101 CHAPTER (12) Solutions

CHEMY (101) First Semester 2019/2020 12/3/2019
General Chemistry
(Chemy 101)
1st Semester 2019/2020
CHAPTER (12): Solutions and Their
Physical Properties
Dr. Ahmed Abd El-Fattah
Chemistry Department, College of Science,
University of Bahrain
E-mail: a_fattaho@yahoo.com
Prentice Hall © 2005 General Chemistry 4th edition, Hill, Petrucci, McCreary, Perry Chapter Twelve
Contents
 Types of Solutions: Some Terminology
 Solution Concentration
 Principles of Solubility
 Solubilities of Gases
 Colligative Properties
1. Vapor Pressure of Solutions
2. Osmotic Pressure
3. Freezing-Point Depression
4. Boiling-Point Elevation
 Solutions of Electrolytes
Prentice Hall © 2005

Chapter (12) Solutions and Their Physical
General Chemistry Properties
4th edition, Hill, Petrucci, McCreary, Perry Dr/ A. Abd El-Fattah
Chapter Twelve
Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 1

3
Solutions: Some Terminology
 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure

substances that combine to form a single phase.
 A solution consists of a solute (e.g. NaCl or sugar or NH3)
dissolved in a solvent (e.g. water or benzene).
 Solvent is the substance present in the larger amount
 Solute is the substance present in the smaller amount
 A Concentrated Solution has a relatively large quantity of
dissolved solute(s).
 A diluted Solution has only a small quantity of dissolved
solute(s).
Examples: Pancake syrup is a concentrated solution,
whereas a sweetened cup of coffee is much more dilute.
Chapter Twelve
Some Common Types of Solutions

Solute Solvent Solution Example
Phase
Gas Liquid Liquid Club Soda (CO2 in H2O)
Liquid Liquid Liquid Vinegar ( acetic acid in H2O)
Solid Liquid Liquid Saline solution (NaCl in H2O
Solid Solid Solid Yellow braze (Zn in Cu)

Chapter Twelve

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An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in water,
gives ions, results in a solution that can conduct electricity.
Example: strong acids and bases and salts (NaCl, HCl, NaOH)
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in water,
does not give ions, results in a solution that does not conduct
electricity. Example: sugar, methanol
nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

Prentice Hall © 2005 4.1
Chapter Twelve
Some Solubility Terms

A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of a solute
that will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the solvent

has the capacity to dissolve at a specific temperature.
A supersaturated solution contains more solute than is present

in a saturated solution at a specific temperature.
Crystallization is the process in which dissolved solute comes

out of solution and forms crystals.

Chapter Twelve

A Supersaturated Solution
Solute immediately … until all of the
begins to crystallize … excess solute has
A single “seed precipitated.
crystal” of
solute is added.
• Supersaturated
 Solvent holds more solute than is normally possible
at that temperature.
Chapter Twelve
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Solution Concentration Units
 The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute
present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
The concentration of a solution is expressed as:
Molarity (M)
Molality (m)
% mass or (m/m) %
Part per million (ppm)
Part per billion (ppb)
Mole fraction (x)
Chapter Twelve

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Molarity (M)
The number of moles of solute per liter of
solution (mole/L)
moles of solute
M =
volume of solution (L)
mass of solute (g)

M =
MM X Volume of solution(L)

Chapter Twelve
10
Molality (m)
The number of moles of solute per kilogram of
solvent. Its unit is mole/Kg
moles of solute
m =
mass of solvent (kg)
mass of solution = mass of solvent + mass of solute
mass of solution (g)

Solution density (d) d =
volume of solution (mL)
Chapter Twelve

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Example:
What is the molality of a solution prepared by adding 6 g
of glucose to 112 g of water? [MM (glucose) = 180.16
g/mol]
Mass (g) 6
n (glucose) = = = 0.0333 moles
MM 180.16
mass of solvent (water) in kg = 112 g/1000 = 0.112 kg
moles of solute 0.0333 moles

m = = = 0.297 m
mass of solvent (kg) 0.112 kg

Chapter Twelve
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Mass Percent
mass of solute x 100%
mass % =
mass of solution
mass of solute
= x 100%
mass of solute + mass of solvent
 37 mass % HCl means 37 g of HCl is present in 100 g of the

solution.
 It is prepared by dissolving 37 g of HCl + 63 g of water.

Chapter Twelve

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Example:
What is the mass% of NaCl in the solution prepared by
dissolving 24 g of NaCl in 152 g of water?
mass of solute
mass % = x 100%
mass of solute + mass of solvent
24 g
mass % (NaCl) = x 100%
24 g + 152 g
= 14 %

Chapter Twelve
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Parts per million (ppm)
The number of particles of solute per one million particles
of solution.
ppm = mass of solute x 106
mass of solution
Very low solute concentrations are expressed as ppm
For any solution 1 ppm = mg/kg = µg/g

 As the density of water is 1
For aqueous solution (water)
1 ppm = mg/L = µg/mL

Chapter Twelve

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Example:
What is the ppm of Na + ions contained in a solution
prepared by dissolving 2 mg Na + ions and 6 g of glucose in
112 g of water?
mass of solution = mass water + mass glucose + mass Na+
mass of solution = 112 g + 6 g + (2 X 10-3) g = 118 g
2 X 10-3
ppm = mass of solute x 106 = x 106
mass of solution 118
= 17 ppm
Chapter
Prentice Hall ©(12)
2005Solutions andGeneral
Their Physical
Chemistry Properties
4th edition, Hill, Petrucci, McCreary, Perry Dr/ A. AbdChapter
El-Fattah
Twelve
16
Parts per billion (ppb)
The number of particles of solute per one billion particles
of solution.
ppb = mass of solute x 109
mass of solution
For aqueous solution (water)
1 ppb = µg/L

Chapter Twelve

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Example:
Find the concentration in ppb of a solution in which
9.6 x 10-6 g of NaCl has been dissolved making a
solution with a volume of 2.0 L.
-6
ppb = mass of solute x 109 = 9.6 X 10 x 10
9
mass of solution 2000
= 4.8 ppb
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Mole Fraction (X)
moles of component A per moles of all components.
moles of A (nA)
XA =
sum of moles of all components (nA+ nB + nC +….)
 The sum of mole fractions of all components is one

XA + XB + XC + …….. = 1
Mole % of A = XA . 100%
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Example: 19
What is the mole fraction and mole % of hydrogen

peroxide (H2O2) in a 30 % by mass aqueous solution?
[MM (H2O) = 18 g/mol, MM (H2O2) = 34 g/mol]
30 mass % H2O2 means Mass H2O2= 30 g Mass H2O = 70 g

70 g 30 g
n (H2O) = = 3.88 mol n (H2O2)= = 0.882 mol
18 34
ntot = nH 2O 2 + nH 2O
= 0.882 mol + 3.88 mol = 4.76 mol
nH 2O 2 0.882 mol
XH 2O 2 = =
ntot 4.76 mol
= 0.185
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Conversions Between Concentration Units
• Conversions are straightforward when the exact

amount of solution is decided
– Depend on the unit of concentration initially used
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Convert Molarity (M) to Molality (m)
Example:
What is the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol (C2H5OH) in
1 L solution whose density is 0.927 g/mL? [MM
(C2H5OH) = 46.07 g/mol]
moles of solute Mass (g) mass
M = = 5.86 =
liters of solution MM X V (L) 46.07 X 1
Mass = 270 g ethanol
Mass (g) mass
d = 0.927 = Mass = 927 g solution
V (mL) 1000 mL
mass of solvent = mass of solution – mass of solute
= 927 g – 270 g = 657 g = 0.657 kg
moles of solute 5.86 moles C2H5OH

m = = = 8.92 m
mass of solvent (kg) 0.657 kg solvent
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Convert % mass to Molarity (M)
Use this relation
d X 1000 % mass
M= X
MM 100
Example:
What is the Molarity of a 95% acetic acid solution?
(density = 1.049 g/mL, MM = 60.05 g/mol)
1.049 X 1000 95
M = X
60.05 100
M = 16.6 mole/L
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Convert % mass to Molality (m)
Use this relation
% mass 1000
m = X
MM (100 ‒ %)
Example:
What is the Molality of a 37.7% HClsolution? (MM =
36.46 g/mol)
37.7 1000
m = X
36.47 (100 ‒ 37.7)
m = 16.6 mole/kg
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Convert ppm to Molarity (M)
Use this relation
ppm
M= X 10‒3
MM
Example:
What is the Molarity of 40 ppm NaOH solution?
(MM = 40 g/mol)
40
M = X 10-3
40
M = 0.001 mole/L
Chapter (10) Solutions andGeneral
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Convert Mole Fraction (XA) to Molality (m)
XA . 103
Use this relation m =
(1 – XA) . MMsolvent
A = component in solution (solute)

Solvent = Water , MMsolvent = 18
Example:
The mole fraction of an aqueous solution of glucose
(C6H1206) is 0.15. What is the molality of glucose in
the solution? (MM = 40 g/mol)
0.15 x 103
m = m = 9.8 mole/Kg
(1 – 0.15) x 18
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Convert Mole Fraction (XA) to Molarity (M)
XA . d . 103
Use this relation M=
XA. MMA+ (1 – XA) . MMsolvent
A = component in solution (solute)

MMA = molar mass of solute A
Solvent = Water , MMsolvent = 18
Example:
The mole fraction of an aqueous solution of Na2S04 is
0.14. What is the molarity of Na2S04 in the solution?
[d = 2.66 g/mL, MM(Na2S04) = 142.04 g/mol]
M = 0.14 x 2.66 x 103 = 13.5 mole/L

(0.14 x 142.04) + (1 – 0.14) x 18
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Principles of Solubility
 The interaction between solute and solvent molecules is
known as Solvation or Dissolution or solubility.
 When water is the solvent it is also known as Hydration
and the resulting solution is called aqueous solution.
☺ In most solids, solubility increases

with an increase in temperature
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Solubility of Compounds
 The general rule is “Like dissolves Like”.

 Ionic and polar solutes are soluble in polar solvents
 Non-polar solutes are soluble in non-polar solvents
 Examples:
1. Water (polar) and methanol (polar) are soluble or

miscible.
2. Oil (non-polar) and benzene (non-polar) are soluble or
miscible.
3. Water (polar) and oil or petroleum or hydrocarbons
(non-polar) are not soluble or immiscible.
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The Solubilities of Gases
(1) Pressure and Solubility of Gases

An increase in pressure at a set temperature results
in the increased solubility of a gas.
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Henry’s Law
 At a constant temperature, the solubility (S) or concentration
(C) of a gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportional to the
pressure of the gas (Pgas) in equilibrium with the solution.
Sgas or Cgas = k Pgas Pgas = xgas·Ptotal
 Pgas is the partial pressure of the gas over the solution

 Cgas is the concentration of the gas in solution
 k is a constant of the gas liquid system

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(2) Temperature and Solubility of Gases
 Solubility of gases decreases as the
temperature increases.
 So, many fish can survive in cold water.

 There is not enough dissolved oxygen Dissolved oxygen is
in warm water to sustain them. released as water is
heated.
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Example:
The solubility of pure nitrogen in blood at body
temperature, 37°C, and one atmosphere is 6.2 × 10-4 M. If
a diver breathes air ( XN2 = 0.78 ) at a depth where the total
pressure is 2.5 atm, calculate the concentration of
nitrogen in his blood.
Answer
1. K can be found using Henry’s law and the solubility for pure N2
at 1.00 atm
CN 2 = kPN 2
CN 2 6.2  10 –4 M
k= =
PN 2 1.00 atm
= 6.2  10 M/atm
–4
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2. The value of PN2 can be found when Ptot is 2.5 atm using the
relationship between mol fraction and partial pressure
PN 2 = XN2 Ptot
PN 2 = XN 2 Ptot = (0.78)(2.5 atm)
= 2.0 atm
3. Substitution in Henry’s law to find new CN 2 at the higher
pressure
CN 2 = kPN 2
M
CN2 = 6.2×10–4 × 2.0 atm
atm
= 1.2×10–3 M
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Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolytes
 Colligative properties of a solution depend only on the

number of solute particles in solution, and not on the
nature of the solute particles.
 Will examine four colligative properties of solutions:

– Vapor pressure lowering
– Freezing point depression
– Boiling point elevation
– Osmotic pressure
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Vapor Pressure Lowering
 The vapor pressure of solvent above a solution is
lowered as compared to the pure solvent state.
 In other words, the vapor pressure of a solution is less than
that of the pure solvent.
Raoult’s Law Psolution = Xsolvent · P°solvent

P(solution) = vapor pressure of solution
P°(solvent) = vapor pressure of pure solvent
X(solvent) = mole fraction of pure solvent
 If the solution contains only one solute
X1 = 1 – X2 P 0 - P1 = DP = X2 P 0
X2 = mole fraction of the solute
Pressure unit 1 atm = 760 mm Hg (torr)
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Example 37
An aqueous solution contains 0.42 mole fraction of ,

Sugar,. Calculate the vapor pressure of the solution
at 25°C. The vapor pressure of pure water at 25°C 5
23.76 mm Hg).
 Mole fraction of solvent (water)

X (sugar) +X (H2O) =1
X (H2O) =1–X (sugar) = 1 – 0.42 = 0.58
 Pressure of solution
Psolution = xsolv · P°solv

= 0.58 x 23.76 = 18.8 mmHg
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Example 38
A solution contains 82 g of glucose, C6H12O6, in 322

g of water. Calculate the vapor pressure of the
solution at 25°C. Vapor pressure of pure water at
25°C 5 23.76 mm Hg).
 Moles solute ngloucose = 82/180 = 0.455 mol
 Moles solvent nH2O = 322/18 = 17.9 mol
 Mole fraction of solvent
nH 2 O 17.9 mol
X H2 O = = = 0.975
nH 2 O  n glucose (17.9 + 0.455) mol
 Pressure of solution
Psolution = xsolv · P°solv

= 0.975 x 23.76 = 23.17 mmHg
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Freezing Point Depression
 The freezing point of the solvent in solution is
depressed as compared to the pure solvent state.
 In other words, the freezing point of a solution is lower
than that of the pure solvent.
DTf = T°f(solvent) – Tf(solution)

= Kf × m
ΔTf = freezing point depression
T°f(solvent) = freezing point of pure solvent
Tf(solution) = freezing point of solution
Kf = constant
m = molality of the solution
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Boiling Point Elevation

 The boiling point of the solvent in solution is elevated as
compared to the pure solvent state.
 In other words, the boiling point of a solution is higher
than that of the pure solvent.
DTb = Tb(solution) – T°b(solvent)

= Kb × m
ΔTb = boiling point elevation
T°b(solvent) = boiling point of pure solvent
Tb(solution) = boiling point of solution
Kb = constant
m = molality of the solution
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Freezing Point Depression and
Boiling Point Elevation
DTf = Kf × m DTb = Kb × m

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Example
What are the boiling point and freezing point of a solution
prepared by dissolving 2.4 g of biphenyl (MM = 154) in 75
g of benzene? (T°b = 80.1 °C, T°f = 5.5 °C , Kb = 2.53 °C/m ,
Kf = 5.12 °C/m).
Solvent = benzene; Solute = biphenyl n = 2.4/154 = 0.016
moles of solute 0.016
m = = = 0.208
mass of solvent (kg) 75 x 10-3
ΔTb = m kb = 0.208 x 2.53 = 0.526 °C
ΔTb = Tb – T°b Tb = ΔTb + T°b
Tb = 80.1 + 0.526 = 80.6 °C
ΔTf = m kf = 0.208 x 5.12 = 1.06 °C
ΔTf = T°f – Tf Tf = T°f – ΔTf
Tf = 5.5 – 1.06 = 4.4 °C
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Example
A solution prepared by dissolving ethylene glycol
HO(CH2)2OH in water. The boiling point of this solution is 103
°C .What is the freezing point of the solution.
[T°f = 0 °C, Kf = 1.86 °C/m, T°b= 100 °C, Kb= 0.52 °C/m].
ΔTb = Tb – T°b = 103 – 100 = 3

ΔTb = m kb m = ΔTb / kb = 3/0.52 = 5.7
ΔTf = m kf = 5.7 x 1.86 = 10.6 °C
ΔTf = T°f – Tf
Tf = T°f – ΔTf
Tf = 0 – 10.6 = – 10.6 °C
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Example
What is the freezing point of a solution containing 50 mL of
ethylene glycol (d = 1.12 g/mL) in 50 g of water? The molar
mass of ethylene glycol is 62.01 g and the density of
solution is 1.12 g/mL) . [T°f = 0 °C, Kf = 1.86 °C/m].
d = mass/V(mL) mass = d x V = 1.12 x 50 = 56 g

n = 56/62.01 = 0.9
moles of solute 0.9
m = = = 18 m
mass of solvent (kg) 50 x 10-3
ΔTf = m kf = 18 x 1.86 = 33.7 °C
ΔTf = T°f – Tf Tf = T°f – ΔTf
Tf = 0 – 33.7 = – 33.7 °C
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Osmotic Pressure
 Osmosis is the flow of solvent molecules through a porous
membrane from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one.
 A semipermeable membrane allows the flow of solvent
molecules but blocks the passage of solute molecules.
 Osmotic pressure (p) is the pressure required to stop osmosis.

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Osmotic Pressure (p)
Van’t Hoff Equation
p = (n/V)RT = M RT
p = osmotic pressure
V= volume of solution in liter
n= number of moles
R = gas constant (0.0821 L.atm/mol.K)
M= molarity of the solution
T = temperature (K)

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Example
Calculate the osmotic pressure at 15 °C of a solution
prepared by dissolving 50 g of sugar (MM = 342.3 g/mol),
in enough water to form one liter of solution.
(R = 0.0821 L · atm/mol · K)
n = 50/342.3 = 0.146 mol
M = n/V(L) = 0.416/1 = 0.416
Π = MRT = 0.416 x 0.0821 x (273 + 15) = 3.45 atm

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Example 49
A solution made up of 1 g of an unknown solute and 275 mL of

water has an osmotic pressure of 662.72 mmHg at 25 °C. What
is the molar mass of the unknown solute?
(R = 0.0821 L.atm/mol.K, 1 atm = 760 mm Hg)
Π = 666.72/760 = 0.872 atm, T (K) = (273 + 7) = 300 K
0.872
M= Π / RT = = 0.04 mol/L
0.0821 x 300
M = n / V(L) V = 275 mL = 0.275 L
n = M x V(L) = 0.04 x 0.275 = 0.011 mol
n = mass (solute) / molar mass (MM)
MM = mass / n = 1 / 0.011 = 91 g/mol
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Colligative Properties of Electrolytes

 Electrolytes differ from nonelectrolytes in dissociation
in process.
 Dissolving one mole of glucose (nonelectrolyte) in water
results in one mole of solute molecules
1 mol sugar solution 1 mol sugar molecules
 On the other hand, dissolving one mole of NaCl (electrolyte)

in water results in 2 mole of ions
1 mol NaCl solution 1 mol Na+ ions + 1 mol Cl- ions
1mol NaCl solution 2 mol ions in solution

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 Van’t Hoff factor (i):
Is the number of moles of ions in solution per mole of
solute .
 For sugar and other nonelectrolyte i=1

 For electrolyte i should be
NaCl 2
MgSO4 2
CaCl2 3
Cr(NO3 )3 4
FeCl3 4
Fe2(SO4)3 5
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 For electrolytes, we calculate DTb, DTf and p

by multiplying i in the rules
0
Vapor-pressure Lowering DP = i X2 P
Boiling-Point Elevation DTb = i Kb m
Freezing-Point Depression DTf = i Kf m
Osmotic Pressure (p) p = i MRT

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Example
calculate the freezing points of 0.2 m aqueous
solutions of KNO3 and Cr(NO3)3
KNO3 (s)  K + (aq) + NO3 – (aq)

• KNO3
2 ions: 1K +and NO3 – ; i = 2
ΔT = ik f m = 2(1.86°C/m)(0.20 m) = 0.74°C
Tf = Tf ° – ΔT = 0°C –0.74°C= – 0.74°C
Cr(NO3 )3 (s)  Cr3 +(aq)+ 3NO3 – (aq)
• Cr(NO3)3
4 ions: 1 Cr 3+ and 3 NO3 – ; i = 4
ΔT= ik f m = 4(1.86°C/m)(0.20 m) = 1.5°C
Tf = Tf °– ΔT = 0°C –1.5°C = –1.5°C
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Example
Calculate the osmotic pressure at 20 °C of a solution
prepared by dissolving 65 g of Na2SO4(MM = 142.04 g/mol),
in enough water to form 500 mL of solution.
(R = 0.0821 L · atm/mol · K)
n = 65/142.04 = 0.46 mol

M = n / V(L) = 0.46 / 0.5 = 0.9
For Na2SO4 2 Na+ and 1 SO4 2- i=3
Π = iMRT = 3 x 0.9 x 0.0821 x 293 = 65 atm

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Prentice Hall © 2005 General Chemistry 4th edition, Hill, Petrucci, McCreary, Perry Chapter Twelve

101 CHAPTER (12) Solutions

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101 CHAPTER (12) Solutions

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CHEMY (101) First Semester 2019/2020 12/3/2019

Prentice Hall © 2005

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 1

 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure

Solutions: Some Terminology

Some Common Types of Solutions

Gas Liquid Liquid Club Soda (CO2 in H2O)

Liquid Liquid Liquid Vinegar ( acetic acid in H2O)

Solid Liquid Liquid Saline solution (NaCl in H2O

Solid Solid Solid Yellow braze (Zn in Cu)

Prentice Hall © 2005

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 2

nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

Some Solubility Terms

An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the solvent

A supersaturated solution contains more solute than is present

Crystallization is the process in which dissolved solute comes

Prentice Hall © 2005

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 3

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 4

mass of solute (g)

Prentice Hall © 2005

mass of solution = mass of solvent + mass of solute

mass of solution (g)

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 5

mass of solvent (water) in kg = 112 g/1000 = 0.112 kg

moles of solute 0.0333 moles

Prentice Hall © 2005

 37 mass % HCl means 37 g of HCl is present in 100 g of the

Prentice Hall © 2005

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 6

Prentice Hall © 2005

For any solution 1 ppm = mg/kg = µg/g

Prentice Hall © 2005

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 7

mass of solution = mass water + mass glucose + mass Na+

mass of solution = 112 g + 6 g + (2 X 10-3) g = 118 g

For aqueous solution (water)

Prentice Hall © 2005

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 8

moles of component A per moles of all components.

 The sum of mole fractions of all components is one

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 9

What is the mole fraction and mole % of hydrogen

30 mass % H2O2 means Mass H2O2= 30 g Mass H2O = 70 g

• Conversions are straightforward when the exact

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 10

moles of solute 5.86 moles C2H5OH

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 11

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 12

A = component in solution (solute)

A = component in solution (solute)

M = 0.14 x 2.66 x 103 = 13.5 mole/L

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 13

☺ In most solids, solubility increases

 The general rule is “Like dissolves Like”.

1. Water (polar) and methanol (polar) are soluble or

Good Luck. Dr/ Ahmed Abe El-Fattah 14

(1) Pressure and Solubility of Gases

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Sgas or Cgas = k Pgas Pgas = xgas·Ptotal

 Pgas is the partial pressure of the gas over the solution

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