Теор.

грам Сем 4
Вправа 4

1. incorrect
2. correct (Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. The is a system of systems, it has
various subclass divisions. )
3. correct ( Syntactic function of verbs in the sentence is that of the predicate, i.e. the function establishing
the connection between the situation (situational event) named in the utterance and reality, e.g., The work
is/was/will be/should be done.
The verb-predicate expresses the processual categorial features of predication, i.e. time, aspect, voice and
mood.)
4. incorrect ( бо ..few in number )
5. correct
in speech
6.incorrect
.
7. incorrect ( because they fall into actional and statal according to the Subject Process
Relations)--
8.incorrect
9. incorrect ( Stative verbs are verbs that describe a state or condition rather than an action or
process. They typically refer to something that is static or unchanging. )
7.
Analyze the morphological composition of the verbs. Classify the verbs as:
a) Simple Verbs.
b) Sound-Replacive Verbs.
c) Derived Verbs.
d) Complex Verbs.
e) Phrasal Verbs:.
To worry, to precipitate, to forbid, to proliferate (derived from the noun "proliferation" by adding the verb-
forming suffix "-ate."), to retire (prefix re- means back), to retell, to do away (away - adverb), to whitewash,
to give, to whiten, to highlight, to ascend, to cultivate,to hesitate, to overproduce, to be like smb. (smth.), to
apologize, to export, to engage, to enfold, to take care of, to bleed, to blackmail, to give in, to translate, to
harmonize, to proofread, to back up, to transport,to broadcast, to subscribe, to subordinate, to run away, to
underestimate.

Вправа 20
The categories of person and number must be considered in close connection with each other, since in
languages of the Indo-European family they are expressed "reflective". The nature of categories of
person and number is purely synthetic. The ending "-s" having four meanings to express simultaneously is
of course a simultaneously feature, standing rather by itself in the general structure of Modern English.
The categories of person and number are wholly neutralized with modal verbs, or, in plainer words, they
are left unexpressed. Modern English possesses another system of person conjugation – конджагейшн
characterizing elevated modes of speech (solemn addresses, sermons, poetry, etc.) and stamped with
flavour of archaism. It is natural that in Modern English the verb is most closely connected with its
subject, which may be left out only then the doer of the action is quite clear from the context. unexpressed

Вправа 21
Which of the statements, out of those given below, do you consider
A. The categories of person and number are different in principle from the other categories of the finite
verb, in so far as they do not convey inherently "verbal" semantics. - True

B. There is a distinction of persons in the plural number. - True

C. There is no distinction of numbers in the 1st and 2nd persons. - False, There is a distinction of numbers
in the 1st and 2nd persons. For instance, in English, "I" and "we" are 1st person pronouns, while "you" can
refer to either 2nd person singular or 2nd person plural.
D. The 3rd person singular is marked only in form "-s". - True
E. The archaic person conjugation has one extra feature in comparison with the common conjugation,
namely, a special inflexion for the 2nd person singular. - True
F. The distinction between the oppositional use of "shall"/"will" are strictly observed. - True

Вправа 30
A. It is the universal form of the continual consecutive change of phenomena. - time

B. It shows the differences between present, past and future, give a temporal characteristics to an event
from the point of view of its orientation in reference to the present moment. - absolutive

C. It does not characterize an event in terms of orientation towards the present. - non-absolutive

D. The process of receiving an absolutive time characterized by means of opposing the past tense to the
present tense. - primary time

E. The process of receiving a non-absolutive relative time characterized by means of opposing the forms of
the future tense to the forms of no uture marking. - prospective time
ВПРАВА 31
Time as the universal form of consecutive change of things should be appraised by
the individual in reference to the moment of his immediate perception of the outward
reality. This moment of immediate perception, or present moment(d), Which is
continually shifting in time, and the linguistic content of which is the moment of
speech(e), serves as the demarcation line between the past and the future. All the
lexical expressions of time, according as they refer or do not refer the denoted
points or periods of time directly or obliquely to this moment, are divided into non-
absolutive(g) or "absolutive" expressions of time, and "non-present-oriented" or
present-oriented(f) expressions of time. The preceding(h) time denotation shows
the differences between present, past and future (i.e., words like now, last week, in
 a couple of days). Such expressions of time give a temporal characteristic(a) to an
event from the point of view of its orientation in reference to the present moment.
The relative(b) expression of time correlates two or more events showing some of
them either as simultaneous(c) with the others, or following the others, or happening
at one and the same time with them.

Вправа 32
A. The immediate expression of grammatical time, or "tense" (Lat. tempus), is one of the typical functions of
the finite verb -файнайт.
B. The dialectical-materialist notion of time exposes it as the universal form of the continual consecutive
change of phenomena.

C. Time as the universal form of consecutive change of things should be appraised by the individual in
reference to the moment of his immediate perception of the outward reality.
D. This moment of immediate perception, or "present moment", which is continually shifting in time, and the
linguistic content of which is the "moment of speech", serves as the demarcation line between the past and
the future.

E. In Modern English, the grammatical expression of verbal time, i.e. tense, is effected in two correlated
stages: absolutive (primary) and relative (prospective).
F. At the first stage, the process receives an absolutive time characteristic by means of opposing the past
tense to the present tense.
G. The category of prospective time is expressed in combinations of the verbs shall and will opposing the
forms of the future tense to the forms of no future marking.

33.
Divide the following time expressions into two groups: a) lexical denotation of time, and b) grammatical
denotation of time.
Will go, last month, should invite,
had bought, in the past, during the time of the First World War,
some time later, would be writing, in a couple of days,
was reading, went, shall buy.

a) Lexical denotation of time refers to how time is expressed or referred to through specific words or
phrases in a language. This includes words or phrases that directly relate to time, such as "today,"
"tomorrow," "yesterday," "now," "soon," and "later." These lexical expressions provide a direct and explicit
indication of time. For example, "Monday" is a lexical expression denoting a specific day of the week.
b) Grammatical denotation of time, on the other hand, pertains to how time is indicated through the
structure and tense of sentences, primarily through verb forms. It involves the grammatical mechanisms
within a language that convey the timing of an action or event. Tenses like past, present, and future are
examples of grammatical denotation of time. For instance, in the sentence "She will go to the store," the
future tense "will go" grammatically denotes a future time reference.

Вправа 42

1. What aspective categories are distinguished in Modern English?

In Modern English, there are two aspective categories:

The category of development, marked by the "continuous" form (e.g., "to work" becomes "to
be working"), which focuses on actions in progress.
 The category of retrospective coordination, marked by the "perfect" form (e.g., "to arrive"
becomes "to have arrived"), which emphasizes completed actions with relevance to the
present.

These two categories, development and retrospective coordination, distinguish how actions
are realized regardless of their timing, beyond the basic temporal distinctions in the
language.

2. What is the marked component of the aspective category of development in Modern English?

The aspective category of development is a system of two-member opposemes works - is

working, i.e. the continuous forms of the verb to the non-continuous, or indefinite, forms of
the verb.

The marked member of the opposition is the continuous "be + Ving".

The categorial meaning of the continuous is "action in progress". The category of

development shows the character of the action,

i.e whether the action is taken in its progress, in its development ("continuous") or it is
simply stated, its nature being unspecified ("non-continuous").

3. What are the stages in the evolution of views in connection with the interpretation of the
continuous forms?

In the development of linguistic understanding regarding the continuous form in English, we

can identify three key stages:

The first stage, initiated by scholars like Jespersen and Sweet, viewed the continuous form as
indicating actions happening simultaneously with others. However, this interpretation posed
challenges when no other concurrent action was evident.

The second stage, proposed by Ivanova, introduced the idea of the continuous form carrying
both temporal and aspective meanings. This concept recognized "is writing" as a tense-
aspect form and "writes" as purely tense. It marked a significant advancement by
incorporating aspective meanings into English grammar.

The third stage, championed by linguists like Smirnitsky, Yartseva, and others, firmly
separated aspect and tense as distinct grammatical categories. Tense indicates when an action
occurs, while aspect relates to how the action unfolds or develops.

4. What groups of verbs are outside the category of development?

Regarding aspect, verbs can be categorized into two groups: those with aspect opposites and
those without. The latter share a common non-continuous aspect with oblique or potential
lexico-grammatical meaning. Verbs that do not have aspect opposites fall into several
categories:

Verbs representing diverse relations as actions (e.g., "belong," "contain," "consist,"

"possess," "resemble," "result," etc.).
 Certain link-verbs, particularly those related to "seeming" (e.g., "appear," "look," "prove,"
"seem," "turn out," etc.).

Verbs related to "physical perception" (e.g., "see," "hear," "feel," "smell," etc.), denoting
constant properties as actions.

Verbs related to "mental perceptions" (e.g., "believe," "dislike," "distrust," "hate," "hope,"
"know," "like," "trust," "understand," etc.), which are verbs with weak dynamic force.

"Point-action" verbs signifying instantaneous acts of very brief duration (e.g., "burst,"
"jump," "drop," etc.).

5. What is marked component of the aspective category of retrospective coordination (or

retrospect) in Modern English?

The category of retrospective coordination (or retrospect) is constituted by the opposition of

the perfect forms of the verb to the non-perfect, or imperfect forms.

The marked member of the opposition is the perfect "have+V-ed/3".

The functional meaning of the category has been interpreted in linguistic literature in four
different ways, each contributing to the evolution of the general theory of retrospective
coordination.

6. What are the stages in the evolution of views in connection with the interpretation of the
category of retrospective coordination?

The category of the perfect tense has been interpreted in linguistic literature in four main
ways, each contributing to the development of the theory of retrospective coordination:

The "tense view" sees the perfect as a tense form connected with specific time limits,
comparable to the categories of "present" and "past." It emphasizes its temporal nature and
underplays its aspectual function.

The "aspect view" considers the perfect as an aspectual form, akin to "common aspect" and
"continuous aspect." Different scholars define its aspect in various ways, such as "resultative
aspect" or "transmissive aspect," but this approach may underestimate its temporal aspects.

The "tense-aspect blend view," as proposed by Ivanova, recognizes the perfect as a form
with a dual temporal-aspective character, similar to the continuous aspect. However, it
doesn't fully reveal how the perfect's grammatical function distinguishes it from other forms.

The "time correlation view," introduced by Smirnitsky, suggests that the perfect form creates
its own category distinct from both "tense" and "aspect." It primarily expresses the idea of
time correlation in the present, past, or future, but it may somewhat neglect the aspectual
aspects of the perfect.

7. What accounts for various meanings that perfect forms may have?

Perfect forms in language may carry various meanings, but it's important to distinguish
between their role in the language system and their use in speech.
 In a categorial opposition, a word's meanings are neutralized, except for the specific one
related to a given category.

In speech, words aren't pitted against their opposites, and multiple grammatical, lexical, and
lexico-grammatical meanings combine with neighboring words, creating different effects
depending on the context.

B. A. Ilyish highlights factors affecting the nuances of perfect form meanings:

The inherent lexical meaning of the verb influences the perfect form's meaning, like
indicating a result or an ongoing process without change.

The tense category (present, past, or future perfect) also impacts how prominently the
meaning of a result is displayed.

The syntactic context, whether in a simple or complex sentence, leads to varying meanings
(perfect inclusive or perfect exclusive) depending on the situation or context.

8. What is the only invariable meaning of the category of retrospective coordination in Modern
English?

The category of retrospective coordination has one invariable- інверіабл meaning of

priority. What is strongly expressed in the temporal plane of the category is priority of
action, not any other relative time signification. The perfect, as different from the
continuous, does reflect a kind of timing, though in a purely relative way: the action
expressed by a perfect form precedes some moment in time either in present, past or future.
M. Y. Blokh considers it necessary to rename the category of aspect into the category of
retrospective coordination in order to stress its actual retrospective property.

43. Check if you can find the right word to insert.

There are two aspective categories in Modern English: the category of development with the
continious form as the marked component and the category of retrospective coordination
with the "perfect form as the marked component. As aspect of the verb is blended with
tense, the problem of their interpretation has become very important. The evolution of views
in connection with the differentiation of these categories has undergone several stages.

50. Answer the questions.

1. What does the grammatical category of voice express?
The grammatical category of voice shows the relation between the action and its subject indicating whether
the action is performed by the subject (the active voice, e.g.: I wrote a letter) or passes on to it (the passive
voice, A letter was written by me). The category of voice is the system of two-member opposemes: the
passive form ("be ... en"), which is the marked member of the opposition, and the active form, which is
unmarked (e.g., writes – is written, writing - is being written, has written - has been written, etc.).
Accordingly, there are two voices in English: the active and the passive. The active voice shows that the
action is performed by its subject, that the subject is the doer of the action (e.g.: I wrote a letter.). The
passive voice shows that the subject is acted upon; that it is the recipient of the action (e.g.: A letter was
written by me).
2. What kind of relation between the action and its subject is expressed by the active voice?
'Active voice' normally is comprised of a subject at the beginning of the sentence as the doer of the action
followed by either transitive or intransitive verb. In this case, if the verb is transitive, there is a direct object
used after it. If the verb is intransitive, we may have a complement at the end of the sentence but not a
direct object. Example: The man was standing next to my car./ I ate the birthday cake. The active voice
shows that the action is performed by its subject, that the subject is the doer of the action (e.g.: I wrote a
letter.)
3. What kind of relation between the action and its subject is expressed by the passive voice?
The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that experiences an action rather than
the person or object that performs the action. In other words, the most important thing or person becomes
the subject of the sentence. The house was built in 1654. (= we are interested in the house, not in who built
it.) The passive voice shows that the subject is acted upon; that it is the recipient of the action (e.g.: A letter
was written by me).
4. What are cases when the passive voice should be used?
As a rule, the passive construction is used when:
- there is no need to mention the agent of the action because
It is easily understood from the situation or context (e.g.: The ambulance arrived and she was taken to
hospital.);
-the agent of the action is self-evident (e.g.: The telegram had been delivered in time.);
- It happens to be any number of unidentified people (e.g.: In industry coal is now used much less than
before.);
- the agent of the action is not known or kept secret for a purpose (e.g.: At night his car was broken into and
a few things were stolen from it.).
5. What accounts for a much broader representation of the passive voice in the system of the English verb
than in the system of the Ukrainian verb?
The category of voice has a much broader representation in the system of the English verb than in the
system of the Ukrainian verb, since in English not only transitive (e.g.: Harris wrote a letter. - The letter was
written by Harris.), but also intransitive objective verbs (e.g.: Nobody lives in the house. The house is not
lived in.) including prepositional ones (e.g.: Parents take care of children. - Children are taken care of. The
dress has never been tried on. I won't be talked to like this.) can be used in the passive. Besides, verbs
taking not one, but two objects can make two passive constructions (e.g I sent him a letter. He was sent a
letter. The letter was sent to him.)
6. What distinction should be made between types of the passive constructions?
It seems practical to make distinction between:
a) direct or primary passive - the subject of the construction corresponds to the direct object of the verb
(e.g.: I wrote a letter. - A letter was written by me.); the direct passive is fairly common in sentence-patterns
with the anticipatory "it", e.g.: It was agreed that we should make such experiments.
b) indirect or secondary passive - the subject of the passive construction corresponds to the indirect object
(e.g.: I gave him the book. - He was given the book.);
c) tertiary or prepositional passive the subject of the - passive construction corresponds to the prepositional
object (e.g.: He was sent for and taken care of.). The prepositional passive is not used with verbs which
take two objects, direct and prepositional (e.g., to explain smth to smb, to point out, to announce, to
dedicate, to say, to suggest, to propose, etc.). They can have only a direct construction (e.g.: The difficulty
was explained to them. The mistake to the rule was pointed out to the man.).
7. What groups of verbs are distinguished according to their relation to the passive voice?
Thus, according to their relation to the passive voice, all the verbs can be divided into two large sets:
- the set of passivized verbs, i.e. those having voice opposites;
- the set of non-passivized verbs, i.e. those having no voice opposites.
8. What are the arguments put forward by some linguists against the inclusion of the reflexive voice, the
reciprocal voice, and the middle (neuter) voice to the voice system of Modern English?
Opinions differ as to the voice system of Modern English. Though most linguists recognize only two voices
in Modern English, the active voice and the passive voice, some linguists (Ilyish, Ivanova) speak also of
the:
- reflexive voice expressed with the help of the semantically weakened self-pronouns (e.g.: He cut himself
while shaving.);
- the reciprocal voice expressed with the help of each other, one another (e.g.: They smiled at each other.);
- the middle (neuter) voice (e.g.: The door opened. The numbers would not add. The words formed in his
head. The college was filling up.).
Treating the problem Ilyish points out that recognizing this voice in Modern English we should admit the
reflexive pronouns to be pure auxiliary verbs. Objective linguistic investigation requires that we should find
various syntactical contexts in which the group "the verb + reflexive pronoun" can appear. After analyzing
these syntactical contexts Ilyish comes to the conclusion that in a number of cases the reflexive pronoun
which follows the verb is not an auxiliary verb, e.g.: He hurt himself badly.
But the question remains open as to the other syntactical construction - He founds himself in a dark room.
Here the reflexive pronoun is a purely auxiliary verb. Thus, Ilyish holds the opinion that at present there
seems to be no convincing argument in favour of this or that conclusion, i.e. whether the reflexive voice
exists in Modern English or not. The situation is the same with reciprocal voice.

51. Complete the following sentences.

As a grammatical category, the category of d) voice shows the relations between the action and its f)
subject. There are two voices in English: the h) active and the passive. The category of voice has a much
e) broader representation in the system of the English verb than in the system of the Ukrainian verb,
since in English not only transitive but also a) intransitive objective verbs including b) prepositional ones
can be used in the passive. According to their relation to the passive voice, all the verbs can be divided into
two large sets: the set of i) passivized verbs, i.e. those having voice opposites, and the set of non-
passivized verbs.

Task 52:
Find the name to which the following might be a definition.
A. The functioning of the voice forms in other than the passive or active meanings. b) “medial” voices
B. The form of the verb shows the relation between the action and its subject. c) the category of voice
C. The form of the verb shows that the action is performed by its subject. d) the active voice
D. The form of the verb shows that the subject is acted upon, that it is the recipient of the action. a) the
passive voice
E. The subject of the passive construction generally corresponds to the direct object of the verb. e) primary
passive
F. The subject of the passive construction corresponds to the prepositional object. f) prepositional passive

Task 53:
1. The grammatical category of voice shows the relation between the action and its subject.
2. The Active Voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject of sentence is the agent of
the action expressed by the predicate verb, that it acts.
3. The Passive Voice serves to show that the person or thing denoted by the complement of the
sentence is not the agent of the action expressed by the predicate verb but is the object of this
action.
4. The interrogative form is built up by placing the first auxiliary verb before the subject of the
sentence.
5. The negative form of the passive construction is built up by placing the particle “not” after the first
auxiliary.
6. As logical stress is laid on two different parts of the sentence in the active and in the passive, the
two constructions cannot be regarded as interchangeable.