NDT PQC Process & Discontinuities

Inspections performed using methods and Inspections performed using methods and
techniques that don’t damage or harm the part or area being evaluated.
Several methods available: RT, UT, ET, PT, MT, VT, IR, AE etc
CERTIFICATION – QUALIFICATION
- Personnel is the topic, not NDT procedures
NDT, NDE, NDI – ALL THE SAME

NEED FOR NDT
• Liability - Kewajiban
• Compliance - Pemenuhan
• Quality control – Pengendalian Mutu
• Product reliability – Keandalan
• Increase in profitability - Keuntungan
REGULATIONS / STANDARDS
• Governing agencies outside USA

• Manufacturer’s requirements
• MIL-STD’s, ASTM, etc
• Industry requirements
QUALIFICATIONS / CERTIFICATIONS
• Company NDT program or outside

agency program.
• Personnel certification program ASNT-SNT-
TC-1A, NAS-410, ATA-105, etc.
• Training and OJT (experience necessary)
MANY PROGRAMS
• Since there are a several NDT certification programs, and a
global environment exists, it is important to be aware of the
changes or variations that may be encountered. Currently there
are pending programs and requirements that may affect how
things are done in the NDT community – regardless of the sector
of involvement.
• It appears that much effort is being placed on a more valid
means of NDT personnel certification. ISO currently implements a
certification requirement, not simply in-house credentials. ASNT’s
ACCP is similar and Canada utilizes a regulatory board. The trend
“appears” to be, at least using a 3rd party entity to administer
certification exams in the future.
• ISO9712 ?????????? WHY SO MANY PROGRAMS?
CERTIFICATION PROGRAMS
• ASNT SNT TC 1A – recommended practice
• ANSI / ASNT CP 189 – standard
• Aerospace Industrial Association NAS 410
– standard
• Air Transport Association A 105 –
recommended practice
• ISO 9712 – international standard
• PCN (EN)- scheme
• Others
TERMINOLOGY
• ASNT: American Society for Nondestructive Testing. Founded in 1941 dedicated to the field of
NDT. World-wide. “ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and
technologies of nondestructive testing.”
• ACCP: ASNT Centralized Certification Program.
• CERTIFICATION: Written testimony that the individual meets the applicable requirements. –
EMPLOYER?
• EXPERIENCE (OJT): Actual performance of NDT conducted in the work environment – not part
of formal training
• FORMAL TRAINING: Organized, documented program of instruction to impart knowledge and
skills to be qualified LEVEL: Qualification / Certification levels commensurate with appropriate
duties and responsibilities
• ISO: International Organization for Standardization. World-wide federation of certification
bodies
• NAS: National Aerospace Standard . NDT personnel NAS 410 (MIL-STD-410)
• QUALIFICATION: Education, skills, knowledge, and experience required to meet a specified
NDT Level.
• RECOMMENDED PACTICE: Employer’s methods and procedure for qualifying and certifying NDT
personnel
ADVANCING TECHNOLOGY – UT
Evolving technological advances and changes within industry require the
changes be made to certification programs or processes
1980 2014
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION
SCHEME
Employer Based Central Based
Certification Certification
•ASNT SNT-TC-1A •ANSI /ASNT CP-106

•ASNT – ACCP
•MIL-STD-410
•EN-473
•NAS-410
•ISO 9712
•ANSI /ASNT CP-189
•SNI-ISO 9712
There are two approaches in personnel certification:
Employer Based Certification: Under this concept the employer compiles
their own Written Practice. The written practice defines the responsibilities of each level of
certification, as implemented by the company, and describes the training, experience
and examination requirements for each level of certification. In industrial sectors the
written practices are usually based on recommended practice SNT-TC-1A of the ASNT,
ANSI standard CP-189 outlines requirements for any written practice that conforms to the
standard. For aviation, space, and defense (ASD) applications NAS 410 sets further
requirements for NDT personnel, and is published by AIA - Aerospace Industries
Association, which is made up of US aerospace airframe and powerplant manufacturers.
This is the basis document for EN 4179 and other (USA) NIST-recognized aerospace
standards for the Qualification and Certification (employer-based) of Nondestructive
Testing personnel. NAS 410 also sets the requirements also for "National NDT Boards", which
allow and proscribe personal certification schemes. NAS 410 allows ASNT Certification as
a portion of the qualifications needed for ASD certification.[20]
Personal Central Certification: The concept of central certification is that
an NDT operator can obtain certification from a central certification authority, that is
recognized by most employers, third parties and/or government authorities. Industrial
standards for central certification schemes include ISO 9712, and ANSI/ASNT CP-106 (used
for the ASNT ACCP scheme). Certification under these standards involves training, work
experience under supervision and passing a written and practical examination set up by
the independent certification authority. EN 473 was another central certification scheme,
very similar to ISO 9712, which was withdrawn when CEN replaced it with EN ISO 9712 in
2012.
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
•Visual
•Liquid Penetrant
•Magnetic Particle
•Radiography
•Ultrasonic
•Eddy Current
•Leak
•Acoustic Emission
•Vibration Analysis
•Thermal Infrared
•Neutron Radiography
SNT TC 1A ~ MIL-STD-410
•Visual; Liquid Penetrant; Magnetic Particle; Radiography; Ultrasonic;

• Eddy Current; Leak; Acoustic Emission; Vibration Analysis;
•Thermal Infrared; Neutron Radiography
SNT-TC 1A 2006 , 2011 – All Level 5 years
Discontinuity ≈ Defect
A product is fit it for its intended
purpose when it functions satisfactorily in
service during its stipulate lifetime. The
product may deteriorate in service, but not
to such a degree that fracture and
subsequent failure occurs.
Product may, of course, be misused or
overloaded; it is presumed that the actual
conditions during service correspond to
intended conditions, including statistical
variations,
e.g. live loads.
Discontinuities
Discontinuities can be divided into three general categories:
inhern; processing; and service.
1. Inhern discontinuities are usually formed when the metal in molten

- Inhern wrought discontinuities related to the melting and solidification or
original ingot before it is formed into slab, blooms and billets.
- Inhern cast discontinuities related to the melting, casting and solidification
of a cast article, usually caused by inhern variables such as inadequate
feeding, gating, excessive pouring temperature or entrapped gases.
2. Processing discontinuities are usually related to the various manufacturing
processes such as machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding, heat
treating and plating.
3. Service discontinuties are related to the various sevice condition such as
stress, corrosion, erosion, fatigue.
Remember that discontinuities are not necessarily defects.

Any indication that is found by the inspector is called discontinuitiy until it
can be identified and evaluated as to the effect it will have on the service of
the part or the requirements of the specification.
DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUITIES
What is the difference between defects and
discontinuities?
Discontinuity
is defined as any imperfection or interruption in the normal
physical structure or configuration of a product, such as
cracks, laps, seams, inclusion, etc.
A discontinuity may or may not affect the usefulness of the
product.
A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect.
Defect
is defined as discontinuity whose size, shape, orientation,
location or properties make it detrimental to the useful
service of the product in which it occurs or exceeds the
accept/reject criteria for the given code, standard,
specification or design.
Defect is a type of discontinuity.
Discontinuities
Based on Specified Inspection and
Testing
- Discontiniuity
-Imperfection
-- Flaw
Based on specified Acceptance and

Rejection Criteria
- Defect
INGOT DISCONTINUITIES (INHERENT)
PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES
ROLLING DEFECTS:
Laminations
Seams
Laps
32
Light section solidifies faster

than heavy section
Pouring of metal
Hot Tears Formed
Area where hot tears

Cold shut most likely to occur
Casting Defects
CASTING DEFECTS
PROCESS DISCONTINUITY CAUSED BY LOCATION
CASTING Cold shut Lack of fusion between two Surface

intercepting surfaces of metal as it
flows into the cast
Hot tear Difference in cooling rates between Surface
this sections and thick sections
Shrinkage Lack of enough molten metal to fill Subsurface
cavity the space created by shrinkage
Microshrinkage Improperly designed mold causing Subsurface
premature blockage at mold gate
Blow hole Inability of external gasses to Surface
escape from the mold
Porosity Entrapped internal gasses Surface or
subsurface
Cold shot Molten metal solidified at the surface

surface of mould during pouring
36
LAMINATIONS IN ROLLED
PLATE
37
39
Perfect alignment
Misalignment causing
lap
FORGING DEFECTS 41
Internal burst
FORGING DEFECTS
42
GRINDING PROCESS DISCONTINUITIES
Grinding cracks
(surface defect)
44
HEAT TREATING/HEAT TREATMENT
(FINISHING (SECONDARY) PROCESSING
DISCONTINUITIES)
Heat Treat Crack

(surface defect)
45
Weld Joint Discontinuities
Misalignment (hi-lo) Inclusions Base Metal
Undercut – Slag Discontinuities
Under-fill – Wagon-tracks Lamellar tearing
Concavity or Convexity – Tungsten Laminations

Spatter Laps and Seams
Excessive
reinforcement Cracks Porosity
Longitudinal Uniformly Scattered
Improper reinforcement
Transverse Cluster
Overlap
Crater Linear
Burn-through Piping
Throat
Incomplete or Heat-affected zone
Toe
Insufficient Penetration microstructure alteration
Root
Incomplete Fusion Under-bead and Base Plate laminations
Surface irregularity Heat-affected Size or dimensions
Overlap zone
Arc Strikes Hot
Arc Craters Cold or delayed
Misalignment (hi-lo)
Definition: Amount a joint is out of

alignment at the root
Cause: Carelessness. Also due to joining different
thicknesses (transition thickness)
Repair: Grinding. Careful on surface finish and direction
of grind marks. Inside of Pipe /Tube difficult.
Undercut
Definition: A groove cut at the
toe of the weld and left unfilled
Cause: High amperage,
electrode angle, long arc
length,
Repair:rust
Weld with smaller electrode, sometimes must be low
hydrogen with preheat. Sometimes must gouge first
Undercut typically has an allowable limit. Different codes and
standards vary greatly in the allowable amount
Plate - the lesser of 1/32” or 5% (typical)
Insufficient Fill
Definition: The weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces of
the base metal
Cause: Improper welding techniques
Prevention: Apply proper welding techniques for the weld type

and position
Repair: Simply weld to fill. May require preparation by

grinding
Insufficient Fill on the Root Side
(suckback)
Definition: The weld surface is below the adjacent

surfaces of the base metal at the weld root.
Cause: Typically improper joint preparation or excessive

weld pool heat. Welding a root pass too wide can also cause
the bead to sag (overhead position).
Prevention: Correct cause. (see next slide)
Repair: Back-weld to fill. May require removal of weld

section by grinding for access to the joint root.
Excessive Concavity or Convexity
• Definition: Concavity or convexity of a fillet weld which
exceeds the specified allowable limits
• Cause: Amperage and travel speed
• Prevention: Observe proper parameters and techniques
• Repair: Grind off or weld on. Must blend smoothly into the
base metal
Concavity
Convexity
Reinforcement
The amount of a groove weld
Face Reinforcement
which extends beyond the
surface of the plate
Excessive
Insufficient
Improper contour
Root Reinforcement
Excessive Reinforcement
Definition: Specifically defined by the standard. Typically,
Reinforcement should be flush to 1/16”(pipe) or flush to 1/8”
(plate or structural shapes).
Cause: Travel speed too slow, amperage too low
Prevention: Set amperage and travel speed on scrap plate.
Repair: Remove excessive reinforcement and feather the weld

toes to a smooth transition to the base plate.
Insufficient Reinforcement
Definition: Specifically defined by the standard. Typically,
Underfill may be up to 5% of metal thickness not to
exceed 1/32” as long as the thickness is made up in the
opposite reinforcement. Not applied to fillet welds
Cause: On root reinforcement - Too little filler metal will
cause thinning of the filler metal. In OH position, too hot
or too wide will cause drooping of the open root puddle
Prevention: Use proper welding technique. Use backing
or consumable inserts. Use back weld or backing
Repair: Possibly simply increase the face reinforcement.
If back-welding is not possible, must remove and reweld
Improper Weld Contour
Definition: When the weld
exhibits less than a 1350 1350
transition angle at the weld toe.
Cause: Poor welding technique
Prevention: Use proper
techniques. A weave or whip
motion can often eliminate the
problem.
Repair: The weld face must be
feathered into the base plate.
Overlap
Definition: When the face of the weld extends beyond
the toe of the weld
Cause: Improper welding technique. Typically, electrode
angles and travel speed.
Prevention: Overlap is a contour problem. Proper
welding technique will prevent this problem.
Repair: Overlap must be removed to blend smoothly into
the base metal. Be careful of deep grind marks that run
transverse to the load. Also be careful of fusion
discontinuities hidden by grinding. Use NDT to be sure.
Burn-through (non-standard)
Definition: When an undesirable open hole has been
completely melted through the base metal. The hole may
or may not be left open.
Cause: Excessive heat input.
Prevention: Reduce heat input by increasing travel

speed, use of a heat sink, or by reducing welding
parameters.
Repair: Will be defined by standards. Filling may suffice.

Otherwise, removal and re-welding may be required.
Some standards may require special filler metal and/or
PWHT.
Incomplete or Insufficient Penetration
Definition: When the weld metal does not extend to the

required depth into the joint root
Cause: Low amperage, low preheat, tight root opening,

fast travel speed, short arc length
Prevention: Correct the contributing factor(s)
Repair: Back gouge and back weld or remove and

reweld
Incomplete Fusion
Definition: Where weld metal does not form a cohesive
bond with the base metal
Cause: Low amperage, steep electrode angles, fast

travel speed, short arc gap, lack of preheat, electrode too
small, unclean base metal, arc off seam
Prevention: Eliminate the potential causes
Repair: remove and re-weld, being careful to completely

remove the defective area. This is sometimes extremely
difficult to find
Arc Strike
Definition: A localized coalescence outside the weld
zone.
Cause: Carelessness
Prevention: In difficult areas, adjacent areas can be

protected using fire blankets
Repair: Where applicable, arc strikes must be sanded

smooth and tested for cracks. If found, they must be
remove and repaired using a qualified repair procedure
and inspected as any other weld
Inclusions
Slag
Wagon-tracks
Tungsten
Slag Inclusion
Definition: Slag entrapped within the weld
Cause: Low amperage, improper technique, Trying to

weld in an area that is too tight. Slow travel in Vertical
Down
Prevention: Increase amperage or preheat, grind out

tight areas to gain access to bottom of joint
Repair: Remove by grinding. Re-weld

Wagon Tracks (non-standard)
Definition: Slang term for a groove left at the toe of a
root pass which becomes filled with slag and is trapped
in the weld
Cause: The contour of the root pass is too high, or the

weld toe is not bonded to the base metal
Prevention: Use proper technique to deposit the weld

root
Repair: Best repaired before applying the hot pass.

Carefully grind the root pass face flat. be careful not to
gouge other areas on the weldment
Tungsten Inclusion
Definition: A tungsten particle embedded in a weld. (Typically
GTAW only)
Cause: Tungsten electrode too small, amperage too high, AC

balance on +, Upslope too high, electrode tip not snipped,
electrode dipped into the weld pool or touched with the fill
rod, electrode split
Prevention: Eliminate the cause
Repair: Grind out and re-weld

Spatter
Definition: Small particles of weld metal expelled from
the welding operation which adhere to the base metal
surface
Cause: Long arc length, severe electrode angles, high

amperages
Prevention: Correct the cause. Base metal can be

protected with coverings or hi-temp paints
Repair: Remove by grinding or sanding. Sometimes

must be tested as if it were a weld
Arc Craters
Definition: A depression left at the termination of the

weld where the weld pool is left unfilled
Cause: Improper weld termination techniques
Repair: If no cracks exist, simply fill in the crater.

Generally welding from beyond the crater back into the
crater
Cracks
Longitudinal
Transverse
Crater
Throat
Toe
Root
Under-bead and Heat-affected zone
Hot
Cold or delayed
Longitudinal Crack
Definition: A crack running in the direction of the weld
axis. May be found in the weld or base metal
Cause: Preheat or fast cooling problem. Also caused by

shrinkage stresses in high constraint areas
Prevention: Weld toward areas of less constraint. Also

preheat to even out the cooling rates.
Repair: Remove and re-weld

Transverse Crack
Definition: A crack running into or inside a weld, transverse to
the weld axis direction
Cause: Weld metal hardness problem

Crater Crack
Definition: A crack, generally in the shape of an “X” which is
found in a crater. Crater cracks are hot cracks
Cause: The center of the weld pool becomes solid before the
outside of the weld pool, pulling the center apart during
cooling
Prevention: Use crater fill, fill the crater at weld termination

and/or preheat to even out the cooling of the puddle
Throat Crack
Definition: A longitudinal crack located in the weld throat
area
Cause: Transverse Stresses, probably from shrinkage.

Indicates inadequate filler metal selection or welding
procedure. May be due to crater crack propagation
Prevention: Correct initial cause. Increasing preheat

may prevent it. be sure not to leave a crater. Use a more
ductile filler material
Repair: Remove and re-weld using appropriate

procedure. Be sure to correct initial problem first
Toe Crack
Definition: A crack in the base metal beginning at the
toe of the weld
Cause: Transverse shrinkage stresses. Indicates a HAZ

brittleness problem.
Prevention: Increase preheat if possible, or use a more

ductile filler material.
Root Crack
Definition: A crack in the weld at the weld root
Cause: Transverse shrinkage stresses. Same as a throat

crack.
Prevention: Same as a throat crack

Under-bead Crack
Definition: A crack in the un-melted parent metal of the HAZ.
Cause: Hydrogen em-brittlement
Prevention: Use Lo/Hi electrodes and/or preheat
Repair: (only found using NDT). Remove and re-weld.

Hot Crack
Definition: A crack in the weld that occurs during
solidification
Cause: Micro stresses from weld metal shrinkage pulling apart

weld metal as it cools from liquid to solid temp.
Prevention: Preheat or use a low tensile filler material

Cold Crack
Definition: A crack that occurs after the metal has completely
solidified
Cause: Shrinkage, Highly restrained welds
Prevention: Preheat, weld toward areas of less constraint, use a

more ductile weld metal
Repair: Remove and re-weld, correct problem first, preheat

may be necessary
Base Metal Discontinuities
Lamellar tearing
Laminations
Laps and Seams
Laminations
Base metal discontinuity
May require repair prior to welding
Formed during the milling process

Laps and Seams
A mill-induced discontinuity in which results from a lump of
metal being squeezed over into the surface of the material.
If beyond acceptable limits, must be removed and repaired
or discarded.
Porosity
Single Pore
Uniformly Scattered
Cluster
Linear
Piping
Single Pore
Separated by at least their own diameter along

the axis of the weld
Uniformly Scattered Porosity
Typically judged by diameter and proximity to

a start or stop
Often caused by low amperage or short arc gap
or an unshielded weld start
Cluster Porosity
Typically viewed as a single large discontinuity (four times as
many indications in a local area)
Linear Porosity
being linear greatly affects the severity of this

discontinuity
DISCONTINUITIES
(Oxyacetylene Welding - OAW)
Commonly found discontinuities B – Slag

in this welding are; F - Underfill inclusion
A - Porosity G - Overlap
Porosity (A)
Slag inclusion (B)
E-
H – Toe
Incomplete fusion (C). Undercut
crack
Incomplete penetration (D) C – Incomplete
D - Incomplete fusion
Undercut (E) penetration H –Crack
Under-fill (F)
Overlap (G)
Proper welding technique will eliminate most
Crack (H) of these problems
89
DISCONTINUITIES (SHIELDED METAL ARC
WELDING (SMAW) OR MANUAL METAL ARC
(MMA) WELDING)
Commonly found discontinuities

in this welding are; B – Slag
Porosity (A) F - Underfill inclusion
Slag inclusion (B)
Incomplete fusion (C).
E-
Incomplete penetration (D) H – Toe
Undercut
crack
Undercut (E) C – Incomplete
Under-fill (F) penetration H –Crack
Overlap (G)
Crack (H)
90
DISCONTINUITIES
(Gas Metal Arc Welding - GMAW)

in this welding are; B – Oxide
Porosity (A) F - Underfill inclusion
Oxide inclusion (B)
Incomplete fusion (C)
E-
Undercut
crack
Under-fill (F) penetration H –Crack
Overlap (G)
Crack (H)
91
DISCONTINUITIES
(Gas Tungsten Arc Welding - GTAW)
in this welding are; B – Oxide
Porosity (A) A - Porosity inclusion
F - Overlap
Tungsten inclusion (B)
Incomplete fusion (C)
E-
Undercut
crack
Overlap (F) penetration G –Crack
Crack (G)
92
DISCONTINUITIES
(Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Discontinuities:
Porosity
Slag inclusion
Incomplete fusion
Incomplete penetration
Undercut, and
Crack
93
SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES
Service Discontinuity are related to the various

service condition such as,
Stress
Corrosion
Fatigue, and
Erosion
Crack
94
Welding Processes
BASE METAL
&
WELDING
DISCONTINUITIES
Excercise
“Click” to continues…..
1. SEAM CRACK
2. LONGITUDINAL CRACK
1 3. CRATER/STAR CRACK
1 4. LAMELAR TEARING
5. LAMINATION
14 6. DELAMINATION
7 7. TRANSVERSE CRACK
17 10 15 8. ROOT CRACK
12 3
8 16 9. TOE CRACK
13 11
9 10. UNDERBEAD/HAZ CRARCK
5 11. CLUSTER POROSITY
2 18
4 12. UNIFORMLY SCATTER POR.
13. OVER LAP
5 14. SLAG INCLUSION
15. UNDERCUT
6
16. LACK OF SIDE WALL FUSION
DOUBLE BEVEL GROOVE WELD IN T JOINT 17. LACK OF FUSION IN THE GROOVE /
UNDERFILL
18. INADEQUATE PENETRATION
“CLICK” to learn about discontinuities location “CLICK” for other joint type
1. DELAMINATION
2. LAMINATION
1 3. LACK OF SIDE WALL FUSION
4. TRANSVERSE CRACK
5. SLAG
4 2
3 14 6. ROOT CRACK
7 16
7. CLUSTER POROSITY
18
5 8. OVER LAP
10 12 6 9. SEAM CRACK
17 13
10. UNDERCUT
11
15 11. INADEQUATE PENETRATION
9 8
12. SLAG INCLUSION
13. CRATER/STAR CRACK
14. LACK OF FUSION ON THE GROOVE /
UNDERFILL
15. UNDER BEAD/HAZ CRACK
16. INLINE/LINEAR POROSITY
SINGLE GROOVE WELD IN THE BUTT JOINT 17. LONGITUDINAL CRACK

18. PIPING POROSITY
1. LAMINATION
9
14 2. DELAMINATION
16 3. LACK OF SIDE WALL FUSION
6
4
17 4. TRANSVERSE CRACK
5. SLAG INCLUSION
15 13 6. ROOT CRACK
7. CLUSTER POROSITY
7 8. OVER LAP
8 9. SEAM CRACK
11
2
10. UNDERCUT
12
10
12. PIPING POROSITY
5
3 13. CRATER/STAR CRACK
1 18 14. LACK OF FUSION ON THE
GROOVE/UNDERFILL
15. UNDER BEAD CRACK
16. UNIFORMLY SCATTER
18. TOE CRACK
DOUBLE V-GROOVE IN THE BUTT JOINT
1. DELAMINATION
2. LAMINATION
3. TRANSVERSE CRACK
4. ROOT CRACK
7
5. CLUSTER POROSITY
6. OVER LAP
7. SEAM CRACK
10 14 12
3 8. UNDERCUT
5
8 9. INADEQUATE PENETRATION
11
13
10. PIPING POROSITY
9
11. CRATER/STAR CRACK
15
4 6 12. UNDER BEAD CRACK
2
2 15. TOE CRACK
SINGLE PASS DOUBLE FILLET WELD IN A T-JOINT
“CLICK” to learn about discontinuities location “CLICK” for END OF SLIDE

1. SEAM CRACK
3. CRAETER/STAR CRACK
7 4. LAMELAR TEARING
1
8 5. LAMINATION
11
6. DELAMINATION
7. TRANSVERSE CRACK
16 12
17 8. ROOT CRACK
14 9. TOE CRACK
10 15
3 10. UNDERBEAD/HAZ CRACK
9 6 11. CLUSTER POROSITY
5 12. UNIFORMLY SCATTER

2 18
13. OVER LAP
13 4 14. SLAG INCLUSION
15. UNDERCUT
SINGLE BEVEL GROOVE AND FILLET WELD IN 17. LACK OF FUSION IN THE GROOVE/
CORNER-JOINT UNDERFILL
“CLICK” to learn about discontinuities location “CLICK” for END OF SLIDE

2
1. SEAM CRACK
16 3
1 8 2. LONGITUDINAL CRACK
7 3. CRAETER/STAR CRACK
11 4. INCOMPLETE PENETRATION
10 5. LAMINATION
4
6. DELAMINATION
15
13 7. ROOT CRACK
5 8. TOE CRACK
9 14 9. UNDERBEAD/ HAZ CRACK
12
10. CLUSTER POROSITY
6 5 12. OVER LAP
6
13. SLAG INCLUSION
14. UNDERCUT
DOUBLE FILLET WELD IN LAP-JOINT 16. TRANSVERSE CRACK
“THANKS and GOOD LUCK”
“CLICK” for END OF SLIDE

EN ISO 6520-1 1998
• Welding and allied processes -
Classification of Geometric
Inperfections in metalic material - Part 1
: Fusion Welding
• Adopted by CEN (Comite Europeen de

Normalisation) from ISO 6520-1: 1998,
without modification.
Group 1 Crack
• 100 Crack
An Imperfection produced by a local rupture in
the solid state which may arise from the effect
of cooling or stresses
• 1001 Microcrack
A crack only visible under the microscope
Group 1 Crack
• 101 Longitudinal Crack
A crack essentially parallel to the axis of the
weld. It may be situated :
– 1011 in the weld metal

– 1012 in the weld junction
– 1013 in the heat-affected zone
– 1014 in the parent metal
101 Longitudinal Crack
Group 1 Crack
• 102 Transverse crack

A crack essentially transverse to the axis of
the weld.
It may be situated :
102 Transverse crack
Group 1 Crack
• 103 Radiating cracks

Cracks radiating from a common point.
They may be situated :

Note : Small cracks of this type are called
“star cracks”
103 Radiating Cracks
Group 1 Crack
• 104 Crater Crack
A crack in the crater at the end of a weld
May be :
– 1045 longitudinal
– 1046 transversal
– 1047 radiating (star cracking)
104 Crater Crack
Group 1 Crack
• 105 Group of disconnected cracks
A group of disconnected cracks in any
direction
May be
105 Group of disconnected cracks
Group 1 Crack
• 106 Branching crack
A group of connected cracks originating from a
common crack and distinguishable from a group of
disconnected cracks (105) and from radiating
cracks (103)
They may be situated :
106 Branching crack
Group 2 Cavities
• 200 Cavity
• 201 Gas Cavity

A cavity formed by entrapped gas
Group 2 Cavities
• 2011 Gas pore

A gas cavity of
essentially spherical
form
Group 2 Cavities
• 2012 Uniformly distributed porosity

A number of gas pores distributed in a
substantially uniform manner throughout the
weld metal; not to be confused with linear
porosity (2014) and clustered porosity (2013)
2012 Uniformly distributed porosity
Group 2 Cavities
• 2013 Clustered
(localized) porosity
A group of gas pores
having a random
geometric distribution
Group 2 Cavities
• 2014 Linear
porosity
A row of gas pores
situated parallel to the
axis of the weld
Group 2 Cavities
• 2015 Elongated cavity
A large non-spherical cavity with its major
dimension approximately parallel to the axis
of the weld
Group 2 Cavities
• 2016 Worm-hole
A tubular cavity in weld metal caused by
release of gas. The shape and position of
worm-holes are determined by the mode of
solidification and the sources of the gas.
Generally they are grouped in clusters and
distributed in a herring-bone formation. Some
worm-holes may break the surface of the
weld
2016 Worm-hole
Group 2 Cavities
• 2017 Surface pore

A gas pore which
breaks the surface of
the weld
Group 2 Cavities
• 202 Srinkage cavity

A cavity due to shrinkage during solidification
• 2021 Interdendritic shrinkage

An elongated shrinkage cavity which may contain
entrapped gas, formed between dendrites during
cooling. Such an imperfection is generally found
perpendicular to the weld face
2021 Interdendritic shrinkage
Group 2 Cavities
• 2024 Crater pipe

A shrinkage cavity at the
end of a weld run and
not eliminated before or
during subsequent weld
run
Group 2 Cavities
• *2025 End crater

pipe
An open crater reducing
the cross-section of the
weld
Group 2 Cavities
• *203 Microshrinkage
Shrinkage cavity only visible under the
microscope
• *2031 Interdendritic microshrinkage

An elongated shrinkage cavity formed
between dendrites during cooling
following the boundaries of grain
Group 2 Cavities
• *2032 Transgranular microshrinkage

An elongated shrinkage cavity crossing
grains during solidification
Note : The symbol * marks newly implemented

imperfections
Group No. 3 Solid Inclusions
• 300 Solid inclusion

Solid foreign substances entrapped in
the weld metal
• 301 Slag inclusion

Slag entrapped in the
weld metal. According
to the circumstances of
their formation, such
inclusions may be:
– 3011 Linear
– 3012 Isolated
– *3014 Clustered
• 302 Flux inclusion

Flux entrapped in the
weld metal. According
to the circumstances of
the formation, such
inclusions may be:
– 3021 Linear
– 3022 Isolated
– *3024 Clustered
Illustrations see 3011-3014

• 303 Oxide inclusion

Metallic oxide
entrapped in the weld
metal during
solidification. Such
inclusions may be:
– *3031 Linear
– *3032 Isolated
– *3034 Clustered
Group No. 3
Solid Inclusions
• 3034 Puckering
In certain cases,
especially in aluminium
alloys, gross oxide film
enfoldment can occur
due to a combination of
unsatisfactory
protection from
atmospheric
contamination and
turbulence in the weld
pool
Group No. 3
Solid Inclusions
• 304 Metallic Inclusion
A particle of foreign metal
entrapped in the weld
metal. It may be of:
– 3041 tungsten
– 3042 copper
– 3043 other metal

Group No. 4
Lack of fusion and penetration
400 Lack of fusion and penetration
401 Lack of fusion (incomplete fusion)
Lack of union between the weld metal and
the parent metal or between the successive
layers of weld metal. It may be one of the
following:
– 4011 lack of side wall fusion
– 4012 lack of inter-run fusion
– 4013 lack of root fusion
Group No. 4
• 401 Lack of fusion
(incomplete fusion)
Group No. 4
402 Lack of penetration

(incomplete penetration)
Difference between the actual
and nominal penetration
Group No. 4
4021 Lack of penetration (incomplete penetration)

One or both fusion faces of the root are not melted
Group No. 4
*403 Spiking
Extremely non-uniform penetration occuring in
electron beam and laser welding giving a
sawtooth appearance. This may include cavities,
cracks, shrinkages etc.
Group No. 5
Imperfect shape and dimensions
500 Imperfect shape

Imperfect shape of the external surfaces of the
weld or defective joint geometry
*501 Undercut
An irregular groove at a toe of a run in the parent
metal, or in previously deposited weld metal due
to welding
Group No. 5
5011 Continous Undercut

Undercut of significant lengt without interruption
Group No. 5
5012 Intermittent Undercut

Short length of undercut, intermittent along the
weld
Group No. 5
5013 Shrinkage groove

Undercuts visible on each side of the root run
Group No. 5
*5014 Inter run undercut (interpass undercut)

Undercut in the longitudinal direction between
weld runs
Group No. 5
*5015 Local intermittent undercut

Short undercuts, irregularly spaced, on the side
or on the surface of the weld runs
Group No. 5
502 Excess weld metal

Excess weld metal at the face of a butt weld
Group No. 5
503 Excessive convexity

An excess of weld metal at the face of a fillet
weld
Group No. 5
504 Excess penetration

Excess weld metal protruding through at the root
of a weld
This may be :
5041 Local excess penetration
*5042 Continuous excess penetration
*5043 Melt through
Group No. 5
505 Incorect weld toe

Too small an angle () between the plane of the
parent metal surface and a plane tangential to the
weld run surface at the toe of the weld
Group No. 5
506 Overlap
Excess weld metal covering the parent metal
surface but not fused to it. This may be:
*5061 Toe overlap
Toe overlap at the weld toe
*5062 Root overlap
Root overlap at the weld root
Group No. 5
507 Linear misalignment

Misalignment between two welded pieces such
that while their surface planes are parallel, they
are not in the required same parallel plane. This
may be:
*5071 Linear misalignment between plates
Pieces are plates
*5072 Linear misalignment between plates
Pieces are tubes
Group No. 5
507 Linear misalignment

Group No. 5
508 Angular misalignment

Misalignment between two welded pieces such
that their surface planes are not parallel or at the
intended angle
Group No. 5
509 Sagging
Weld metal collapse due to gravity. According to
the circumstances, it may be:
5091 sagging in the horizontal position
5092 sagging in the flat or overhead position
5093 sagging in a fillet weld
5094 sagging (melting) at the edge of the weld
Group No. 5
509 Sagging
Group No. 5
510 Burn through

A collaps of the weld pool resulting in a hole in
the weld
Group No. 5
511 Incompletely filled groove

A longitudinal continous or intermittent channel
in the surface of a weld due to insufficient
deposition of weld filler metal
Group No. 5
512 Excessive asymmetry of fillet weld (excessive

unequal leg length)
Explanation not necessary
Group No. 5
513 Irregular width

Excessive variation in width of the weld
514 Irregular surface

Excessive surface roughness
Group No. 5
515 Root concavity

A shallow groove due to shrinkage of a butt weld
at the root (see also 5013)
Group No. 5
516 Root porosity

Spongy formation at the root of a weld due to
bubbling of the weld metal at the moment of
solidification
Group No. 5
517 Poor restart

A local surface irregularity at a weld restart. It
may occur
*5171 in the capping run
*5172 in the root run
Group No. 5
*520 Excessive distorsion

Dimensional deviational due to shrinkage and
distortion of welds
*521 Incorrect weld dimensions

Deviation from prescribed dimensions of the
weld
Group No. 5
*5211 Excessive weld thickness

Weld thickness is too large
*5212 Excess weld width

Weld width is too large
Group No. 5
*5213 Insuffisient throat thickness

The actual throat thickness of the fillet weld is
too small
Group No. 5
*5214 Excessive throat thickness

The actual throat thickness of the fillet weld is
too large
Group No. 6
Miscellaneous Imperfections
600 Miscellaneous Imperfections

All imperfections which cannot be included in
groups 1 to 5
601 Stray arc

Local damage to the surface of the parent metal
adjacent to the weld, resulting from arcing or
striking the arch outside the weld groove
Group No. 6
602 Spatter
Globules of weld metal or filler metal expelled
during welding and adhering to the surface of
parent metal or solidified weld metal
6021 Tungsten spatter

Particles of tungsten transferred from the
electrode to the surface of parent metal or
solidified weld metal
Group No. 6
603 Torn surface

Surface damage due to the removal by fracture of
temporary welded attachments
604 Grinding mark

Local damage due to grinding
Group No. 6
605 Chipping mark

Local damage due to use of a chisel or other tools
606 Underflushing
Lack of thickness of the workpiece due to
excessive grinding
Group No. 6
*607 Tack weld imperfection

Imperfection resulting from defective tack
welding, e.g. :
*6071 broken run or no penetration
*6072 defective tack has been overwelded
Group No. 6
*608 Missalignment of opposite runs

Difference between the centrelines of two runs
made from opposite sides of the joint
Group No. 6
*610 Temper colour (visible oxide film)

Lightly oxidized surface in the weld zone,
e.g. in stainless steels.
*613 Scaled surface

Heavily oxidized surface in the weld zone
Group No. 6
*614 Flux residue

Flux residue is not sufficiently removed
from the surface
*615 Slag residue

Adherent slag is not sufficiently removed
from the surface of the weld
Group No. 6
*617 Incorect root gap for fillet welds

An excessive or insufficient gap between
the parts to be joined
Group No. 6
*618 Swelling
Imperfection due to a burning on welded joints in
light alloys resulting from a prolonged holding
time in the solidification stage
Excessive Root Penetration
 Excess weld material protruding through the

root of a fusion weld made from one side.
ROOT CONCAVITY
 Is a shallow groove which may occur in the root

of a single sided weld
INCOMPLETELY FILLED GROOVE
 This is a continuous or intermittent channel in

the surface of the weld, due to insufficient weld
metal. The channel may be along the center or
along one or both edges of the weld
UNDERCUT
 An irregular groove at the toe the weld in the

parent material due to burning away during
welding
SPATTERS
 Globules of material expelled during arc welding

on to the surface of the parent material or weld.
WELD DEFECT APPEARS ON RT
FILMS
Examples
Porosity
Crater pipe
Undercut
Lack of Root fusion
Slag Inclusion Weld spatters

Porosity
Underfill
Porosity
Wormholes porosity
Linier porosity Lack of fusion
Porosity
Slag inclusion
Undercut Transverse crack

Metallic inclusion
Excess penetration
Longitudinal Crack
Porosity
Root concavity
Excess Penetration
Introduction to
Nondestructive Testing
Outline
 Introduction to NDT
 Overview of Six Most
Common NDT Methods
 Selected Applications
Industrial products are designed to perform a certain funtion for certain

period of time to the satisfaction of its user.
One of the most Important factors which adversely affects the
mechanical strength of a product and may cause its premature failure, is
the present of discontinuities in the structure of the product
Twenty and more years ago, the presence of discontinuities in products
was taken care of by' including a safety factor in the design of the
product.
Nowadays since high emphasis is being placed on the use of as little

material as possible to reduce cost and weight of a Product, the
presence of discontinuities in an industrial product may be due to:
- the presence of discontinuities in the raw material,
-faulty manufacturing processes,
- the environmenta and loading conditions during service
NDT methods are used to detect discontinuities

in industrial products without affecting the
service performance of the product
Definition of NDT
The use of noninvasive techniques to
determine the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure some characteristic
of an object.
NDT methods are used to detect

discontinuities in industrial products without
affecting the service performance of the
product
i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

Methods of NDT
Visual
What are Some Uses
of NDE Methods?
 Flaw Detection and Evaluation
 Leak Detection
 Location Determination
Fluorescent penetrant indication
 Dimensional Measurements
 Structure and Microstructure
Characterization
 Estimation of Mechanical and Physical
Properties
 Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response
When are NDE Methods
Used?
There are NDE application at almost any stage
in the production or life cycle of a component.
 To assist in product development
 To screen or sort incoming materials
 To monitor, improve or control manufacturing
processes
 To verify proper processing such as heat
treating
 To verify proper assembly
 To inspect for in-service damage
Six Most Common NDT
Methods
• Visual
• Liquid Penetrant
• Magnetic
• Ultrasonic
• Radiography
• Eddy Current
Visual Testing
 Direct Visual
Direct visual examination may usually be made
when access is sufficient to place the eye
within 24 in. (610 mm) of the surface to be
examined and at an angle not less than 30
deg. to the surface to be examined.
< 24”
> 30 deg
Visual Testing
Direct Visual
Mirrors may be used to improve the angle of vision, and aids such as a
magnifying lens may be used to assist examinations. Illumination (natural or
supplemental white light) for the specific part, component, vessel, or section
thereof being examined is required. The minimum light intensity at the
examination surface/site shall be 100 footcandles (1000 lux). The light source,
technique used, and light level verification is required to be demonstrated one
time, documented, and maintained on file. Personnel shall have an annual
vision test to assure natural or corrected near distance acuity such that they are
capable of reading standard J-1 letters on standard Jaeger test type charts for
near vision. Equivalent near vision tests are acceptable.
Remote Visual
In some cases, remote visual examination may have to
be substituted for direct examination. Remote visual
examination may use visual aids such as mirrors,
telescopes, boroscopes, fiber optics, cameras, or
other suitable instruments. Such systems shall
have a resolution capability at least equivalent to that
obtainable by direct visual observation.
Visual Testing
Most basic and common
inspection method.
Tools include fiberscopes,

borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.
Portable video inspection

unit with zoom allows
inspection of large tanks
and vessels, railroad tank
cars, sewer lines.
Robotic crawlers permit
observation in hazardous or
tight areas, such as air ducts,
reactors, pipelines.
Liquid Penetrant Testing
• A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is
applied to the surface of the part and allowed time to
seep into surface breaking defects.
• The excess liquid is removed from the surface of
the part.
• A developer (powder) is applied to pull the
trapped penetrant out the defect and spread it on
the surface where it can be seen.
• Visual inspection is the final step in the process.
The penetrant used is often loaded with a
fluorescent dye and the inspection is done under
UV light to increase test sensitivity.
Magnetic Particle Testing
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye
pigment are then applied to the specimen. These particles are
attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields and will cluster to form an
indication directly over the discontinuity. This indication can be
visually detected under proper lighting conditions.
Magnetic Particle Crack
Indications
Radiography Testing
The radiation used in radiography testing
is a higher energy (shorter wavelength)
High Electrical Potential
version of the electromagnetic waves that
we
see as visible light. The radiation can Electrons
come from an X-ray generator or a + -
radioactive source.
X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation
Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample
Exposure Recording Device

Film Radiography
The part is placed between the radiation
source and a piece of film. The part will
stop some of the radiation. Thicker and
more dense area will stop more of the
radiation.
The film darkness
(density) will vary with
the amount of radiation
X-ray film reaching the film through
the test object.
= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
Radiographic Images
Eddy Current Testing
Coil's
Coil magnetic field
Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents
Conductive
material
Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface
cracks but can also be used to make electrical conductivity and coating
thickness measurements. Here a small surface probe is scanned over
the part surface in an attempt to detect a crack.
Ultrasonic Testing (Pulse-Echo)
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and they
are reflected back from surfaces or flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can
visualize a cross section of the specimen showing the depth of features
that reflect sound. f
initial
pulse
back surface
echo
crack
echo
crack
plate
0 2 4 6 8 10
Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen
Ultrasonic Imaging
High resolution images can be produced by plotting signal
strength or time-of-flight using a computer-controlled
scanning system.
Gray scale image produced using Gray scale image produced using the
the sound reflected from the front sound reflected from the back surface
surface of the coin of the coin (inspected from “heads”
Common Application of NDT
 Inspection of Raw Products
 Inspection Following Secondary
Processing
 In-Services Damage Inspection
Inspection of Raw Products
Forgings,
Castings,
Extrusions,
etc.
Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
Machining
Welding
Grinding
Heat treating
Plating
etc.
Inspection For
In-Service Damage
Cracking
Corrosion
Erosion/Wear
Heat Damage
etc.
Power Plant Inspection
Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current
probes into heat exchanger tubes
to check for corrosion damage.
Pipe with damage Prob

e
Signals produced
by various
amounts of
corrosion thinning.
Wire Rope Inspection
Electromagnetic devices and
visual inspections are used to
find broken wires and other
damage to the wire rope that
is used in chairlifts, cranes and
other lifting devices.
Storage Tank Inspection
Robotic crawlers use
ultrasound to inspect
the walls of large
above ground tanks
for signs of thinning
due to corrosion.
Cameras on
long
articulating
arms are used
to inspect
underground
storage tanks
for damage.
Aircraft Inspection
• Nondestructive testing is used
extensively during the
manufacturing of aircraft.
• NDT is also used to find cracks
and corrosion damage during
operation of the aircraft.
• A fatigue crack that started at the
site of a lightning strike is shown
below.
Jet Engine Inspection
• Aircraft engines are overhauled after
being in service for a period of time.
• They are completely disassembled,
cleaned, inspected and then
reassembled.
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection is
used to check many of the parts for
cracking.
Crash of United Flight 232
Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
A defect that went
undetected in an
engine disk was
responsible for the
crash of United
Flight 232.
Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel
can result in the rapid release of a
large amount of energy. To protect
against this dangerous event, the
tanks are inspected using
radiography and ultrasonic testing.
Rail Inspection
Special cars are used to
inspect thousands of miles of
rail to find cracks that could
lead to a derailment.
Bridge Inspection
• The US has 578,000
highway bridges.
• Corrosion, cracking and
other damage can all affect
a bridge’s performance.
• The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in
loss of 47 lives.
• Bridges get a visual
inspection about every 2
years.
• Some bridges are fitted with
acoustic emission sensors
that “listen” for sounds of
cracks growing.
Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines to
prevent leaks that could damage the
environment. Visual inspection,
radiography and electromagnetic
testing are some of the NDT
methods used.
Remote visual inspection

using a robotic crawler.
Magnetic flux leakage inspection.

This device, known as a pig, is
placed in the pipeline and collects
data on the condition of the pipe as
it is pushed along by whatever is
being transported. Radiography of weld joints.
Special Measurements
Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of
evaluating the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques. Eddy
current methods were used to measure the electrical conductivity of
the Bell's bronze casing at a various points to evaluate its
uniformity.

NDT PQC Process &amp; Discontinuities

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Inspections performed using methods and Inspections performed using methods and

NDT, NDE, NDI – ALL THE SAME

• Governing agencies outside USA

• Company NDT program or outside

•ASNT SNT-TC-1A •ANSI /ASNT CP-106

•Visual; Liquid Penetrant; Magnetic Particle; Radiography; Ultrasonic;

1. Inhern discontinuities are usually formed when the metal in molten

Remember that discontinuities are not necessarily defects.

Based on specified Acceptance and

Light section solidifies faster

Area where hot tears

PROCESS DISCONTINUITY CAUSED BY LOCATION

CASTING Cold shut Lack of fusion between two Surface

Cold shot Molten metal solidified at the surface

Heat Treat Crack

Concavity or Convexity – Tungsten Laminations

Definition: Amount a joint is out of

Cause: Improper welding techniques

Prevention: Apply proper welding techniques for the weld type

Repair: Simply weld to fill. May require preparation by

Definition: The weld surface is below the adjacent

Cause: Typically improper joint preparation or excessive

Prevention: Correct cause. (see next slide)

Repair: Back-weld to fill. May require removal of weld

• Cause: Amperage and travel speed

• Prevention: Observe proper parameters and techniques

Cause: Travel speed too slow, amperage too low

Prevention: Set amperage and travel speed on scrap plate.

Repair: Remove excessive reinforcement and feather the weld

Cause: Excessive heat input.

Prevention: Reduce heat input by increasing travel

Repair: Will be defined by standards. Filling may suffice.

Definition: When the weld metal does not extend to the

Cause: Low amperage, low preheat, tight root opening,

Prevention: Correct the contributing factor(s)

Repair: Back gouge and back weld or remove and

Cause: Low amperage, steep electrode angles, fast

Prevention: Eliminate the potential causes

Repair: remove and re-weld, being careful to completely

Prevention: In difficult areas, adjacent areas can be

Repair: Where applicable, arc strikes must be sanded

Cause: Low amperage, improper technique, Trying to

Prevention: Increase amperage or preheat, grind out

Repair: Remove by grinding. Re-weld

Cause: The contour of the root pass is too high, or the

Prevention: Use proper technique to deposit the weld

Repair: Best repaired before applying the hot pass.

Cause: Tungsten electrode too small, amperage too high, AC

Prevention: Eliminate the cause

Repair: Grind out and re-weld

Cause: Long arc length, severe electrode angles, high

Prevention: Correct the cause. Base metal can be

Repair: Remove by grinding or sanding. Sometimes

Definition: A depression left at the termination of the

Cause: Improper weld termination techniques

Repair: If no cracks exist, simply fill in the crater.

Cause: Preheat or fast cooling problem. Also caused by

Prevention: Weld toward areas of less constraint. Also

Repair: Remove and re-weld

Cause: Weld metal hardness problem

Prevention: Use crater fill, fill the crater at weld termination

Cause: Transverse Stresses, probably from shrinkage.

Prevention: Correct initial cause. Increasing preheat

NDT PQC Process & Discontinuities

NDT PQC Process & Discontinuities