eight
electrons.

CaSO4•2H2O – calcium sulfate dihydrate

Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are surrounded by
FeCl3•6H2O – iron(III) chloride hexahydrate eight valence electrons.

SnCl4•5H2O – Tin(IV) chloride pentahydrate

Ca(OH)2•8H2O – calcium hydroxide octahydrate Ionic Bonding

MgSO4•7H2O – magnesium sulfate heptahydrate - An ionic bond is the electrostatic force that holds ions together in an ionic bond.
- The elements most likely to form cations in an ionic compound are the alkali metals
and alkaline-earth metals.
MODULE 4. CHEMICAL BONDING - The elements most likely to form anions are the halogens and oxygen.
- In ionic bonding, there is a transfer of electrons.
Lewis Dot Symbols - It takes a metal + nonmetal to form an ionic bond.
- A simple way of showing the valence electrons of atoms.
- The Lewis symbol for an element consists of the chemical symbol for the element
plus a dot for each valence electron.
Covalent Bond Lewis Structures

- A bond in which two electrons are shared by two atoms. - Representation of covalent bonding in which shared electron pairs are shown
- Each electron in a shared pair is attracted to the nuclei of both atoms. either as lines or as pairs of dots between two atoms, and lone pairs are shown as
- Covalent bonding between many-electron atoms involves only the valence pairs of dots on individual atoms.
electrons. • Single Bond
- In covalent bond, electrons are shared. - two atoms are held together by one electron pair.
- It occurs between nonmetal + nonmetal. • Double Bond
- Covalent compounds are compounds that contain only covalent bonds. - two atoms share two pairs of electrons.
• Triple Bond
- two atoms share three pairs of electrons.
• Bond length
- the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms in a molecule.
- triple bonds are shorter than double bonds, which, in turn, are shorter than single
bonds.
- The shorter multiple bonds are also more stable than single bonds.
Lone pairs
Writing Lewis Structures
Electrons that are not involved in sharing.
STEP 1. Count the total number of valence electrons present.

• For polyatomic anions, add the number of negative charges to that total.
• For polyatomic cations, we subtract the number of positive charges from this total.

STEP 2. Write the skeletal structure of the compound, using chemical symbols and placing bonded
atoms next to one another.

• The least electronegative atom occupies the central position.

• Hydrogen and fluorine usually occupy the terminal (end) positions in the Lewis structure.
Bonding pairs STEP 3. Draw a single covalent bond between the central atom and each of the surrounding atoms.
Then, complete the octet.
Electrons that are involved in sharing.
• Electrons belonging to the central or surrounding atoms must be shown as lone pairs if they
are not involved in bonding.

STEP 4. After completing steps 1–3, if the central atom has fewer than eight electrons, try adding
double or triple bonds between the surrounding atoms and the central atom, using lone pairs from
the surrounding atoms to complete the octet of the central atom.
Example 1. Write the Lewis structure for nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) in which all three F atoms are STEP 4.
bonded to the N atom.

STEP 1. COUNT THE NUMBER OF VALENCE ELECTRONS

The outer-shell electron configurations of N and F are 2s2 2p3 and 2s2 2p5, respectively. Thus, there
are 5 + (3 x 7), or 26, valence electrons to account for in NF3.

STEP 2. DRAW THE SKELETAL STRUCTURE

Example 3. Write the Lewis structure for the nitrate ion (NO31-).

STEP 1.

The outer-shell electron configurations of N and O are 2s2 2p3 and 2s2 2p4, respectively, and the ion
STEP 3. DRAW BONDS AND COMPLETE THE OCTET
itself has one negative charge. Thus, the total number of electrons is 5 + (3 x 6) + 1, or 24.

STEP 2.

Example 2. Write the Lewis structure for nitric acid (HNO3) in which the three O atoms are bonded STEP 3.
to the central N atom and the ionizable H atom is bonded to one of the O atoms.

STEP 1.

There are 5 + (3 x 6) + 1, or 24, valence electrons to account for in HNO3.

STEP 4.
STEP 2.

STEP 3.
Electronegativity and Polarity Comparison of the Properties of Covalent and Ionic Compounds

• Electronegativity is a property of atoms that helps us distinguish a nonpolar covalent bond
from a polar covalent bond.
POLAR COVALENT
Unequal sharing of electrons due to the
difference in electronegativities.
Electronegativity Difference and Bond Type
COVALENT COMPOUNDS
• There are two types of attractive forces
NONPOLAR COVALENT in covalent compounds. The first type is
Equal sharing of electrons. the force that holds the atoms together
in a molecule. The second type of
attractive force operates between
molecules and is called an
intermolecular force.
• Covalent compounds are usually gases,
liquids, or low-melting solids.
• Most covalent compounds are
insoluble in water, or if they do
dissolve, their aqueous solutions
generally do not conduct electricity,
because the compounds are
nonelectrolytes.
IONIC COMPOUNDS
• Electrostatic forces hold the ions
together in an ionic compound.
• Ionic compounds are solids at room
temperature and have high melting
points.
• Many ionic compounds are soluble in
water, and the resulting aqueous
solutions conduct electricity, because
the compounds are strong electrolytes.

Formal Charges and Lewis Structure

Formal Charge

- The charge that an atom in a molecule would have if all atoms had the same
electronegativity.
- Used to determine the most plausible Lewis structure for a species with two or
more Lewis structures.

Formal Charge = Valence electron – (bonding + non-bonding electrons)

Exercise: Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent bond, or nonpolar covalent bond:

a. the bond in HCl

2.1 – 2.1 = 0.0 covalent non polar Example: Write the formal charges for the ozone molecule (O3)
b. the bond in KF STEP 1. Write its Lewis structure.
4.0 – 0.8 = 3.2 ionic
c. the C-C bond in H3CCH3
2.5 – 2.5 = 0.0 covalent non polar
STEP 2. Calculate the formal charges for each O atom. Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Formal Charge = Valence electron – (bonding + non-bonding electrons) • Incomplete octet

• Odd number of electrons
For the central O atom: 6 – (3+2) = 1+
• Expanded octet
For the end O atom in O = O: 6 – (2+4) = 0
Incomplete Octet
For the end O atom in O – O: 6 – (1+6) = 1-
- The number of electrons surrounding the central atom in a stable molecule is fewer
than eight.
- Elements in Group 3A tend to form compounds in which they are surrounded by
STEP 3. Show the formal charges by putting it in the Lewis structure (usually at the top of the atom) fewer than eight electrons. Beryllium, Boron, and Aluminum are the most common
examples of this.

1. For molecules, the sum of the charges must add up to zero because
molecules are electrically neutral species. (This rule applies, for example, to the
O3 molecule.)

2. For cations, the sum of formal charges must equal the positive charge.

3. For anions, the sum of formal charges must equal the negative charge.

Determining which Lewis structure is more plausible:

1. For molecules, a Lewis structure in which there are no formal charges is preferable to one
in which formal charges are present.
2. Lewis structures with large formal charges (12, 13, and/or 22, 23, and so on) are less
plausible than those with small formal charges.
3. Among Lewis structures having similar distributions of formal charges, the most plausible
structure is the one in which negative formal charges are placed on the more
electronegative atoms.
Odd – Electrons Molecules Additional Information:

- Odd-electron molecules are sometimes called radicals. 1. A resonance structure that obeys the octet rule is preferred over one that involves an
- Many radicals are highly reactive. The reason is that there is a tendency for the expanded octet but bears fewer formal charges.
unpaired electron to form a covalent bond with an unpaired electron on another 2. The extra electrons should be placed as lone pairs on the central atom.
molecule.
- Among them are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Lattice Energy of Ionic Compounds

Lattice Energy

- The energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid ionic compound
into its gaseous ions.

Expanded Octet

- Atoms of elements in and beyond the third period of the periodic table form some
compounds in which more than eight electrons surround the central atom.
Determination of Lattice Energy

- Lattice energy cannot be measured directly. However, the lattice energy of nearly
any ionic solid can be calculated rather accurately using a modified form of
Coulomb's law.

𝑘𝑄1𝑄2
𝐸𝑒𝑙 =
𝑑

𝐸
Where: 𝑒𝑙 is always a positive number, represents the amount of energy required to dissociate 1
mol of an ionic solid into the gaseous ions.

Q1 and Q2 are the charges on the ions.

K is constant 8.99 x 10 9
J-m/C2

d is the internuclear distance

The equation indicates that the attractive interaction between two oppositely charged ions
increases as the magnitude of their charges increase and as the distance between their centers
decreases. Thus, for a given arrangement of ions, the lattice energy increases as the charges on the
ions increase and as their radii decrease. The magnitude of lattice energies depends primarily on the
ionic charges because ionic radii do not vary over a very wide range.
MODULE 5. MOLECULAR GEOMETRY AND HYBRIDIZATION

Molecular Geometry

- The three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule.

- Affects the molecule’s physical and chemical properties, such as melting point,
boiling point, density, and the types of reactions it undergoes.

VSEPR (Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory)

- Molecules will adapt a shape that is lowest in energy by minimizing the valence shell
electron pair repulsion between adjacent/terminal atoms.

General Rules that Govern the VSEPR Model:

1. Double bonds and triple bonds can be treated like single bonds.
2. If a molecule has two or more resonance structures, we can apply the VSEPR model to any
one of them. Formal charges are usually not shown.

• Lone pairs cause larger repulsion, thus decreasing the expected bond
angles.
• Generally, LP vs. LP > LP vs. BP > BP vs. BP

Determining the Molecular Geometry Through VSEPR

STEP 1. Draw the Lewis structure of the given molecule/compound.

STEP 2. Count the bonding and non-bonding pairs. Don’t forget that double and triple bonds are
treated as single bond.

STEP 3. Look at the VSEPR Chart for the associated Molecular Geometry for the
molecule/compound.

ALWAYS REMEMBER:

1. In counting the bonding and non-bonding pairs, always look at the central atom.
2. Lone pairs (non-bonding domains) create a larger region of negative charge than
bonding domains and thus push the adjacently bonded atoms even farther away from
each other than normal.
VSEPR Charts

a. Central Atom with No Lone Pairs

- The electron arrangement is the same as its molecular geometry.

ABX

General Formula
Where:
A is the central atom
B is the terminal atom
X is an integer that corresponds to the number of terminal atoms.

Number of Bonding Domain(s) Electron Arrangement Molecular Geometry

2 Linear Linear
3 Trigonal Planar Trigonal Planar
4 Tetrahedral Tetrahedral
5 Trigonal Bipyramidal Trigonal Bipyramidal
6 Octahedral Octahedral

b. Central Atom with Lone Pairs

ABXEY
General Formula
Examples:
Where:
What is the molecular geometry of the following: AsH3 and OF2
A is the central atom
B is the terminal atom a. AsH3
X is an integer that corresponds to the number of terminal atoms. The Lewis structure of AsH3 is
E is the lone pair on the central atom
Y is the number of lone pairs on the central atom
Based on its Lewis structure, it has 3 bonding pairs and 1 lone pair. Looking at the VSEPR Chart, we STEP 3. Determine the geometry of the separated parts.
can imply that AsH3 has a tetrahedral electron arrangement and a trigonal pyramidal molecular
geometry.

b. OF2
The Lewis structure of OF2 is

Based on its Lewis structure, it has 2 bonding pairs and 2 lone pairs. Looking at the VSEPR Chart, we
can imply that OF2 has a tetrahedral electron arrangement and a bent molecular geometry. Fischer Projections

- A way to make your Lewis structures indicate their three-dimensional VSEPR shape on
Geometry of Molecules with More Than One Central Atom paper.

- In this case, we need to “cut” the molecule to determine its geometry. RULES:
1. Bonds in the plane of the paper are shown as lines.
For example, Methanol or CH3OH
2. Bonds projecting in front of the plane of the paper are shown as triangles or wedge.
STEP 1. Draw the Lewis Structure. 3. Bonds projecting behind the plane of the paper are shown as stacked line.

STEP 2. Separate the molecule into two parts.

Dipole Moments Molecular Bond Polarity Molecular Is there a
Geometry Polarity Dipole
- A quantitative measure of the polarity of a bond. Moment?
- Expressed in Debye units(D), named for Peter Debye. Linear Nonpolar None

Linear Polar Yes

Bent Polar Yes

The image above shows that dipole moment has a magnitude and direction (like vectors). Notice
the symbol: It represents the shift in electron density. It is pointing towards the Trigonal Nonpolar None
direction of Cl because Cl is more electronegative than H, thus pulling the electrons toward itself. Planar
The difference in electronegativity determines the polarity of the given molecule.

Polar Molecules Trigonal Polar Yes

Planar
- Has a dipole moment.
- Diatomic molecules containing atoms of different elements.

Nonpolar Molecules
Tetrahedral Nonpolar None
- Do not have dipole moments.
- Diatomic molecules containing atoms of the same element.

Keep in mind that the dipole moment of a molecule depends on both the
difference in electronegativities of the elements present and its geometry. A Tetrahedral Polar Yes
molecule can have polar bonds (if the bonded atoms have different
electronegativities), but it may not possess a dipole moment if it has a highly
symmetrical geometry.
Tips on Determining Whether a Molecule has a Dipole Moment: How to Determine How Many Sigma and Pi Bonds are there?

1. If it has the same terminal atoms, it is nonpolar.

2. If it has different terminal atoms, it is a polar molecule. Single Bond = 1 sigma bond
3. If it has a lone pair in the central atom, typically it is polar.
Double Bond = 1 sigma and 1 pi bond
4. All hydrocarbons are nonpolar. (Hydrocarbons contain C and H atoms only)
Triple Bond = 1 sigma and 2 pi bonds

Valence Bond Theory

- Emphasizes the overlapping of orbitals that leads to chemical bonding. Example: How many pi bonds and sigma bonds are there in the tetracyanoethylene molecule?
- In this theory, the bond between atoms is most stable when they reach the minimum
potential energy.
- It highlights how the potential energy between atoms relative to their distance affects the
stability of their bond.
1 sigma; 1 pi
Sigma and Pi Bonds
1 sigma; 2 pi 1 sigma; 2 pi
Sigma Bond

- Head-to-head overlap. 1 sigma 1 sigma

- Electron density concentrated between the nuclei of the bonding atoms.
1 sigma 1 sigma
Pi Bond

- Sideways overlap.
1 sigma; 2 pi 1 sigma; 2 pi
- Electron density concentrated above and below the plane of the nuclei of the bonding
atoms.

Therefore, in a tetracyanoethylene molecule there are 9 sigma bonds and 9 pi bonds.

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals By this, we can conclude that BeH2 is sp hybridized.

- The combination of two or more pure atomic orbitals (the s,p,d orbitals) to form a new
hybridized orbital (sp, sp2 , sp3 , sp3d, and sp3d2).
Hybridization in Molecules Containing Double and Triple Bonds
- The mixing of atomic orbitals in an atom (usually a central atom) to generate a set of hybrid
orbitals. This rule applies only to atoms of the second-period elements:
Hybrid Orbitals • If the central atom forms a double bond, it is sp2 hybridized.
- Atomic orbitals obtained when two or more nonequivalent orbitals of the same atom • if it forms two double bonds or a triple bond, it is sp hybridized.
combine in preparation for covalent bond formation.

Procedure for Hybridizing Atomic Orbitals To Summarize Hybridization:

STEP 1. Draw the Lewis structure of the given molecule. • The concept of hybridization is not applied to isolated atoms. It is a theoretical model used
Example: BeH2 only to explain covalent bonding.
• Hybridization is the mixing of at least two nonequivalent atomic orbitals, for example, s and
p orbitals. Therefore, a hybrid orbital is not a pure atomic orbital. Hybrid orbitals and pure
atomic orbitals have very different shapes.
• The number of hybrid orbitals generated is equal to the number of pure atomic orbitals
that participated in the hybridization process.
• Hybridization requires an input of energy; however, the system more than recovers this
energy during bond formation.
• Covalent bonds in polyatomic molecules and ions are formed by the overlap of hybrid
STEP 2. Predict the overall arrangement of the electron pairs (both bonding pairs and lone pairs)
orbitals, or of hybrid orbitals with unhybridized ones. Therefore, the hybridization bonding
using the VSEPR model.
scheme is still within the framework of valence bond theory; electrons in a molecule are
BeH2 has two bonding domains and 0 nonbonding domain, so therefore its electron assumed to occupy hybrid orbitals of the individual atoms.
arrangement is Linear.

STEP 3. Deduce the hybridization of the central atom by matching the arrangement of the electron
pairs with those of the hybrid orbitals shown in this table:
Electron Arrangement Hybridization of the Pure Atomic Orbitals Number of Hybrid
Central Atom of the Central Atom Orbitals
Linear sp s, p 2
Trigonal Planar sp2 s, p, p 3
Tetrahedral sp3 s, p, p, p 4
Trigonal Bipyramidal sp3d s, p, p, p, d 5
Octahedral sp3d2 s, p, p, p, d, d 6
MODULE 6. REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
Oxidation reaction – half-reaction that involves loss of electrons

Reduction reaction – half-reaction that involves gain of electrons

Chemical Equation
Reducing agent – the one being oxidized
- Describes a chemical reaction or change by indicating what substances are used and
produced using chemical symbols. Oxidizing agent – the one being reduced

Equation 1: Reactants → Products

Equation 2: Reactants ← Products Oxidation Number (Oxidation State)

Equation 3: Reactants ⇌ Products - Signifies the number of charges the atom would have in a molecule (or an ionic compound)
if electrons were transferred completely.

Rules to assign oxidation numbers:

Chemical Reactions
1. Free elements (unpaired) have zero oxidation number.
1. Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
2. All alkali metals have an oxidation number of +1 and all alkaline earth metals have an
2. Non-Redox Reactions
oxidation number of +2 in their compounds.
3. Ionic or Metathesis Reactions
3. Aluminum has an oxidation number of +3 in all its compounds.
4. Neutralization Reaction
4. The oxidation number of Oxygen in most compounds (for example, MgO and H2O) is -2, but
in Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and Peroxide ion (O22- ), it is -1.
5. The oxidation number of Hydrogen is +1, except when it is bonded to metals in binary
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
compounds. In these cases, its oxidation number is -1.
- Electron transfer reactions 6. Fluorine has an oxidation number of -1 in all its compounds.
7. Halogens have negative oxidation number but if combined with oxygen—for example in
oxoacids and oxyanions – they have positive oxidation numbers.
8. Oxidation numbers do not have to be integers. For example, the oxidation number of O in
𝟏
the superoxide ion, O2- is − 𝟐 .

Always Remember:

• In Oxidation Reaction, the oxidation state increases.

• In Reduction Reaction, the oxidation state decreases.
Example: In the REDOX equation below, distinguish the following: (a & b) atom that underwent STEP 3. Identify the elements that were oxidized and reduced based on the changes in the oxidation
oxidation and reduction processes (c) oxidizing agent (d) reducing agent (e) atom which lost number.
electrons (f) atom that gained electrons and (g) half-reactions. Show changes in oxidation numbers.
In the given reaction, the two elements that undergoes changes in oxidation numbers were
Ni(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Pb(s) + Ni(NO3)2(aq) Ni and Pb.

STEP 1. Assign the oxidation number for the following elements that are present. Elements ON as Reactants ON as Products
Ni 0 2+ Oxidized Reducing agent
Ni0 + Pb2+(NxO2-3)2→ Pb0 + Ni2+(NxO2-3)2 Pb 2+ 0 Reduced Oxidizing agent

Find the ON of N in Pb(NO3)2: Therefore, the answers are:

2 + 2x + 6(-2) = 0 a. Atom that underwent oxidation – Ni

-10 + 2x = 0 b. Atom that underwent reduction – Pb
2x = 10 c. Oxidizing agent – Pb
X=5 d. Reducing agent – Ni
e. Atom which lost electrons – Ni
Find the ON of N in Ni(NO3)2: f. Atom that gained electrons – Pb
g. Half – reactions:
2 + 2x + 6(-2) = 0
-10 + 2x = 0 Ni → Ni2+ + 2e
2x = 10 Pb2+ + 2e → Pb
X=5
Types of Redox Reactions
Therefore:
Type I. Direct Combination or Addition Reaction
Ni0 + Pb2+(N5+O2-3)2→ Pb0 + Ni2+(N5+O2-3)2
➢ Metal + Nonmetal
➢ Nonmetal + Oxygen

STEP 2. Observe the changes in the oxidation numbers of the following elements that are present. Type II. Decomposition Reactions

Elements ON as Reactants ON as Products ➢ Decomposition of Metallic Chlorates

Ni 0 2+ ➢ Decomposition of Oxides
Pb 2+ 0 ➢ Decomposition by electricity
N 5+ 5+
O 2- 2- Type III. Displacement or Replacement Reactions
 ➢ Replacement of Metals in Metallic Compounds by more Active Metals Subtype 2: Nonmetal + Oxygen → Nonmetal Oxide
➢ Replacement of Hydrogen in Acids by Active Metals
➢ Replacement of Hydrogen in Water by Metals
Examples of Nonmetal Oxides
➢ Replacement of Halogens
N2O
Type IV. Disproportionation Reaction
NO

N2O3

Direct Combination or Addition Reaction CO

- a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single product. CO2

H2O2
A + X → AX
P2O3

P2O5
Predicting the Products of Direct Combination Reaction SO2

Subtype 1: Metal + Nonmetal → Binary compound SO3

SiO2
Example: Write and balance the equation involved when magnesium is burned in air forming the
white solid magnesium oxide.

Examples:
STEP 1. Write the correct symbols and formulas of the reactants and product.
2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)
For the reactants: Mg + O2 C + O2(g) → CO2(g)

For the product: Utilize your knowledge about formula writing. In this case, Mg has a fixed oxidation
number of 2+ while O has 2-. We will just crisscross the oxidation numbers yielding to the compound
MgO. Therefore, the chemical equation for this reaction is: Decomposition Reactions

Mg + O2 → MgO - breakdown of a compound into two or more components.

STEP 2. Balance the equation. AX → A + X

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Predicting the Products of Decomposition Reactions Subtype 3: Decomposition by electricity

Subtype 1: Decomposition of Metallic Chlorates - This process is what is known as electrolysis.

Metallic Chlorate → Metallic Chloride + O2

Subtype 4: Decomposition of Carbonates
Example: Decomposition of Aluminum Chlorate
Carbonate → Oxide + CO2
STEP 1. Write the chemical formula.

Aluminum Chlorate = Al(ClO3)3

Examples of Carbonates:
STEP 2. Predict the products.
CaCO3
Al(ClO3)3 → AlCl3 + O2
Al2(CO3)3
STEP 3. Balance the equation.
FeCO3
2Al(ClO3)3 → 2AlCl3 + 9O2
MgCO3

Examples of Metallic Chlorates: CuCO3

NaClO3

KClO3
Displacement or Replacement Reactions
Mg(ClO3)2
- An ion (or atom) in a compound is replaced by an ion (or atom) of another element.
Basta metal + ClO3
- Takes place when the free element (uncombined element) is more active than the combined
element.
M + BX → MX + B
Subtype 2: Decomposition of Oxides

Oxide → Oxide + O2
Predicting the Products of Displacement Reactions

Subtype 1: Replacement of Metals in Metallic Compounds by More Active Metals

Example: Decomposition of Lead(IV) Oxide into Lead(II) Oxide and Oxygen gas.
M + BX → MX + B
Formula equation: PbO2 → PbO + O2

Balanced equation: 2PbO2 → 2PbO + O2 Less reactive

More reactive
Example: Replacement of Silver from Silver Sulfate by Aluminum STEP 3. If the metal in the compound is less reactive than the free element, we can conclude that
there is a reaction and formulate the products of the reaction.
STEP 1. Write the chemical formula of the reactants and products.
In this case, Aluminum is more reactive than Silver.
Silver Sulfate = Ag2SO4
Al + Ag2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + Ag
Aluminum = Al

Al + Ag2SO4
STEP 4. Balance the equation.

2Al + 3Ag2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 6Ag

STEP 2. Look at the Activity Series table.

Subtype 2: Replacement of Hydrogen in Acids by Active Metals

Metal + Acid → Compound of Metal + H2

Example: Replacement of Hydrogen in Hydrochloric Acid by Zinc

Formula equation: Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

Balance equation: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

Zn is more active than H, so Zn can replace H in HCl to produce ZnCl2.

Subtype 3: Replacement of Hydrogen in Water by Metals

Na / K / Ca + Cold Water → Metallic Hydroxides + Hydrogen gas

Mg / Al / Mn / Zn / Cr + Steam → Metallic Oxides + Hydrogen gas

Example:

Na + H2O(cold) → NaOH + H2

Mg + H2O(steam) → MgO + H2
Subtype 4: Replacement of Halogens Subtype 2: Nonmetal Oxide + Water → Oxyacid

- Any active nonmetal will be able to replace the less active nonmetal from its compound.
Example of Oxyacids:
Example: Replacement of Bromine from its compound Iron(III) Bromide by Chlorine.
H2SO3
Formula equation: Cl2 + FeBr3 → Br2 + FeCl3
H2SO4
Balanced equation: 3Cl2 + 2FeBr3 → 3Br2 + 2FeCl
HClO

HClO2
Disproportionation Reaction
HClO3
- An element in one oxidation state undergoes both oxidation and reduction.
HClO4
- The element undergoing disproportionation must have at least 3 different oxidation states.
HNO3
Example:
HNO2
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
H3PO4
Cl has 3 oxidation states = 0, 1- and 1+

Non-Redox Reaction Examples:

- Any reaction that doesn't have at least one atom that increases in oxidation number during SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
the reaction and at least one atom that decreases in oxidation number during the reaction.
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
Types of Non-Redox Reaction

Type I. Direct Combination or Addition Reaction

Type II. Decomposition Reaction Decomposition Reaction

Predicting the Products of Decomposition Reactions

Direct Combination or Addition Reaction
Subtype 1: Decomposition of Metallic Hydroxides
Predicting the Products of Direct Combination Reactions Metallic Hydroxide → Metallic Oxide + Water Vapor

Subtype 1: Metal Oxide + Water → Metal Hydroxide (base)

Example: Ca(OH)2 → CaO + H2O
Example: CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
Subtype 2: Decomposition of Acids Ex: H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Acid → Nonmetallic Oxide + Water 3. Formation of a gaseous molecular compound that escapes from the solution

Ex: 2HCl(aq) + Na2S(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2S(g)

Example: Decomposition of Sulfuric Acid

Formula Equation: H2SO4(aq) → SO3(g) + H2O(l) Solubility Table

Balanced Equation: H2SO4(aq) → SO3(g) + H2O(l)

Subtype 3: Decomposition of Metallic Carbonates

Metallic Carbonate → Metallic Oxide + Carbon Dioxide Gas

Example: Decomposition of Calcium Carbonate

Formula Equation: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

Balanced Equation: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

Ionic Reactions, Metathesis, or Double Decomposition

- This reaction is completed only if two soluble ionizing substances are added together
forming an insoluble substance called precipitate (↓), as gas, or a non-ionizing substance.

AX + BY → AY + BX

There are three different kinds of products that can cause this type of reaction to occur: Ionic Equation

1. Formation of an insoluble ionic compound: (Precipitate) - A chemical equation in which the electrolytes in aqueous solution are expressed as
dissociated ions.
*use the solubility table to check if it’s insoluble, if it is then it will leave a precipitate
ex. BaSO4(s) Four steps for writing ionic and net ionic equations:

Ex: BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq) Example: The reaction of Lead(II) Nitrate with Potassium Iodide

2. Formation of a molecular compound that remains in solution Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → PbI2 + 2KNO3
 1. Write a balanced molecular equation for the reaction, using the correct formulas for the Examples:
reactant and product ionic compounds. Refer to Solubility Table to decide which of the
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
products is insoluble and therefore will appear as a precipitate.
HCN(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCN(aq) + H2O(aq)
In this case, PbI2 is a halide ion that belongs to the insoluble exception; therefore, it is the
precipitate.

2. Write the ionic equation for the reaction. The compound that does not appear as the
precipitate should be shown as free ions.
Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2K+(aq)+ 2I-(aq)→ PbI2(s)+ 2K+(aq)+ 2NO3–(aq)
3. Identify and cancel the spectator ions on both sides of the equation. Write the net ionic
equation for the reaction.
Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2K+(aq)+ 2I-(aq)→ PbI2(s)+ 2K+(aq)+ 2NO3–(aq)
Additional Information:
• Dissociation - The process in which ions separate and become surrounded by water
molecules.
• Electrolyte – a substance whose aqueous solution contains ions and therefore
conducts electricity.
• Net Ionic Equation - shows only the species that actually take part in the reaction.
• In replacement and double displacement reactions, you can use the “foil method” if
applicable.

• Spectator Ions - The ions appearing on both sides of the equation that have not
undergone a change are crossed out and are not included in the net ionic equation. General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

• Solution - homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

• Aqueous solutions - the solute initially is a liquid or a solid and the solvent is water.
4. Check that the charges and number of atoms balance in the net ionic equation.
Electrolytic Properties
Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq)→ PbI2(s)
• Electrolyte - a substance that, when dissolved in water, results in a solution that can
conduct electricity.
Net Ionic Equation
• Nonelectrolyte - does not conduct electricity when dissolved in water.

In some cases, both of the product stays in(aq) form, so no chemical reaction happened.

Ex: NaCl(aq) + KNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + KCl(aq)

Neutralization Reactions (Acid – Base Reactions)

- a reaction between an acid and a base.

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS

1. Aqueous solutions are electrically conducting if the solutes are electrolytes. If the solutes
are nonelectrolytes, the solutions do not conduct electricity.
2. Four major categories of chemical reactions that take place in aqueous solution are ionic
reactions, acid-base reactions, and oxidation-reduction reactions and nonredox reactions.
3. From general rules about solubilities of ionic compounds, we can predict whether a
precipitate will form in a reaction.
4. The reaction of an acid and a base is called neutralization.
5. Oxidation numbers help us keep track of charge distribution and are assigned to all atoms in
a compound or ion according to specific rules. Oxidation can be defined as an increase in
oxidation number; reduction can be defined as a decrease in oxidation number.
6. Many redox reactions can be subclassified as combination, decomposition, combustion,
displacement, or disproportionation reactions.